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On 11 September 1973, \nPinochet seized power in Chile in a coup d'\u00e9tat, with the support of the U.S., that toppled Allende's democratically elected Unidad Popular government and ended civilian rule. In December 1974, the ruling military junta appointed Pinochet Supreme Head of the nation by joint decree, although without the support of one of the coup's instigators, Air Force General Gustavo Leigh. After his rise to power, Pinochet persecuted leftists, socialists, and political critics, resulting in the executions of from 1,200 to 3,200 people, the internment of as many as 80,000 people, and the torture of tens of thousands. According to the Chilean government, the number of executions and forced disappearances was 3,095. Operation Condor was founded at the behest of the Pinochet regime in late November 1975, his 60th birthday.Under the influence of the free market-oriented \"Chicago Boys\", Pinochet's military government implemented economic liberalization, including currency stabilization, removed tariff protections for local industry, banned trade unions, and privatized social security and hundreds of state-owned enterprises. Some of the government properties were sold below market price to politically connected buyers, including Pinochet's own son-in-law. The regime used censorship of entertainment as a way to reward supporters of the regime and punish opponents. These policies produced high economic growth, but critics state that economic inequality dramatically increased and attribute the devastating effects of the 1982 monetary crisis on the Chilean economy to these policies. For most of the 1990s, Chile was the best-performing economy in Latin America, though the legacy of Pinochet's reforms continues to be in dispute. His fortune grew considerably during his years in power through dozens of bank accounts secretly held abroad and a fortune in real estate. He was later prosecuted for embezzlement, tax fraud, and for possible commissions levied on arms deals.Pinochet's 17-year rule was given a legal framework through a controversial 1980 plebiscite, which approved a new constitution drafted by a government-appointed commission. In a 1988 plebiscite, 56% voted against Pinochet's continuing as president, which led to democratic elections for the presidency and Congress. After stepping down in 1990, Pinochet continued to serve as Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean Army until 10 March 1998, when he retired and became a senator-for-life in accordance with his 1980 Constitution. However, Pinochet was arrested under an international arrest warrant on a visit to London on 10 October 1998 in connection with numerous human rights violations. Following a legal battle, he was released on grounds of ill-health and returned to Chile on 3 March 2000. In 2004, Chilean Judge Juan Guzm\u00e1n Tapia ruled that Pinochet was medically fit to stand trial and placed him under house arrest. By the time of his death on 10 December 2006, about 300 criminal charges were still pending against him in Chile for numerous human rights violations during his 17-year rule, as well as tax evasion and embezzlement during and after his rule. He was also accused of having corruptly amassed at least US$28 million.\n\n\n== Early life and education ==\nAugusto Jos\u00e9 Ram\u00f3n Pinochet Ugarte was born in Valpara\u00edso on 25 November 1915. He was the son and namesake of Augusto Pinochet Vera (1891\u20131944), a descendant of an 18th-century French Breton immigrant from Lamballe, and Avelina Ugarte Mart\u00ednez (1895\u20131986), a woman whose family had been in Chile since the 17th century.Pinochet went to primary and secondary school at the San Rafael Seminary of Valpara\u00edso, the Rafael Arizt\u00eda Institute (Marist Brothers) in Quillota, the French Fathers' School of Valpara\u00edso, and then to the Military School in Santiago, which he entered in 1931. In 1935, after four years studying military geography, he graduated with the rank of alf\u00e9rez (Second Lieutenant) in the infantry.\n\n\n== Military career ==\nIn September 1937, Pinochet was assigned to the \"Chacabuco\" Regiment, in Concepci\u00f3n. Two years later, in 1939, then with the rank of Sub-lieutenant, he moved to the \"Maipo\" Regiment, garrisoned in Valpara\u00edso. He returned to Infantry School in 1940. On 30 January 1943, Pinochet married Luc\u00eda Hiriart Rodr\u00edguez, with whom he had five children: In\u00e9s Luc\u00eda, Mar\u00eda Ver\u00f3nica, Jacqueline Marie, Augusto Osvaldo and Marco Antonio.\nBy late 1945, Pinochet had been assigned to the \"Carampangue\" Regiment in the northern city of Iquique. Three years later, he entered the Chilean War Academy but had to postpone his studies because, being the youngest officer, he had to carry out a service mission in the coal zone of Lota. In 1948, Pinochet was initiated in the regular Masonic Lodge Victoria n\u00b015 of the Orient of St. Bernard, affiliated to the Grand Lodge of Chile. He received the Scottish Rite degree of companion, but he is thought not to have ever become a Grand Master.The following year he returned to his studies in the Academy, and after obtaining the title of Officer Chief of Staff, in 1951, he returned to teach at the Military School. At the same time, he worked as a teachers' aide at the War Academy, giving military geography and geopolitics classes. He was also the editor of the institutional magazine Cien \u00c1guilas ('One Hundred Eagles'). At the beginning of 1953, with the rank of major, he was sent for two years to the \"Rancagua\" Regiment in Arica. While there, he was appointed professor of the Chilean War Academy, and returned to Santiago to take up his new position.In 1956, Pinochet and a group of young officers were chosen to form a military mission to collaborate in the organization of the War Academy of Ecuador in Quito. He remained with the Quito mission for four-and-a-half years, during which time he studied geopolitics, military geography and military intelligence. At the end of 1959 he returned to Chile and was sent to General Headquarters of the 1st Army Division, based in Antofagasta. The following year, he was appointed commander of the \"Esmeralda\" Regiment. Due to his success in this position, he was appointed Sub-director of the War Academy in 1963. In 1968, he was named Chief of Staff of the 2nd Army Division, based in Santiago, and at the end of that year, he was promoted to brigadier general and Commander in Chief of the 6th Division, garrisoned in Iquique. In his new function, he was also appointed Intendent of the Tarapac\u00e1 Province.\nIn January 1971, Pinochet was promoted to division general and was named General Commander of the Santiago Army Garrison. On 8 June 1971, following the assassination of Edmundo Perez Zujovic by left-wing radicals, Allende appointed Pinochet a supreme authority of Santiago province, imposing military curfew in process, which was later lifted. However, on 2 December 1971, following series of peaceful protests against economic policies of Allende, the curfew was re-installed, all protests prohibited, with Pinochet leading the crackdown on anti-Allende protests. At the beginning of 1972, he was appointed General Chief of Staff of the Army. With rising domestic strife in Chile, after General Prats resigned his position, Pinochet was appointed commander-in-chief of the Army on 23 August 1973 by President Salvador Allende just one day after the Chamber of Deputies of Chile approved a resolution asserting that the government was not respecting the Constitution. Less than a month later, the Chilean military deposed Allende.\n\n\n== Honours ==\n\n\n=== National honours ===\n Chile:\n Grand Master of the Order of Merit - (1974-1990)\n Grand Master of the Order of Bernardo O'Higgins- (1974-1990)\n10 Years Service Award\n20 Years Service Award\n30 Years Service Award\nMinerva Medal(Army War College)\nMinerva Medal(Army War College)\nPresident of the Republic Decoration\nDecoration of the President of the Chilean Red Cross\nGrand Knight of the Altiplano of Arica\n\n\n=== Foreign honours ===\n Guatemala: Grand Cross of the Order of the Quetzal\n Ecuador:\nOrder of Abdon Calder\u00f3n, 1st Class\nOfficial Honorary General Staff Decoration of the Armed Forces of Ecuador\nHonorary Staff Officer of the Armed Forces of Ecuador\n Paraguay: Collar of Francisco Solano Lopez Grade of the National Order of Merit (Paraguay)\n Argentina:\nGrand Cross of the Order of the Liberator General San Mart\u00edn\nGrand Cross of the Order of May\n Colombia: Commander of the Order of Military Merit Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda C\u00f3rdova\n Peru: Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun of Peru\n Spain: Crosses of Military Merit\n United States: Legion of Merit\n Sweden: Supreme Grand Collar of the Military Order of the Saint Salvador and Saint Br\u00edgida\n\n\n== Military coup of 1973 ==\n\nOn 11 September 1973, the combined Chilean Armed Forces (the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Carabineros) overthrew Allende's government in a coup, during which the presidential palace, La Moneda, was shelled and most likely where Allende was said to have committed suicide. While the military claimed that he had committed suicide, controversy surrounded Allende's death, with many claiming that he had been assassinated (such theory was discarded by the Chilean Supreme Court in 2014).In his memoirs, Pinochet said that he was the leading plotter of the coup and had used his position as commander-in-chief of the Army to coordinate a far-reaching scheme with the other two branches of the military and the national police. In later years, however, high military officials from the time have said that Pinochet reluctantly became involved only a few days before the coup was scheduled to occur, and followed the lead of the other branches (especially the Navy, under Merino) as they executed the coup.The new government rounded up thousands of people and held them in the national stadium, where many were killed. This was followed by brutal repression during Pinochet's rule, during which approximately 3,000 people were killed, while more than 1,000 are still missing.In the months that followed the coup, the junta, with authoring work by historian Gonzalo Vial and admiral Patricio Carvajal, published a book titled El Libro Blanco del cambio de gobierno en Chile (commonly known as El Libro Blanco, 'The White Book on the Change of Government in Chile'), in which they said that they were in fact anticipating a self-coup (the alleged Plan Zeta, or Plan Z) that Allende's government or its associates were purportedly preparing. United States intelligence agencies believed the plan to be untrue propaganda. Although later discredited and officially recognized as the product of political propaganda, Gonzalo Vial Correa insists in the similarities between the alleged Plan Z and other existing paramilitary plans of the Popular Unity parties in support of its legitimacy. Pinochet was also trained by the School of the Americas (SOA) where it is likely he first encountered the ideals of the coup.Canadian reporter Jean Charpentier of T\u00e9l\u00e9vision de Radio-Canada was the first foreign journalist to interview General Pinochet following the coup.\n\n\n=== U.S. backing of the coup ===\n\nThe Church Report investigating the fallout of the Watergate scandal stated that while the U.S. tacitly supported the Pinochet government after the 1973 coup, there was \"no evidence\" that the US was directly involved in it. This view has been contradicted by several academics, such as Peter Winn, who writes that the role of the CIA was crucial to the consolidation of power after the coup; the CIA helped fabricate a conspiracy against the Allende government, which Pinochet was then portrayed as preventing. He stated that the coup itself was possible only through a three-year covert operation mounted by the United States. Winn also points out that the US imposed an \"invisible blockade\" that was designed to disrupt the economy under Allende, and contributed to the destabilization of the regime. Author Peter Kornbluh argues in The Pinochet File that the US was extensively involved and actively \"fomented\" the 1973 coup. Authors Tim Weiner (Legacy of Ashes) and Christopher Hitchens (The Trial of Henry Kissinger) similarly argue the case that US covert actions actively destabilized Allende's government and set the stage for the 1973 coup. Despite denial of countless American agencies, current declassified documentation has proven the American involvement. Nixon and Kissinger, along with both private and public intelligence agencies were \"apprised of, and even enmeshed in, the planning and executing of the military takeover.\" Along with this, CIA operatives directly involved, such as Jack Devine, have also come out and declared their involvement in the coup. Devine stating \"I sent CIA headquarters a special type of top-secret cable known as a CRITIC, which ... goes directly to the highest levels of government.\"The US provided material support to the military government after the coup, although criticizing it in public. A document released by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in 2000, titled \"CIA Activities in Chile\", revealed that the CIA actively supported the military junta after the overthrow of Allende, and that it made many of Pinochet's officers into paid contacts of the CIA or U.S. military, even though some were known to be involved in human rights abuses. The CIA also maintained contacts in the Chilean DINA intelligence service. DINA led the multinational campaign known as Operation Condor, which amongst other activities carried out assassinations of prominent politicians in various Latin American countries, in Washington, D.C., and in Europe, and kidnapped, tortured and executed activists holding left-wing views, which culminated in the deaths of roughly 60,000 people. The United States provided key organizational, financial and technical assistance to the operation. CIA contact with DINA head Manuel Contreras was established in 1974 soon after the coup, during the Junta period prior to official transfer of Presidential powers to Pinochet; in 1975, the CIA reviewed a warning that keeping Contreras as an asset might threaten human rights in the region. The CIA chose to keep him as an asset, and at one point even paid him. In addition to the CIA's maintaining of assets in DINA beginning soon after the coup, several CIA assets, such as CORU Cuban exile militants Orlando Bosch and Guillermo Novo, collaborated in DINA operations under the Condor Plan in the early years of Pinochet's presidency.\n\n\n== Military junta ==\n\nA military junta was established immediately following the coup, made up of General Pinochet representing the Army, Admiral Jos\u00e9 Toribio Merino representing the Navy, General Gustavo Leigh representing the Air Force, and General C\u00e9sar Mendoza representing the Carabineros (national police). As established, the junta exercised both executive and legislative functions of the government, suspended the Constitution and the Congress, imposed strict censorship and curfew, banned all parties and halted all political and perceived subversive activities. This military junta held the executive role until 17 December 1974, after which it remained strictly as a legislative body, the executive powers being transferred to Pinochet with the title of President.\n\n\n== Military dictatorship (1973\u20131990) ==\n\nThe junta members originally planned that the presidency would be held for a year by the commanders-in-chief of each of the four military branches in turn. However, Pinochet soon consolidated his control, first retaining sole chairmanship of the military junta, and then proclaiming himself \"Supreme Chief of the Nation\" (de facto provisional president) on 27 June 1974. He officially changed his title to \"President\" on 17 December 1974. General Leigh, head of the Air Force, became increasingly opposed to Pinochet's policies and was forced into retirement on 24 July 1978, after contradicting Pinochet on that year's plebiscite (officially called Consulta Nacional, or National Consultation, in response to a UN resolution condemning Pinochet's government). He was replaced by General Fernando Matthei.\nPinochet organized a plebiscite on 11 September 1980 to ratify a new constitution, replacing the 1925 Constitution drafted during Arturo Alessandri's presidency. The new Constitution, partly drafted by Jaime Guzm\u00e1n, a close adviser to Pinochet who later founded the right-wing party Independent Democratic Union (UDI), gave a lot of power to the President of the Republic\u2014Pinochet. It created some new institutions, such as the Constitutional Tribunal and the controversial National Security Council (COSENA). It also prescribed an 8-year presidential period, and a single-candidate presidential referendum in 1988, where a candidate nominated by the Junta would be approved or rejected for another 8-year period. The new constitution was approved by a margin of 67.04% to 30.19% according to official figures; the opposition, headed by ex-president Eduardo Frei Montalva (who had supported Pinochet's coup), denounced extensive irregularities such as the lack of an electoral register, which facilitated multiple voting, and said that the total number of votes reported to have been cast was very much larger than would be expected from the size of the electorate and turnout in previous elections. Interviews after Pinochet's departure with people involved with the referendum confirmed that fraud had, indeed, been widespread. The Constitution was promulgated on 21 October 1980, taking effect on 11 March 1981. Pinochet was replaced as President of the Junta that day by Admiral Merino. During Pinochet's reign it is estimated that some one million people had been forced to flee the country.Armed opposition to the Pinochet rule continued in remote parts of the country. In a massive operation spearheaded by Chilean Army para-commandos, some 2,000 security forces troops were deployed in the mountains of Neltume from June to November 1981, where they destroyed two MIR bases, seizing large caches of munitions and killing a number of guerrillas.\nAccording to author Ozren Agnic Krstulovic, weapons including C-4 plastic explosives, RPG-7 and M72 LAW rocket launchers, as well as more than 3,000 M-16 rifles, were smuggled into the country by opponents of the government.In September 1986, weapons from the same source were used in an unsuccessful assassination attempt against Pinochet by the FPMR. His military bodyguard was taken by surprise, and five members were killed. Pinochet's bulletproof Mercedes Benz vehicle was struck by a rocket, but it failed to explode and Pinochet suffered only minor injuries.\n\n\n=== Suppression of opposition ===\n\nHe shut down parliament, suffocated political life, banned trade unions, and made Chile his sultanate. His government disappeared 3,000 opponents, arrested 30,000 (torturing thousands of them) ... Pinochet's name will forever be linked to the Desaparecidos, the Caravan of Death, and the institutionalized torture that took place in the Villa Grimaldi complex.\n\nAlmost immediately after the military's seizure of power, the junta banned all the leftist parties that had constituted Allende's UP coalition.\nAll other parties were placed in \"indefinite recess\" and were later banned outright. The government's violence was directed not only against dissidents but also against their families and other civilians.The Rettig Report concluded 2,279 persons who disappeared during the military government were killed for political reasons or as a result of political violence. According to the later Valech Report  approximately 31,947 were tortured and 1,312 exiled. The exiles were chased all over the world by the intelligence agencies. In Latin America, this was made in the frame of Operation Condor, a cooperation plan between the various intelligence agencies of South American countries, assisted by a United States CIA communication base in Panama. Pinochet believed these operations were necessary in order to \"save the country from communism\". In 2011, the commission identified an additional 9,800 victims of political repression during Pinochet's rule, increasing the total number of victims to approximately 40,018, including 3,065 killed.Some political scientists have ascribed the relative bloodiness of the coup to the stability of the existing democratic system, which required extreme action to overturn. Some of the most infamous cases of human rights violation occurred during the early period: in October 1973, at least 70 people were killed throughout the country by the Caravan of Death. Charles Horman and Frank Teruggi, both U.S. journalists, \"disappeared\", as did V\u00edctor Olea Alegr\u00eda, a member of the Socialist Party, and many others, in 1973. British priest Michael Woodward, who vanished within 10 days of the coup, was tortured and beaten to death aboard the Chilean naval ship, Esmeralda.\n\nMany other important officials of Allende's government were tracked down by the DINA in the frame of Operation Condor. General Carlos Prats, Pinochet's predecessor and army commander under Allende, who had resigned rather than support the moves against Allende's government, was assassinated in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 1974. A year later, the murder of 119 opponents abroad was disguised as an internal conflict, the DINA setting up a propaganda campaign to support this idea (Operation Colombo), a campaign publicised by the leading newspaper in Chile, El Mercurio.\nOther victims of Condor included, among hundreds of less famous persons, Juan Jos\u00e9 Torres, the former President of Bolivia, assassinated in Buenos Aires on 2 June 1976; Carmelo Soria, a UN diplomat working for the CEPAL, assassinated in July 1976;\nOrlando Letelier, a former Chilean ambassador to the United States and minister in Allende's cabinet, assassinated after his release from internment and exile in Washington, D.C. by a car bomb on 21 September 1976. Documents confirm that Pinochet directly ordered the assassination of Letelier. This led to strained relations with the US and to the extradition of Michael Townley, a US citizen who worked for the DINA and had organized Letelier's assassination. Other targeted victims, who escaped assassination, included Christian-Democrat Bernardo Leighton, who escaped an assassination attempt in Rome in 1975 by the Italian terrorist Stefano delle Chiaie; Carlos Altamirano, the leader of the Chilean Socialist Party, targeted for murder in 1975 by Pinochet, along with Volodia Teitelboim, member of the Communist Party; Pascal Allende, the nephew of Salvador Allende and president of the MIR, who escaped an assassination attempt in Costa Rica in March 1976; US Congressman Edward Koch, who became aware in 2001 of relations between death threats and his denunciation of Operation Condor, etc. Furthermore, according to current investigations, Eduardo Frei Montalva, the Christian Democrat President of Chile from 1964 to 1970, may have been poisoned in 1982 by toxin produced by DINA biochemist Eugenio Berrios.Protests continued, however, during the 1980s, leading to several scandals. In March 1985, the murder of three Communist Party members led to the resignation of C\u00e9sar Mendoza, head of the Carabineros and member of the junta since its formation. During a 1986 protest against Pinochet, 21-year-old American photographer Rodrigo Rojas DeNegri and 18-year-old student Carmen Gloria Quintana were burnt alive, with only Carmen surviving.\nIn August 1989, Marcelo Barrios Andres, a 21-year-old member of the FPMR (the armed wing of the PCC, created in 1983, which had attempted to assassinate Pinochet on 7 September 1986), was assassinated by a group of military personnel who were supposed to arrest him on orders of Valpara\u00edso's public prosecutor. However, they simply executed him; this case was included in the Rettig Report. Among the killed and disappeared during the military junta were 440 MIR guerrillas. In December 2015, three former DINA agents were sentenced to ten years in prison for the murder of a 29-year-old theology student and activist, German Rodriguez Cortes, in 1978. That same month 62-year-old Guillermo Reyes Rammsy, a former Chilean soldier during the Pinochet years, was arrested and charged with murder for boasting of participating in 18 executions during a live phone-in to the Chilean radio show \"Chacotero Sentimental\".On 2 June 2017, Chilean judge Hernan Cristoso sentenced 106 former Chilean intelligence officials to between 541 days and 20 years in prison for their role in the kidnapping and murder of 16 left-wing activists in 1974 and 1975.\n\n\n=== Economic policy ===\nThe first country in the world to make that momentous break with the past\u2014away from socialism and extreme state capitalism toward more market-oriented structures and policies\u2014was not Deng Xiaoping's China or Margaret Thatcher's Britain in the late 1970s, Ronald Reagan's United States in 1981, or any other country in Latin America or elsewhere. It was Pinochet's Chile in 1975.\nIn 1973, the Chilean economy was deeply depressed for several reasons, Allende's government had expropriated many Chilean and foreign businesses, including all copper mines, had controlled prices, inflation reached 606%, income per capita had a contraction of -7.14% in 1973 only while in comparison to 1970 it had contracted by -30%, GDP contracted by -5% in 1973, and also public spending rose from 22.6% to 44.9% between 1970 and 1973 creating a deficit of 25% of the GDP, while some authors like Peter Kornbluh also argue that economic sanctions by the Nixon administration helped to create the economic crisis other authors like Paul Sigmund and Mark Falcoff argue there was no blockade because there was still (just less) aid and credit as well as not a real embargo on trade; the economic and political crisis had the armed forces taking power in September 1973 with Augusto Pinochet, Jos\u00e9 Toribio Merino Castro, Gustavo Leigh and C\u00e9sar Mendoza as their leaders.\nBy mid-1975, after two years of Keynesianism, the government set forth an economic policy of free-market reforms that attempted to stop inflation and collapse. Pinochet declared that he wanted \"to make Chile not a nation of proletarians, but a nation of proprietors\". To formulate the economic rescue, the government relied on the so-called Chicago Boys and a text called El ladrillo, and although Chile grew very quickly between 1976 and 1981, it had a large amount of debt which made Chile the most affected nation by the Latin American debt crisis.\nIn sharp contrast to the privatization done in other areas, Chile's nationalized main copper mines remained in government hands, with the 1980 Constitution later declaring the mines \"inalienable\". In 1976, Codelco was established to exploit them but new mineral deposits were opened to private investment. In November 1980, the pension system was restructured from a PAYGO-system to a fully funded capitalization system run by private sector pension funds. Healthcare and education were likewise privatized. These mines would ultimately help them economically however they would fall partly in American hands.\nWages decreased by 8%. Family allowances in 1989 were 28% of what they had been in 1970 and the budgets for education, health and housing had dropped by over 20% on average. The junta relied on the middle class, the oligarchy, foreign corporations, and foreign loans to maintain itself. Businesses recovered most of their lost industrial and agricultural holdings, for the junta returned properties to original owners who had lost them during expropriations, and sold other industries expropriated by Allende's Popular Unity government to private buyers. This period saw the expansion of business and widespread speculation.\n\nFinancial conglomerates became major beneficiaries of the liberalized economy and the flood of foreign bank loans. Large foreign banks reinstated the credit cycle, as debt obligations, such as resuming payment of principal and interest installments, were honored. International lending organizations such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the Inter-American Development Bank lent vast sums anew. Many foreign multinational corporations such as International Telephone and Telegraph (ITT), Dow Chemical, and Firestone, all expropriated by Allende, returned to Chile. Pinochet's policies eventually led to substantial GDP growth, in contrast to the negative growth seen in the early years of his administration, while public debt also was kept high mostly to finance public spending which even after the privatization of services was kept at high rates (though far less than before privatization), for example, in 1991 after one year of post-Pinochet democracy debt was still at 37.4% of the GDP.The Pinochet government implemented an economic model that had three main objectives: economic liberalization, privatization of state owned companies, and stabilization of inflation. In 1985, the government initiated a second round of privatization, revising previously introduced tariff increases and creating a greater supervisory role for the Central Bank. Pinochet's market liberalizations have continued after his death, led by Patricio Aylwin. According to a 2020 study in the Journal of Economic History, Pinochet sold firms at below-market prices to politically connected buyers.Critics argue the neoliberal economic policies of the Pinochet regime resulted in widening inequality and deepening poverty as they negatively impacted the wages, benefits and working conditions of Chile's working class. According to Chilean economist Alejandro Foxley, by the end of Pinochet's reign around 44% of Chilean families were living below the poverty line. According to The Shock Doctrine by Naomi Klein, by the late 1980s, the economy had stabilized and was growing, but around 45% of the population had fallen into poverty while the wealthiest 10% saw their incomes rise by 83%. But others disagree, Chilean economist Jos\u00e9 Pi\u00f1era argues that 2 years after Pinochet took power, poverty was still at 50% and the liberal reforms reduced it to 7.8% in 2013 as well as income per capita rising from US$4.000 in 1975 to US$25.000 in 2015, supporters of the reforms also argue that when Pinochet left power in 1990 poverty had fallen to 38% and some claim that since the consolidation of the neoliberal system inequality has been reducing. However, protests erupted in late 2019 in response to growing inequality in the country which can be traced back to the neoliberal policies of the Pinochet dictatorship.American scholar, Nancy MacLean, wrote that the concentration of money in the hands of the very rich and the perversion of democracy through the privatization of government was always the goal. The architect of this economic model known as \"public choice\", James M. Buchanan, traveled to Chile and worked closely with the Pinochet regime. MacLean's account, however, has come under scrutiny. Economist Andrew Farrant examined the Chilean constitutional clauses that MacLean attributes to Buchanan, and discovered that they pre-dated his visit. He concludes that \"evidence suggests that Buchanan's May 1980 visit did not particularly influence the subsequent drafting of the Chilean Constitution\" and \"there is no evidence to suggest that Buchanan had any kind of audience with Pinochet or corresponded with the Chilean dictator.\"\n\n\n=== 1988 referendum, attempt to stay in power and transition to democracy ===\n\nAccording to the transitional provisions of the 1980 Constitution, a referendum was scheduled for 5 October 1988, to vote on a new eight-year presidential term for Pinochet. Confronted with increasing opposition, notably at the international level, Pinochet legalized political parties in 1987 and called for a vote to determine whether or not he would remain in power until 1997. If the \"YES\" won, Pinochet would have to implement the dispositions of the 1980 Constitution, mainly the call for general elections, while he would himself remain in power as president. If the \"NO\" won, Pinochet would remain President for another year, and a joint Presidential and legislative election would be held.\nAnother reason for Pinochet's decision to call for elections was the April 1987 visit of Pope John Paul II to Chile. According to the US Catholic author George Weigel, he held a meeting with Pinochet during which they discussed a return to democracy. John Paul II allegedly pushed Pinochet to accept a democratic opening of his government, and even called for his resignation.\n\nPolitical advertising was legalized on 5 September 1987, as a necessary element for the campaign for the \"NO\" to the referendum, which countered the official campaign, which presaged a return to a Popular Unity government in case of a defeat of Pinochet. The Opposition, gathered into the Concertaci\u00f3n de Partidos por el NO (\"Coalition of Parties for NO\"), organized a colorful and cheerful campaign under the slogan La alegr\u00eda ya viene (\"Joy is coming\"). It was formed by the Christian Democracy, the Socialist Party and the Radical Party, gathered in the Alianza Democr\u00e1tica (Democratic Alliance). In 1988, several more parties, including the Humanist Party, the Ecologist Party, the Social Democrats, and several Socialist Party splinter groups added their support.\nOn 5 October 1988, the \"NO\" option won with 55.99% of the votes, against 44.01% of \"YES\" votes.In the wake of his electoral defeat, Pinochet convened a meeting of his junta at La Moneda, in which he requested that they give him extraordinary powers to have the military seize the capital. Air Force General Fernando Matthei refused, saying that he would not agree to such a thing under any circumstances, and the rest of the junta followed this stance, on grounds that Pinochet already had his turn and lost. Matthei would later become the first member of the junta to publicly admit that Pinochet had lost the plebiscite. Without any support from the junta, Pinochet was forced to accept the result. The ensuing Constitutional process led to presidential and legislative elections the following year.\nThe Coalition changed its name to Concertaci\u00f3n de Partidos por la Democracia (Coalition of Parties for Democracy) and put forward Patricio Aylwin, a Christian Democrat who had opposed Allende, as presidential candidate, and also proposed a list of candidates for the parliamentary elections. The opposition and the Pinochet government made several negotiations to amend the Constitution and agreed to 54 modifications. These amendments changed the way the Constitution would be modified in the future, added restrictions to state of emergency dispositions, the affirmation of political pluralism, and enhanced constitutional rights as well as the democratic principle and participation to political life. In July 1989, a referendum on the proposed changes took place, supported by all the parties except the right-wing Southern Party and the Chilean Socialist Party. The Constitutional changes were approved by 91.25% of the voters.\nThereafter, Aylwin won the December 1989 presidential election with 55% of the votes, against less than 30% for the right-wing candidate, Hern\u00e1n B\u00fcchi, who had been Pinochet's Minister of Finances since 1985 (there was also a third-party candidate, Francisco Javier Err\u00e1zuriz, a wealthy aristocrat representing the extreme economic right, who garnered the remaining 15%). Pinochet thus left the presidency on 11 March 1990 and transferred power to the new democratically elected president.\nThe Concertaci\u00f3n also won the majority of votes for the Parliament. However, due to the \"binomial\" representation system included in the constitution, the elected senators did not achieve a complete majority in Parliament, a situation that would last for over 15 years. This forced them to negotiate all law projects with the Alliance for Chile (originally called \"Democracy and Progress\" and then \"Union for Chile\"), a center-right coalition involving the Uni\u00f3n Dem\u00f3crata Independiente (UDI) and Renovaci\u00f3n Nacional (RN), parties composed mainly of Pinochet's supporters.\nDue to the transitional provisions of the constitution, Pinochet remained as Commander-in-Chief of the Army until March 1998. He was then sworn in as a senator-for-life, a privilege granted by the 1980 constitution to former presidents with at least six years in office. His senatorship and consequent immunity from prosecution protected him from legal action. These were possible in Chile only after Pinochet was arrested in 1998 in the United Kingdom, on an extradition request issued by Spanish judge Baltasar Garz\u00f3n. Allegations of abuses had been made numerous times before his arrest, but never acted upon. The extradition attempt was dramatised in the 2006 BBC television docudrama Pinochet in Suburbia, with Pinochet played by Derek Jacobi. Shortly before giving up power, on September 15, 1989, Pinochet prohibited all forms of abortion, previously authorized in case of rape or risk to the life of the mother. Pinochet argued that due to advances in medicine, abortion was \"no longer justifiable\".\n\n\n=== Relationship with the United Kingdom ===\nChile was officially neutral during the Falklands War, but Chile's Westinghouse long-range radar that was deployed in the south of the country gave the British task force early warning of Argentinian air attacks. This allowed British ships and troops in the war zone to take defensive action. Margaret Thatcher, the British prime minister at the time of the war, said that the day the radar was taken out of service for overdue maintenance was the day Argentinian fighter-bombers bombed the troopships Sir Galahad and Sir Tristram, leaving 53 dead and many injured. According to Chilean Junta member and former Air Force commander, General Fernando Matthei, Chilean support included military intelligence gathering, radar surveillance, allowing British aircraft to operate with Chilean colours, and facilitating the safe return of British special forces, among other forms of assistance.In April and May 1982, a squadron of mothballed British Hawker Hunter fighter-bombers departed for Chile, arriving on 22 May and allowing the Chilean Air Force to reform the No. 9 \"Las Panteras Negras\" Squadron. A further consignment of three frontier surveillance and shipping reconnaissance Canberras left for Chile in October. Some authors have speculated that Argentina might have won the war had the military felt able to employ the elite VIth and VIIIth Mountain Brigades, which remained sitting in the Andes guarding against possible Chilean incursions. Pinochet subsequently visited the UK on more than one occasion. Pinochet's controversial relationship with Thatcher led Labour Prime Minister Tony Blair to mock Thatcher's Conservatives as \"the party of Pinochet\" in 1999.\n\n\n=== Human rights violations ===\n\nPinochet's regime was responsible for many human rights abuses during its reign, including forced disappearances, murder, and torture of political opponents. According to a government commission report that included testimony from more than 30,000 people, Pinochet's government killed at least 3,197 people and tortured about 29,000. Two-thirds of the cases listed in the report happened in 1973.\n\nProfessor Clive Foss, in The Tyrants: 2500 Years of Absolute Power and Corruption (Quercus Publishing 2006), estimates that 1,500\u20132,000 Chileans were killed or \"disappeared\" during the Pinochet regime. In October 1979, The New York Times reported that Amnesty International had documented the disappearance of approximately 1,500 Chileans since 1973. Among the killed and disappeared during the military regime were at least 663 Marxist MIR guerrillas. The Manuel Rodr\u00edguez Patriotic Front, however, has stated that only 49 FPMR guerrillas were killed but hundreds detained and tortured. According to a study in Latin American Perspectives, at least 200,000 Chileans (about 2% of Chile's 1973 population) were forced to go into exile. Additionally, hundreds of thousands left the country in the wake of the economic crises that followed the military coup during the 1970s and 1980s. Some of the key individuals who fled because of political persecution were followed in their exile by the DINA secret police, in the framework of Operation Condor, which linked South American military dictatorships together against political opponents.\nAccording to John Dinges, author of The Condor Years (The New Press 2003), documents released in 2015 revealed a CIA report dated 28 April 1978 that showed the agency by then had knowledge that Pinochet ordered the assassination of Orlando Letelier, a leading political opponent living in exile in the United States.According to Peter Kornbluh in The Pinochet File, \"routine sadism was taken to extremes\" in the prison camps. The rape of women was common, including sexual torture such as the insertion of rats into genitals and \"unnatural acts involving dogs\". Detainees were forcibly immersed in vats of urine and excrement, and were occasionally forced to ingest it. Beatings with gun butts, fists and chains were routine; one technique known as \"the telephone\" involved the torturer slamming \"his open hands hard and rhythmically against the ears of the victim\", leaving the person deaf. At Villa Grimaldi, prisoners were dragged into the parking lot and had the bones in their legs crushed as they were run over with trucks. Some died from torture; prisoners were beaten with chains and left to die from internal injuries.  Following abuse and execution, corpses were interred in secret graves, dropped into rivers or the ocean, or just dumped on urban streets in the night. The body of the renowned Chilean singer, theatre director and academic V\u00edctor Jara was found in a dirty canal \"with his hands and face extremely disfigured\" and with \"forty-four bullet holes\".The practice of murdering political opponents via \"death flights\", employed by the juntas of Argentina and Chile, has sometimes been the subject of numerous alt-right and other right-wing extremist groups internet memes, with the suggestion that political enemies and leftists be given \"free helicopter rides\". In 2001, Chilean President Ricardo Lagos informed the nation that during Pinochet's reign, 120 bodies had been tossed from helicopters into \"the ocean, the lakes and the rivers of Chile\". In a final assessment of his legacy during his funeral, Belisario Velasco, Chile's interior minister at the time remarked that \"Pinochet was a classic right-wing dictator who badly violated human rights and who became rich.\"\n\n\n== Ideology and public image ==\nPinochet himself expressed his project in government as a national rebirth inspired by Diego Portales, a figure of the early republic:\n[Democracy] will be born again purified from the vices and bad habits that ended up destroying our institutions.... [W]e are inspired in the Portalian spirit which has fused together the nation...\nLawyer Jaime Guzm\u00e1n participated in the design of important speeches of Pinochet, and provided frequent political and doctrinal advice and consultancy.Jacobo Timerman has called the Chilean army under Pinochet \"the last Prussian army in the world\", suggesting a pre-Fascist origin to the model of Pinochet's military government.\nHistorian Alfredo Jocelyn-Holt has referred to Pinochet's figure as \"totemic\", and added that it serves as a scapegoat which attracts \"all hate\". Gabriel Salazar, also a historian, has lamented the lack of an international condemnation of Pinochet in court, since, according to Salazar, that would have damaged his image \"irreparably\" and that of the judicial system of Chile [for the good] too.In 1989 indigenous Mapuche groups representing the \"Consejos Regionales\" bestowed Pinochet the title Ulmen F\u00fcta Lonko or Great Authority.According to Pinochet, who was aware of his ancestry, he was taught the French language by an uncle, although he later forgot most of it. Pinochet admired Napoleon as the greatest among French and had a framed picture of him. Another French ruler he admired was Louis XIV.Pinochet's reputation led Peruvians in the 1990s to call Alberto Fujimori \"chinochet\" instead of his ordinary nickname \"chino\". Chadian dictator Hiss\u00e8ne Habr\u00e9, a Cold War ally of the West, has been characterized as \"Africa's Pinochet\" for ordering the torture and mass killing of political opponents during his reign, and for the decades long campaign to see him convicted of crimes against humanity. Images of Pinochet have been used in several Internet memes with the caption \"Pinochet's Free Helicopter Rides\", referencing death flights which saw political dissidents being thrown from helicopters over the Pacific or the Andes during Pinochet's rule. Variations of the internet meme have seen increased popularity with the rise of far-right and alt-right politics.\n\n\n=== Accusations of fascism ===\n\nPinochet and his government have been characterised as fascist. For example, journalist and author Samuel Chavkin, in his book Storm Over Chile: The Junta Under Siege, repeatedly characterizes both Pinochet himself and the military dictatorship as fascist.However, he and his government are generally excluded from academic typologies of fascism. Roger Griffin included Pinochet in a group of pseudo-populist despots distinct from fascism, which included the likes of Saddam Hussein, Suharto, and Ferdinand Marcos. He argues that such regimes may be considered populist ultra-nationalism but lack the rhetoric of national rebirth, or palingenesis, necessary to make them conform to the model of palingenetic ultranationalism. Robert Paxton meanwhile compared Pinochet's regime to that of Mobutu Sese Seko in the former Zaire (now Democratic Republic of the Congo), arguing that both were merely client states that lacked popular acclaim and the ability to expand. He further argued that had Pinochet attempted to build true fascism, the regime would likely have been toppled or at least been forced to alter its relationship to the United States. Anna Cento Bull also excluded Pinochet from fascism, although she has argued that his regime belongs to a strand of Cold War anti-communism that was happy to accommodate neo-fascist elements within its activity.World Fascism: a Historical Encyclopedia notes that \"Although he was authoritarian and ruled dictatorially, Pinochet's support of neoliberal economic policies and his unwillingness to support national businesses distinguished him from classical fascists.\"Historian Gabriel Salazar stated that high visibility of Pinochet and neglect of co-workers was reminiscent of fascist leadership:\n\nIt is notable that in all the declarations of Pinochet's men, nobody has mentioned the creators of the new Chilean society and state, I haven't heard anybody mention Jaime Guzm\u00e1n, Carlos C\u00e1ceres Contreras, Hern\u00e1n B\u00fcchi, Sergio de Castro. There is no mention of the true brains, or that the whole of the armed forces were involved in this, in dirty and symbolic tasks. Everything is embodied in Pinochet, it's very curious that figures of the stature of B\u00fcchi are immolated before the figure of Pinochet, in what is to me a fascist rite, give everything to the F\u00fchrer, \"I did it, but ultimately it was him\".\n\n\n=== Intellectual life and academic work ===\n \nPinochet was publicly known as a man with a lack of culture and this image was reinforced by the fact that he also portrayed himself as a common man with simple ideas. He was also known for being reserved, sharing little about his opinions or feelings. Before wresting power from Allende, Pinochet had written two books, Geopol\u00edtica (1968) and Campa\u00f1a de Tarapac\u00e1 (1972), which established him as a major figure in Chile's military literature. In Geopol\u00edtica Pinochet plagiarized his mentor general Gregorio Rodr\u00edguez Tasc\u00f3n by using paragraphs from a 1949 conference presentation of Rodr\u00edguez without attributing them to him.\nRodr\u00edguez had previously lectured Pinochet and Ren\u00e9 Schneider and Carlos Prats in geography and geopolitics. In contrast to the two latter Pinochet was not an outstanding student but his persistence and interest in geopolitics made Rodr\u00edguez assume the role as his academic mentor. Rodr\u00edguez granted Pinochet a slot as assistant lecturer in geopolitics and in geography. According to Rodr\u00edguez, Pinochet would have been particularly impressed by his lectures on The Art of War. Pinochet would later succeed Rodr\u00edguez in the geopolitics and geography chair.Investigative journalist Juan Crist\u00f3bal Pe\u00f1a has put forward the thesis that Pinochet felt intellectual envy of Carlos Prats and that the latter's assassination in 1974 was a relief for Pinochet.During his lifetime, Pinochet amassed more than 55,000 books in his private library, worth an estimated 2,840,000 US dollars (2006\u201307). The extent of his library was revealed to the public only after a police inspection in January 2006. Pinochet bought books at several small bookshops in the old centre of Santiago and was later supplied with books from abroad by military attach\u00e9s who bought texts Pinochet was searching after. As ruler of Chile he used discretionary funds for these purchases. The library included many rare books including a first edition (1646) Historica relacion del Reyno de Chile and an original letter of Bernardo O'Higgins. A significant part of the books and documents of the library of Jos\u00e9 Manuel Balmaceda was found in Pinochet's library in 2006. Pinochet's library contained almost no poetry or fiction works.\n\n\n=== Nicknames ===\nSupporters sometimes refer to Pinochet as mi general (the military salutation for a general) while opponents call him pinocho (Spanish for \"Pinocchio\", from the children's story). A common nickname used by both younger generations is el tata (Chilean Spanish equivalent of \"the grandpa\"). Since the Riggs Bank scandal he has been referred to sarcastically as Daniel Lopez, one of the fake identities he used to deposit money in the bank.\n\n\n== Post-dictatorship life ==\n\n\n=== Arrest and court cases in the United Kingdom ===\n\nThe indictment and arrest of Pinochet was the first time that a former government head was arrested on the principle of universal jurisdiction.After having been placed under house arrest on the grounds of the Wentworth Club in Britain in October 1998 and initiating a judicial and public relations battle, the latter run by Thatcherite political operative Patrick Robertson, he was released in March 2000 on medical grounds by the Home Secretary Jack Straw without facing trial. Straw had overruled a House of Lords decision to extradite Pinochet to face trial in Spain.\n\n\n=== Return to Chile ===\nPinochet returned to Chile on 3 March 2000. So as to avoid any potential disruption his flight back to Chile from the UK departed from RAF Waddington, evading those protesting against his release.\nHis first act when landing in Santiago's airport was to triumphantly get up from his wheelchair to the acclaim of his supporters. He was greeted by his successor as head of the Chilean armed forces, General Ricardo Izurieta. President-elect Ricardo Lagos said the retired general's televised arrival had damaged the image of Chile, while thousands demonstrated against him.In March 2000, Congress approved a constitutional amendment creating the status of \"ex-president\", which granted its holder immunity from prosecution and a financial allowance; this replaced Pinochet's senatorship-for-life. 111 legislators voted for, and 29 against.The Supreme Court ruled in favor of judge Juan Guzm\u00e1n's request in August 2000, and Pinochet was indicted on 1 December 2000 for the kidnapping of 75 opponents in the Caravan of Death case. Guzm\u00e1n advanced the charge of kidnapping as the 75 were officially \"disappeared\": even though they were all most likely dead, the absence of their corpses made any charge of \"homicide\" difficult.\nIn July 2002, the Supreme Court dismissed Pinochet's indictment in the various human rights abuse cases, for medical reasons (vascular dementia). The debate concerned Pinochet's mental faculties, his legal team claiming that he was senile and could not remember, while others (including several physicians) claimed that he was affected only physically but retained all control of his faculties. The same year, the prosecuting attorney Hugo Guttierez, in charge of the Caravan of Death case, declared, \"Our country has the degree of justice that the political transition permits us to have.\"Pinochet resigned from his senatorial seat shortly after the Supreme Court's July 2002 ruling. In May 2004, the Supreme Court overturned its precedent decision, and ruled that he was capable of standing trial. In arguing their case, the prosecution presented a recent TV interview Pinochet had given to journalist Maria Elvira Salazar for a Miami-based television network, which raised doubts about his alleged mental incapacity. In December 2004, he was charged with several crimes, including the 1974 assassination of General Prats and the Operation Colombo case in which 119 died, and was again placed under house arrest. He suffered a stroke on 18 December 2004. Questioned by his judges in order to know if, as president, he was the direct head of DINA, he answered: \"I don't remember, but it's not true. And if it were true, I don't remember.\"In January 2005, the Chilean Army accepted institutional responsibility for past human rights abuses. In 2006, Pinochet was indicted for kidnappings and torture at the Villa Grimaldi detention center by judge Alejandro Madrid (Guzm\u00e1n's successor), as well as for the 1995 assassination of the DINA biochemist Eugenio Berrios, himself involved in the Letelier case. Berrios, who had worked with Michael Townley, had produced sarin gas, anthrax and botulism in the Bacteriological War Army Laboratory for Pinochet; these materials were used against political opponents. The DINA biochemist was also alleged to have created black cocaine, which Pinochet then sold in Europe and the United States. The money for the drug trade was allegedly deposited into Pinochet's bank accounts. Pinochet's son Marco Antonio, who had been accused of participating in the drug trade, in 2006 denied claims of drug trafficking in his father's administration and said that he would sue Manuel Contreras, who had said that Pinochet sold cocaine.On 25 November 2006, Pinochet marked his 91st birthday by having his wife read a statement he had written to admirers present for his birthday: \"I assume the political responsibility for all that has been done.\" Two days later, he was again sentenced to house arrest for the kidnapping and murder of two bodyguards of Salvador Allende who were arrested the day of the 1973 coup and executed by firing squad during the Caravan of Death.Pinochet died a few days later, on 10 December 2006, without having been convicted of any of the crimes of which he was accused.\n\n\n=== Scandals: secret bank accounts, tax evasion, and arms deal ===\n\nIn 2004, a United States Senate money laundering investigation led by Senators Carl Levin (D-MI) and Norm Coleman (R-MN)\u2014ordered in the wake of the 11 September 2001 attacks\u2014uncovered a network of over 125 securities and bank accounts at Riggs Bank and other U.S. financial institutions used by Pinochet and his associates for twenty-five years to secretly move millions of dollars.\nThough the subcommittee was charged only with investigating compliance of financial institutions under the USA PATRIOT Act, and not the Pinochet regime, Senator Coleman noted:\n\nThis is a sad, sordid tale of money laundering involving Pinochet accounts at multiple financial institutions using alias names, offshore accounts, and close associates. As a former General and President of Chile, Pinochet was a well-known human rights violator and violent dictator.\nOver several months in 2005, Chilean judge Sergio Mu\u00f1oz indicted Augusto Pinochet's wife, Lucia Hiriart; four of his children \u2013 Marco Antonio, Jacqueline, Veronica and Lucia Pinochet; his personal secretary, Monica Ananias; and his former aide Oscar Aitken on tax evasion and falsification charges stemming from the Riggs Bank investigation. In January 2006, daughter Lucia Pinochet was detained at Washington DC-Dulles airport and subsequently deported while attempting to evade the tax charges in Chile. In January 2007, the Santiago Court of Appeals revoked most of the indictment from Judge Carlos Cerda against the Pinochet family. But Pinochet's five children, his wife and 17 other persons (including two generals, one of his former lawyer and former secretary) were arrested in October 2007 on charges of embezzlement and use of false passports. They are accused of having illegally transferred $27m (\u00a313.2m) to foreign bank accounts during Pinochet's rule.In September 2005, a joint investigation by The Guardian and La Tercera revealed that the British arms firm BAE Systems had been identified as paying more than \u00a31m to Pinochet, through a front company in the British Virgin Islands, which BAE has used to channel commission on arms deals. The payments began in 1997 and lasted until 2004.In 2007, fifteen years of investigation led to the conclusion that the 1992 assassination of DINA Colonel Gerardo Huber was most probably related to various illegal arms traffic carried out, after Pinochet's resignation from power, by military circles very close to himself. Huber had been assassinated a short time before he was due to testify in the case concerning the 1991 illegal export of weapons to the Croatian army. The deal involved 370 tons of weapons, sold to Croatia by Chile on 7 December 1991, when the former country was under a United Nations' embargo because of the support for Croatia war in Yugoslavia. In January 1992, the judge Hern\u00e1n Correa de la Cerda wanted to hear Gerardo Huber in this case, but the latter may have been silenced to avoid implicating Pinochet in this new case\u2014although the latter was no longer President, he remained at the time Commander-in-Chief of the Army. Pinochet was at the center of this illegal arms trade, receiving money through various offshores and front companies, including the Banco Coutts International in Miami.Pinochet was stripped of his parliamentary immunity in August 2000 by the Supreme Court, and indicted by judge Juan Guzm\u00e1n Tapia. Guzm\u00e1n had ordered in 1999 the arrest of five militarists, including General Pedro Espinoza Bravo of the DINA, for their role in the Caravan of Death following the coup on 11 September. Arguing that the bodies of the \"disappeared\" were still missing, he made jurisprudence, which had as effect to lift any prescription on the crimes committed by the military. Pinochet's trial continued until his death on 10 December 2006, with an alternation of indictments for specific cases, lifting of immunities by the Supreme Court or to the contrary immunity from prosecution, with his health a main argument for, or against, his prosecution.\nThe Supreme Court affirmed, in March 2005, Pinochet's immunity concerning the 1974 assassination of General Carlos Prats in Buenos Aires, which had taken place in the frame of Operation Condor. However, he was deemed fit to stand trial for Operation Colombo, during which 119 political opponents were \"disappeared\" in Argentina. The Chilean justice also lifted his immunity on the Villa Grimaldi case, a detention and torture center in the outskirts of Santiago. Pinochet, who still benefited from a reputation of righteousness from his supporters, lost legitimacy when he was put under house arrest on tax fraud and passport forgery, following the publication by the US Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of a report concerning the Riggs Bank in July 2004. The report was a consequence of investigations on financial funding of the 11 September 2001 attacks in the US. The bank controlled between US$4 million and $8 million of the assets of Pinochet, who lived in Santiago in a modest house, dissimulating his wealth. According to the report, Riggs participated in money laundering for Pinochet, setting up offshore shell corporations (referring to Pinochet as only \"a former public official\"), and hiding his accounts from regulatory agencies. Related to Pinochet's and his family secret bank accounts in United States and in Caribbean islands, this tax fraud filing for an amount of 27 million dollars shocked the conservative sectors who still supported him. Ninety percent of these funds would have been raised between 1990 and 1998, when Pinochet was chief of the Chilean armies, and would essentially have come from weapons traffic (when purchasing French 'Mirage' fighter aircraft in 1994, Dutch 'Leopard 2' tanks, Swiss 'MOWAG' armored vehicles or by illegal sales of weapons to Croatia, during the Balkans war.) His wife, Luc\u00eda Hiriart, and his son, Marco Antonio Pinochet, were also sued for complicity. For the fourth time in seven years, Pinochet was indicted by the Chilean justice.\n\n\n== Death ==\n\nPinochet suffered a heart attack on the morning of 3 December 2006 and was given the last rites the same day. On 4 December 2006, the Chilean Court of Appeals ordered the suspension of his house arrest. On 10 December 2006 at 13:30 local time (16:30 UTC) he was taken to the intensive care unit. He died of congestive heart failure and pulmonary edema, surrounded by family members, at the Military Hospital at 14:15 local time (17:15 UTC).Massive spontaneous street demonstrations broke out throughout the country upon the news of his death. In Santiago, opponents celebrated his death in Alameda Avenue, while supporters grieved outside the Military Hospital. Pinochet's remains lay in repose on 11 December 2006 at the Military Academy in Las Condes. During this ceremony, Francisco Cuadrado Prats\u2014the grandson of Carlos Prats (a former Commander-in-Chief of the Army in the Allende government who was murdered by Pinochet's secret police)\u2014spat on the coffin, and was quickly surrounded by supporters of Pinochet, who kicked and insulted him. Pinochet's funeral took place the following day at the same venue before a gathering of 60,000 supporters.In a government decision, he was not granted a state funeral (an honor normally bestowed upon past presidents of Chile) but a military funeral as former commander-in-chief of the Army appointed by Allende. The government also refused to declare an official national day of mourning, but it did authorize flags at military barracks to be flown at half staff, and for the Chilean flag to be draped on Pinochet's coffin. Socialist President Michelle Bachelet, whose father Alberto was temporarily imprisoned and tortured after the 1973 coup and died shortly afterwards from heart complications, said that it would be \"a violation of [her] conscience\" to attend a state funeral for Pinochet. The only government authority present at the public funeral was the Defense Minister, Vivianne Blanlot.In Spain, supporters of late dictator Francisco Franco paid homage to Pinochet. Antonio Tejero, who led the failed coup of 1981, attended a memorial service in Madrid.\nPinochet's body was cremated in Parque del Mar Cemetery, Conc\u00f3n on 12 December 2006, on his request to \"avoid vandalism of his tomb\", according to his son Marco Antonio. His ashes were delivered to his family later that day, and are deposited in Los Boldos, Santo Domingo, Valparaiso, Chile; one of his personal residences. The armed forces refused to allow his ashes to be deposited on military property.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n1970 Chilean presidential election\nUnited States intervention in Chile\nBook burnings in Chile\nHistory of Chile\nColonia, a film about two West Germans caught up in the aftermath of the Pinochet coup who end up in the Colonia Dignidad cult\nMissing, a film based on the life of U.S. journalist Charles Horman, who disappeared in the aftermath of the Pinochet coup\nNo, an Academy Award-nominated film presenting a dramatized account of the 1988 national plebiscite campaign on Pinochet's rule\nDavid H. Popper, US ambassador to Chile (1974\u20131977)\nUnited States involvement in regime change\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nExtensive bio by Fundaci\u00f3n CIDOB (in Spanish)\nAugusto Pinochet (1915\u20132006) \u2013 A Biography\nFrance 24 coverage \u2013 Augusto Pinochet's Necrology on France 24\nBBC coverage (special report)\nDocumentary Film on Chilean Concentration Camp from Pinochet's Regime: Chacabuco\nCIA Acknowledges Ties to Pinochet's Repression from The National Security Archive\nChile under Allende and Pinochet\nHuman rights violation under Pinochet\nThe Times obituary\nAnalysis of economic policy under Pinochet by economist Jim Cypher in Dollars & Sense magazine\nChile: The Price of Democracy New English Review\nWhat Pinochet Did for Chile Hoover Digest (2007 No. 1)\nWhen US-Backed Pinochet Forces Took Power in Chile \u2013 video report by Democracy Now!", "images": 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"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"], "summary": "Augusto Jos\u00e9 Ram\u00f3n Pinochet Ugarte (, also US: , UK: , Spanish: [aw\u02c8\u0263usto pino\u02c8(t)\u0283e(t)]; 25 November 1915 \u2013 10 December 2006) was a Chilean Army General, politician and military dictator who ruled Chile from 1973 to 1990, first as the leader of the Military Junta of Chile from 1973 to 1981, being self-declared President of the Republic by the junta in 1974 and becoming the de facto dictator of Chile, and after from 1981 to 1990 as de jure President after a new Constitution, which confirmed him in the office, was approved by a referendum in 1980.Augusto Pinochet rose through the ranks of the Chilean Army to become General Chief of Staff in early 1972 before being appointed its Commander-in-Chief on 23 August 1973 by President Salvador Allende. On 11 September 1973, \nPinochet seized power in Chile in a coup d'\u00e9tat, with the support of the U.S., that toppled Allende's democratically elected Unidad Popular government and ended civilian rule. In December 1974, the ruling military junta appointed Pinochet Supreme Head of the nation by joint decree, although without the support of one of the coup's instigators, Air Force General Gustavo Leigh. After his rise to power, Pinochet persecuted leftists, socialists, and political critics, resulting in the executions of from 1,200 to 3,200 people, the internment of as many as 80,000 people, and the torture of tens of thousands. According to the Chilean government, the number of executions and forced disappearances was 3,095. Operation Condor was founded at the behest of the Pinochet regime in late November 1975, his 60th birthday.Under the influence of the free market-oriented \"Chicago Boys\", Pinochet's military government implemented economic liberalization, including currency stabilization, removed tariff protections for local industry, banned trade unions, and privatized social security and hundreds of state-owned enterprises. Some of the government properties were sold below market price to politically connected buyers, including Pinochet's own son-in-law. The regime used censorship of entertainment as a way to reward supporters of the regime and punish opponents. These policies produced high economic growth, but critics state that economic inequality dramatically increased and attribute the devastating effects of the 1982 monetary crisis on the Chilean economy to these policies. For most of the 1990s, Chile was the best-performing economy in Latin America, though the legacy of Pinochet's reforms continues to be in dispute. His fortune grew considerably during his years in power through dozens of bank accounts secretly held abroad and a fortune in real estate. He was later prosecuted for embezzlement, tax fraud, and for possible commissions levied on arms deals.Pinochet's 17-year rule was given a legal framework through a controversial 1980 plebiscite, which approved a new constitution drafted by a government-appointed commission. In a 1988 plebiscite, 56% voted against Pinochet's continuing as president, which led to democratic elections for the presidency and Congress. After stepping down in 1990, Pinochet continued to serve as Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean Army until 10 March 1998, when he retired and became a senator-for-life in accordance with his 1980 Constitution. However, Pinochet was arrested under an international arrest warrant on a visit to London on 10 October 1998 in connection with numerous human rights violations. Following a legal battle, he was released on grounds of ill-health and returned to Chile on 3 March 2000. In 2004, Chilean Judge Juan Guzm\u00e1n Tapia ruled that Pinochet was medically fit to stand trial and placed him under house arrest. By the time of his death on 10 December 2006, about 300 criminal charges were still pending against him in Chile for numerous human rights violations during his 17-year rule, as well as tax evasion and embezzlement during and after his rule. He was also accused of having corruptly amassed at least US$28 million."}, "Operation_Colombo": {"links": ["Augusto Pinochet", "History of Chile", "Augusto Pinochet's arrest and trial", "Forced disappearance", "Secret police", "Operation Condor", "Victor Montiglio", "Ra\u00fal Iturriaga", "Caravan of Death", "Jos\u00e9 L\u00f3pez Rega", "Death squad", "Sovereign immunity", "Isabel Per\u00f3n", "Argentine Anticommunist Alliance", "Direcci\u00f3n de Inteligencia Nacional", "Juan Guzm\u00e1n Tapia", "Manuel Contreras", "Cold War", "Chile", "Dirty war", "Equipo Nizkor"], "content": "Operation Colombo was an operation undertaken by the DINA (the Chilean secret police) in 1975 to make political dissidents disappear. At least 119 people are alleged to have been abducted and later killed.  The magazines published a list of 119 dead political opponents.One of these fake magazines, titled LEA, was published by Codex Editorial, a dependent of the Argentine Ministry of Welfare, directed by Jos\u00e9 L\u00f3pez Rega, counselor of Isabel Per\u00f3n and founder of the Triple A death squad.\n\n\n== Augusto Pinochet ==\nChile's former military ruler, Augusto Pinochet, was placed under house arrest in connection with the kidnapping of at least three dissidents by his security services.Judge Juan Guzm\u00e1n Tapia asked the Chilean justice to lift Pinochet's immunity after having accumulated proof that he had ordered the DINA to undertake this operation.\n\nIn September 2005, the Chilean Supreme Court decided to lift Pinochet's immunity on this case, charging judge Victor Montiglio of the investigations. In November 2005, prosecutors said that specialists appointed by the court in the Operation Colombo case had concluded that while he suffered from mild dementia, he was fit enough to stand trial. On this occasion, Pinochet met DINA head Manuel Contreras, who held him as responsible of the DINA and, therefore, of operation Colombo, for which both men may be jailed. Ra\u00fal Iturriaga, the vice-director of the DINA, has also been indicted in this case.\nIn December 2005 it was found that Pinochet was found fit to stand trial. However Pinochet died December 10, 2006, without being judged.\n\n\n== See also ==\nCaravan of Death\nOperation Condor\nDirty war\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nPinochet and ex-police-chief meet\nPinochet found fit", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Hourglass_drawing.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/NATO_vs._Warsaw_%281949-1990%29.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg"], "summary": "Operation Colombo was an operation undertaken by the DINA (the Chilean secret police) in 1975 to make political dissidents disappear. At least 119 people are alleged to have been abducted and later killed.  The magazines published a list of 119 dead political opponents.One of these fake magazines, titled LEA, was published by Codex Editorial, a dependent of the Argentine Ministry of Welfare, directed by Jos\u00e9 L\u00f3pez Rega, counselor of Isabel Per\u00f3n and founder of the Triple A death squad.\n\n"}, "Roberto_Eduardo_Viola": {"links": ["Roberto Alemann", "Bartolom\u00e9 Mitre", "Casatisma", "Carlos Menem", "Manuel Quintana", "Primera Junta", "Argentine Peso", "Radical Civic Union", "Generation of 'eighty", "History of Argentina", "Lorenzo Sigaut", "Buenos Aires", "Carlos Mar\u00eda de Alvear", "Military dictatorship", "May Revolution", "Hip\u00f3lito Yrigoyen", "Adolfo Rodr\u00edguez Sa\u00e1", "Military", "President of Argentina", "S\u00e1enz Pe\u00f1a Law", "Nicol\u00e1s Avellaneda", "Argentine military", "Jos\u00e9 F\u00e9lix Uriburu", "Ra\u00fal Alfons\u00edn", "Mauricio Macri", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Operation Charly", "Armed forces", "Roberto Mar\u00eda Ortiz", "Juan Manuel de Rosas", "El Salvador", "Cold War", "Argentina-United States relations", "Juan Jos\u00e9 Viamonte", "Manuel Dorrego", "Peronism", "Jos\u00e9 Figueroa Alcorta", "Edelmiro Juli\u00e1n Farrell", "Juan Pedro Aguirre", "Sandinista National Liberation Front", "Infamous Decade", "H\u00e9ctor Jos\u00e9 C\u00e1mpora", "Military junta", "Revoluci\u00f3n Libertadora", "Batall\u00f3n de Inteligencia six oh-one", "Asamblea del A\u00f1o XIII", "Cristina Fern\u00e1ndez de Kirchner", "Clar\u00edn ", "Juan Carlos Ongan\u00eda", "Economic populism", "List of senior officers of the Argentine Army", "Argentine Army", "Juan Ram\u00f3n Balcarce", "Santiago Derqui", "Politics of Argentina", "Province of Pavia", "Ronald Reagan", "Agust\u00edn Pedro Justo", "Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear", "Reynaldo Bignone", "Justo Jos\u00e9 de Urquiza", "Arturo Frondizi", "Jos\u00e9 Rondeau", "Eduardo Lonardi", "Juan Per\u00f3n", "Argentina", "N\u00e9stor Kirchner", "Human rights", "Manuel Vicente Maza", "Ra\u00fal Alberto Lastiri", "Carlos Lacoste", "Miguel \u00c1ngel Ju\u00e1rez Celman", "VIAF ", "Pacto Federal", "Lepaterique", "Carlos Alberto Lacoste", "Second Triumvirate ", "Carlos Pellegrini", "Eduardo Duhalde", "Events leading to the Falklands War", "Argentine Revolution", "Guatemala", "Juan Esteban Pedernera", "Vicente L\u00f3pez y Planes", "Jos\u00e9 Alfredo Mart\u00ednez de Hoz", "Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda Guido", "Gervasio Antonio de Posadas", "Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the R\u00edo de la Plata", "Falklands War", "Argentine Confederation", "List of heads of state of Argentina", "Juan Mart\u00edn de Pueyrred\u00f3n", "Ram\u00f3n Castillo", "Alejandro Agust\u00edn Lanusse", "Domingo Faustino Sarmiento", "Leopoldo Galtieri", "Victorino de la Plaza", "White House", "First Triumvirate ", "Jos\u00e9 Evaristo Uriburu", "Junta Grande", "Eduardo Massera", "nineteen forty-three Argentine coup d'\u00e9tat", "Roberto M. Levingston", "Bernardino Rivadavia", "Jorge Videla", "Arturo Umberto Illia", "Italians", "Isabel Mart\u00ednez de Per\u00f3n", "Honduras", "Argentine War of Independence", "National Reorganization Process", "Pedro Eugenio Aramburu", "Julio Argentino Roca", "Exchange rate", "Lieutenant General", "Alberto Fern\u00e1ndez", "Dirty War", "Luis S\u00e1enz Pe\u00f1a", "Carter Administration", "Arturo Rawson", "Pedro Pablo Ram\u00edrez", "Roque S\u00e1enz Pe\u00f1a", "Jorge Rafael Videla", "Antonio Gonz\u00e1lez de Balcarce", "Ignacio \u00c1lvarez Thomas", "Dollar", "Contras", "Fernando de la R\u00faa"], "content": "Roberto Eduardo Viola (13 October 1924 \u2013 30 September 1994) was an Argentine military officer who briefly served as president of Argentina  from 29 March to 11 December 1981 as a military dictatorship.\n\n\n== Early life ==\nHe was born as Roberto Eduardo Viola Prevedini on 13 October 1924. His parents were Italian immigrants Angelo Viola and Rosa Maria Prevedini, both from Casatisma, a town in the Province of Pavia.\n\n\n== President of Argentina ==\nAfter Videla's departure, Viola formally assumed the post of President of Argentina.\n\n\n=== Economic policy ===\nViola appointed Lorenzo Sigaut as finance minister, and it became clear that Sigaut were looking for ways to reverse some of the economic policies of Videla's minister Jos\u00e9 Alfredo Mart\u00ednez de Hoz. Notably, Sigaut abandoned the sliding exchange rate mechanism and devalued the peso, after boasting that \"they who gamble on the dollar, will lose\". Argentines braced for a recession after the excesses of the sweet money years, which destabilized Viola's position.Viola was also the victim of infighting within the armed forces. After being replaced as Navy chief, Eduardo Massera started looking for a political space to call his own, even enlisting the enforced and unpaid services of political prisoners held in concentration camps by the regime. The mainstream of the Junta's support was strongly opposed to Massera's designs and to any attempt to bring about more \"populist\" economic policies.\n\n\n=== Foreign policy ===\n\nU.S Argentina relations improved dramatically with Ronald Reagan, which asserted that the previous Carter Administration had weakened US diplomatic relationships with Cold War allies in Argentina, and reversed the previous administration's official condemnation of the junta's human rights practices.The re-establishment of diplomatic ties allowed for CIA collaboration with the Argentine intelligence service in arming and training the Nicaraguan Contras against the Sandinista government. The 601 Intelligence Battalion, for example, trained Contras at Lepaterique base, in Honduras. Argentina also provided security advisors, intelligence training and some material support to forces in Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras to suppress local rebel groups as part of a U.S.-sponsored program called Operation Charly.\n\n\n=== Ousted in a coup ===\nViola found his maneuvering space greatly reduced, and was ousted by a military coup in December 1981, led by the Commander-in-Chief of the Army, Lieutenant General Leopoldo Galtieri, who soon became President. The official explanation given for the ousting was Viola's alleged health problems. Galtieri swiftly appointed Roberto Alemann as finance minister and presided over the build-up and pursuit of the Falklands War.\n\n\n== Later years ==\nAfter the collapse of the military regime and the election of Ra\u00fal Alfons\u00edn in 1983, Viola was arrested, judged for human rights violations committed by the military junta during the Dirty War, and sentenced to 17 years in prison. His health deteriorated in prison; Viola was pardoned by Carlos Menem in 1990 together with all junta members. He died on 30 September 1994, two weeks before his 70th birthday.\n\n\n== See also ==\nNational Reorganization Process\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Army-personnel-icon.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Coat_of_arms_of_Argentina.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/GD-EA.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Hourglass_drawing.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Roberto_Viola_con_banda_presidencial.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Ronald_Reagan%2C_Roberto_Viola_and_Jorge_A_Aja_Espil.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Viola_Firma.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/24/Crystal_personal.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg"], "summary": "Roberto Eduardo Viola (13 October 1924 \u2013 30 September 1994) was an Argentine military officer who briefly served as president of Argentina  from 29 March to 11 December 1981 as a military dictatorship."}, "Operation_Charly": {"links": ["Emilio Massera", "Nicaraguan Revolution", "Cold War", "Combatants", "Fernando Romeo Lucas Garcia", "Illegal drug trade", "Crimes against humanity", "Guatemala City", "Guatemalan Civil War", "Guatemala Civil War", "Civilian population", "Central America", "Giovanni Pellegrino", "Montoneros", "Marie-Monique Robin", "Contra ", "Dirty War", "Leopoldo Galtieri", "Trinity College, Dublin", "Roberto Eduardo Viola", "El Salvador", "Noam Chomsky", "People's Revolutionary Army ", "Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation", "Brazil", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Special forces", "Batall\u00f3n de Inteligencia six oh-one", "Argentine military junta", "La Naci\u00f3n ", "Colby College", "Anastasio Somoza Debayle", "Revolution", "Battalion 3-sixteen ", "War crimes", "Contras", "Battle of Algiers ", "Sic", "ISBN ", "Bogot\u00e1, Colombia", "Clar\u00edn ", "History of Bolivia", "Lepaterique", "Ra\u00fal Alfons\u00edn", "Roberto Viola", "Intelligence agency", "Stefano Delle Chiaie", "Mar\u00eda Seoane", "Argentina", "Leslie Gelb", "Argentine military", "Honduras", "Sandinista Front", "El Salvador Civil War", "United States", "Central American Crisis", "Operation Condor", "Luis Garc\u00eda Meza", "New York Times", "Nazi", "Counter-insurgency", "Amnesty International", "United States Department of Defense", "Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance", "Jorge Rafael Videla", "Ronald Reagan", "Gustavo \u00c1lvarez Mart\u00ednez", "United States-Latin American relations", "nineteen eighty Bolivian coup d'\u00e9tat", "Somoza", "Colegio Militar de la Naci\u00f3n", "RISAL", "Equipo Nizkor", "SIDE", "Battalion three-16 ", "Somoza family", "Israel", "Miami Herald", "Death squad", "Buenos Aires", "South Africa", "The Washington Post", "Managua", "Miami", "National Reorganization Process", "Klaus Barbie", "Forced disappearances", "FMLN", "Margen", "French military", "Guatemala", "Martha Honey", "P\u00e1gina/twelve", "Guillermo Su\u00e1rez Mason", "Torture"], "content": "Operation Charly (Spanish: Operaci\u00f3n Charly), was allegedly the code-name given to a program undertaken by the military establishment in Argentina with the objective of providing military and counterinsurgency assistance to right-wing dictatorships in Central America to murder left-wing activists. The operation was either headed by the Argentine military with the agreement of the United States Department of Defense, or was led by the US and used the Argentinians as a proxy. Few of the Junta members are currently in prison for convicted for crimes against humanity.\n\n\n== The exportation of the \"Argentine\" method to Central America ==\nArgentina's military involvement in Central America began during the Nicaraguan Revolution between 1977 and 1979, when Argentina began supporting the Somoza family regime in Nicaragua in its fight against the Sandinista Front. Argentina supported the Somoza dictatorship until its overthrow by the Sandinistas in July 1979. In November 1979, before the 13th Conference of American Armies in Bogot\u00e1, Colombia, junta leader General Roberto Eduardo Viola offered a proposition calling for a joint Latin American effort against, on his words, \"leftist subversion\", citing this as \"the greatest military threat in the region\". Pursuant with this plan (referred to as the \"Viola Plan\"), Argentina expanded its counterinsurgency and military assistance to El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras at the behest of the military leadership in those countries.\nThe role of Argentina in Central America reached its zenith in the early 1980s with National Reorganization Process's involvement in covertly directing the Contra rebellion in Nicaragua in conjunction with the CIA. In December 1981, General Leopoldo Galtieri, in a palace revolution, replaced General Viola as the head of Argentina's military junta. A few days before assuming power, Galtieri exposed in a speech in Miami the Argentine government's decision to constitute itself as an unconditional ally of the US in the \"world struggle against Communism\": \"Argentina and the United States will march together in the ideological war which is starting in the world\"  [sic]. At one point, beginning in early-1982, plans were underway between the United States and the Argentine junta for the creation of a large Latin American military force, which would be directed by an Argentine officer, with the initial aim of landing in El Salvador and pushing the revolutionaries to Honduras to exterminate them, and then to invade Nicaragua and topple the Sandinista regime. The operation would have been protected by a remodelling of the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (TIAR).\nWithin the framework of Operation Charly, the Argentine military also implemented, with the help of the Reagan Administration, a series of arms interdiction programs in Central America to disrupt the supply of weapons to the insurgencies in the region. New York Times journalist Leslie Gelb explained that \"Argentina would be responsible, with funds from North American intelligence, of attacking the flux of equipment which was transiting Nicaragua to El Salvador and Guatemala \".\nOperation Charly was executed by a group of military figures who had already taken part in Operation Condor, which had started as soon as 1973 and concerned international cooperation between intelligence agencies to permit greater repression of the left-wing opposition. US journalist Martha Honey documented the exportation of \"social control techniques\" which the Argentine army had \"brutally perfected\" in Argentina to Central American countries.\nAmong the counter-insurgency tactics exported to Central America by Argentina within the framework of Operation Charly, were the systemic use of torture, death squads and forced disappearances \u2014 a US embassy cable spoke of the \"tactics of disappearance\". According to French journalist Marie-Monique Robin, these methods themselves had been taught to the Argentine military first by the French military, drawing on the experience of the 1957 Battle of Algiers, and then by their US counterparts.According to Noam Chomsky, starting in 1979, the Argentine military established covert military centers in Panama, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala and Nicaragua. Among others examples, Noam Chomsky says the death squads which began to act in Honduras in 1980 were attributed to the importation of the \"Argentine method\".In July 1980, the Grupo de Tareas Exterior (GTE, External Operations Group) headed by Guillermo Su\u00e1rez Mason, of the 601 Intelligence Battalion, took part in the Cocaine Coup of Luis Garc\u00eda Meza in Bolivia, with the assistance of the Italian terrorist Stefano Delle Chiaie and Nazi war criminal Klaus Barbie. The Argentine secret services hired 70 foreign agents to assist in the coup. The cocaine trade helped fund the covert operations.Ariel Armony, president of the Goldfarb Center in the Colby College, stated in journalist Mar\u00eda Seoane's article that \"it would be more appropriate to speak of a dirty war at a continental level than isolated conflicts at a national scale\", and that \"in this war the distinction between combatants and civilian population were erased, while national frontiers were subordinated to \"ideological frontiers\" of the East-West conflict.\" In particular, the Argentine military was not satisfied with \"annihilating\" the opposition in the country, but repealed any distinction between internal and external policy.\n\n\n== Argentine military intervention in Central America (1977\u20131986) ==\n\n\n=== Nicaragua ===\nAfter attaining power in 1976, the National Reorganization Process formed close ties with the regime of Anastasio Somoza Debayle in Nicaragua among other right-wing dictatorships in Latin America. In 1977 at a meeting of the Conference of American Armies (CAA) held in the Nicaraguan capital city of Managua, junta members Gen. Roberto Viola and Admiral Emilio Massera secretly pledged unconditional support of Somoza regime in its fight against left-wing subversion and agreed to send advisors and material support to Nicaragua to assist President Somoza's National Guard.Pursuant with these military agreements, Somoza's Guardsmen were sent to police and military academies in Argentina to undergo training and Argentina began to send arms and advisors to Nicaragua to bolster the National Guard, in addition to similar services being provided by the United States. According to an Argentine advisor with the Nicaraguan National Guard, the intelligence techniques used by the Somoza regime consisted of essentially the same \"unconventional\" methods which had been used in Argentina's Dirty War (torture, forced disappearance, extrajudicial killings). Argentina's aid programs increased proportionate to the growth of the popular movement against the Somoza regime and the degree of isolation of the Somoza regime. Following the suspension of U.S. military aid and training in 1979, Argentina became one of the Somoza regime's principal sources of arms alongside Israel, Brazil and South Africa.In addition to providing arms and training to Somoza's National Guard, the Argentine junta also executed a number of Condor operations on Nicaraguan soil during the late-1970s, benefitting from close rapport between Argentine secret services and the Nicaraguan regime. The military in Argentina sent agents of the Batall\u00f3n de Inteligencia 601 and the SIDE to Nicaragua in 1978 with the aim of apprehending and eliminating Argentine guerrillas fighting within the ranks of the Sandinistas. A special commando team from Argentina worked in conjunction with Somoza's OSN (Office of National Security) and its Argentine advisors with the objective of capturing exiled squadrons from the ERP and the Montoneros.Following the overthrow of Anastasio Somoza Debayle by the Sandinista Front, Argentina played a central role in the formation of the Contras. Shortly after the Sandinista victory in July 1979, agents from Argentine intelligence began to organize exiled members of Somoza's National Guard residing in Guatemala into an anti-Sandinista insurgency. Following the election of U.S. President Ronald Reagan, the Argentine government sought arrangements for the Argentine military to organize and train the contras in Honduras in collaboration with the Honduran government and the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Shortly thereafter, Argentina oversaw the relocation of Contra bases from Guatemala to Honduras. There, some Argentine Special force units, such as Batall\u00f3n de Inteligencia 601, began to train the Nicaraguan Contras, particularly at Lepaterique base alongside some members of the Honduran security forces.In August 1981, a CIA official met with Honduran military staff, Argentine military and intelligence advisors, and the Contra leadership and expressed his support for the contra operations. On November 1, 1981, the Director of the CIA William Casey met with the Chief of Staff of the Argentine military; the two purportedly agreed that Argentina would oversee the contras and the United States would provide money and weapons.  In late-1981, President Reagan authorized the U.S. to support the contras by giving them money, arms, and equipment. This aid was transported and distributed to the Contras by way of Argentina. With new weapons and logistical support, the scale of Contra attacks increased and the ranks of the Contras swelled as recruitment became more feasible. By the end of 1982, the Contras were conducting attacks deeper inside Nicaragua than before.\n\n\n=== Honduras ===\nIn the immediate aftermath of the Nicaraguan Revolution in 1979, the National Reorganization Process dispatched a large Argentine military mission to Honduras. At the time, General Gustavo \u00c1lvarez Mart\u00ednez, a former student of Argentina's Colegio Militar de la Naci\u00f3n (class of 1961) and graduate of the School of the Americas, was commander of a branch of the Honduran security forces known as the Fuerza de Seguridad Publica (FUSEP). \u00c1lvarez Mart\u00ednez was a proponent of the \"Argentine Method,\" viewing it as an effective tool against subversion in the hemisphere, and sought increased Argentine military influence in Honduras. Argentina's military program in Honduras expanded after 1981 when General Gustavo \u00c1lvarez Mart\u00ednez, offered his country to the CIA and the Argentine military as a base for conducting operations opposing the Sandinista government in Nicaragua. By the end of 1981, 150 Argentine military advisors were active in Honduras training members of the Honduran security forces and providing training to the Nicaraguan Contras based in Honduras. According to the NGO Equipo Nizkor, though the Argentine mission in Honduras was downgraded after the Falklands War, Argentine officers remained active in Honduras until 1984, some of them until 1986, well after the 1983 election of Ra\u00fal Alfons\u00edn.Battalion 316's name indicated the unit's service to three military units and sixteen battalions of the Honduran army. This unit was charged with the task of carrying out political assassinations and torture of suspected political opponents of the government, effectively implementing the \"Argentine Method\" in Honduras. At least 184 suspected government opponents including teachers, politicians, and union bosses were assassinated by Battalion 316 during the 1980s.\n\n\n=== El Salvador ===\nArgentina played a role in supporting the Salvadoran government during the El Salvador Civil War. As early as 1979, the National Reorganization Process supported the Salvadoran government militarily with intelligence training, weapons and counterinsurgency advisors. This support continued until well after the United States had established itself as the principle supplier of weapons to the Salvadoran security forces. According to secret documents from the Argentine military, the purpose of this aid was to strengthen inter-military relations between Argentina and El Salvador and \"contribute to hardening [El Salvador's] position in the widening struggle against subversion, alongside other countries in the region.\"In fall of 1981, the administration of U.S. President Ronald Reagan requested that the high command of the Argentine military increase its assistance to El Salvador. The Argentine government ratified an agreement by which U.S. intelligence would provide the Argentine government with intelligence and logistics support for an arms interdiction program to stem the flow of military supplies to the FMLN from Cuba and Nicaragua. In addition to agreeing to coordinate arms interdiction operations, the Argentine General Directorate of Military Industries (DGFM) supplied El Salvador with light and heavy weapons, ammunition and military spare parts worth U.S.$20 million in February 1982.\n\n\n=== Guatemala ===\nThe military junta in Argentina was a prominent source of both material aid and inspiration to the Guatemalan military during the Guatemalan Civil War, especially during the final two years of the Lucas government. Argentina's involvement had initially began in 1980, when the Videla regime dispatched army and naval officers to Guatemala, under contract from President Fernando Romeo Lucas Garcia, to assist the security forces in counterinsurgency operations. Argentine involvement in Guatemala expanded when, in October 1981, the Guatemalan government and the Argentine military junta formalized secret accords which augmented Argentine participation in government counterinsurgency operations. As part of the agreement, two-hundred Guatemalan officers were dispatched to Buenos Aires to undergo advanced military intelligence training, which included instruction in interrogation. In addition to working with the regular security forces, Argentine military advisors as well as a squadron of the Batall\u00f3n de Inteligencia 601 worked directly with the Lucas government's paramilitary death squads, most notably the Ejercito Secreto Anticommunista (ESA).Technical support from Argentina played a crucial role in the success of the army's urban counterinsurgency campaign carried out in Guatemala City in July 1981. By way of the Guatemalan military's new computer service (installed by Tadiran Electronics Industries Ltd. of Israel), Argentine advisors introduced a data analysis system developed during the \"Dirty War\" in Argentina, which was used to monitor electrical and water usage to pinpoint the coordinates of guerrilla safe-houses. Due in part to this support, a number of clandestine \"safe-houses\" operated by the insurgents were subsequently infiltrated and a clandestine network of the Organizacion del Pueblo en Armas (ORPA) was destroyed in Guatemala City. Argentine military advisors also participated in the Guatemalan army's rural scorched-earth campaign in the Guatemalan highlands in 1981 code-named \"Operation Ash 81.\"\n\n\n== See also ==\nDirty War\nUnited States-Latin American relations\nCentral American Crisis\nGuatemala Civil War\nEl Salvador Civil War\nNicaraguan Revolution\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nArmony, Ariel C. (1999), La Argentina, los Estados Unidos y la Cruzada Anti-Comunista en Am\u00e9rica Central, 1977\u20131984, Quilmes: Universidad Nacional de Quilmes. ISBN. (Argentina, the United States, and the anti-communist crusade in Central America, 1977 - 1984, Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 1997. ISBN 0-89680-196-9)\nBardini, Roberto: \"Los militares de EEUU y Argentina en Am\u00e9rica Central y las Malvinas\", en Argenpress. La pol\u00edtica en la semana (1 de febrero de 2003): 2003.\nBardini, Roberto (1988), Monjes, mercenarios y mercaderes, libro del autor de este trabajo, M\u00e9xico : Alpa Corral. ISBN.\nButazzoni, Fernando: \"La historia secreta de un doble asesinato\", en Marcha. Montevideo (1 de junio de 2005): 2005.\nHoney, Martha (1994). The Argentines: the first cut-outs in Washington's dirty war. Hostile Acts: U.S. policy in Costa Rica in the 1980s. Gainesville, Fl: University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1250-3.\nMaechling, Charles: \"The Argentine pariah\", en Foreign Policy. Invierno 1981\u20131982(45): 1981. pp 69\u201383.\nSeoane, Mar\u00eda: \"Los secretos de la guerra sucia continental de la dictadura\", en Clar\u00edn. Especiales: A 30 a\u00f1os de la noche m\u00e1s larga (24 de marzo de 2006): 2006.", "images": [], "summary": "Operation Charly (Spanish: Operaci\u00f3n Charly), was allegedly the code-name given to a program undertaken by the military establishment in Argentina with the objective of providing military and counterinsurgency assistance to right-wing dictatorships in Central America to murder left-wing activists. The operation was either headed by the Argentine military with the agreement of the United States Department of Defense, or was led by the US and used the Argentinians as a proxy. 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News", "Phoenix ", "Stevie Wonder", "Get Behind Me Satan", "Marc Spitz", "Punk rock", "David Byrne", "Valentine's Day ", "nineteen ninety-two Los Angeles riots"], "content": "David Robert Jones OAL (8 January 1947 \u2013 10 January 2016), known professionally as David Bowie ( BOH-ee), was an English singer-songwriter and actor. A leading figure in the music industry, Bowie is regarded as one of the most influential musicians of the 20th century. He was acclaimed by critics and musicians, particularly for his innovative work during the 1970s. His career was marked by reinvention and visual presentation, with his music and stagecraft having a significant impact on popular music.\nBorn in Brixton, South London, Bowie developed an interest in music as a child. He studied art, music and design before embarking on a professional career as a musician in 1963. \"Space Oddity\", released in 1969, was his first top-five entry on the UK Singles Chart. After a period of experimentation, he re-emerged in 1972 during the glam rock era with his flamboyant and androgynous alter ego Ziggy Stardust. The character was spearheaded by the success of Bowie's single \"Starman\" and album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars, which won him widespread popularity. In 1975, Bowie's style shifted towards a sound he characterised as \"plastic soul\", initially alienating many of his UK fans but garnering him his first major US crossover success with the number-one single \"Fame\" and the album Young Americans. In 1976, Bowie starred in the cult film The Man Who Fell to Earth, directed by Nicolas Roeg, and released Station to Station. In 1977, he further confounded expectations with the electronic-inflected album Low, the first of three collaborations with Brian Eno that came to be known as the \"Berlin Trilogy\". \"Heroes\" (1977) and Lodger (1979) followed; each album reached the UK top five and received lasting critical praise.\nAfter uneven commercial success in the late 1970s, Bowie had UK number ones with the 1980 single \"Ashes to Ashes\", its album Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps), and \"Under Pressure\", a 1981 collaboration with Queen. He reached his commercial peak in 1983 with Let's Dance; its title track topped both the UK and US charts. Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, Bowie continued to experiment with musical styles, including industrial and jungle. He also continued acting; his roles included Major Jack Celliers in Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence (1983), Jareth the Goblin King in Labyrinth (1986), Pontius Pilate in The Last Temptation of Christ (1988), and Nikola Tesla in The Prestige (2006), among other film and television appearances and cameos. He stopped touring after 2004 and his last live performance was at a charity event in 2006. In 2013, Bowie returned from a decade-long recording hiatus with The Next Day. He remained musically active until his death from liver cancer at his home in New York City, two days after his 69th birthday and the release of his final album, Blackstar (2016).\nDuring his lifetime, his record sales, estimated at over 100 million records worldwide, made him one of the best-selling music artists of all time. In the UK, he was awarded ten platinum album certifications, eleven gold and eight silver, and released eleven number-one albums. In the US, he received five platinum and nine gold certifications. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996. Rolling Stone placed him among its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time and named him the \"Greatest Rock Star Ever\" after his death in 2016.\n\n\n== Early life ==\nDavid Robert Jones was born on 8 January 1947 in Brixton, London. His mother, Margaret Mary \"Peggy\" (n\u00e9e Burns; 2 October 1913 \u2013 2 April 2001), was born at Shorncliffe Army Camp near Cheriton, Kent. Her paternal grandparents were Irish immigrants who had settled in Manchester. She worked as a waitress at a cinema in Royal Tunbridge Wells. His father, Haywood Stenton \"John\" Jones (21 November 1912 \u2013 5 August 1969), was from Doncaster, Yorkshire and worked as a promotions officer for the children's charity Barnardo's. The family lived at 40 Stansfield Road, on the boundary between Brixton and Stockwell in the south London borough of Lambeth. Bowie attended Stockwell Infants School until he was six years old, acquiring a reputation as a gifted and single-minded child\u2014and a defiant brawler.From 1953 Bowie moved with his family to Bickley and then Bromley Common, before settling in Sundridge Park in 1955 where he attended Burnt Ash Junior School. His voice was considered \"adequate\" by the school choir, and he demonstrated above-average abilities in playing the recorder. At the age of nine, his dancing during the newly introduced music and movement classes was strikingly imaginative: teachers called his interpretations \"vividly artistic\" and his poise \"astonishing\" for a child. The same year, his interest in music was further stimulated when his father brought home a collection of American 45s by artists including the Teenagers, the Platters, Fats Domino, Elvis Presley (who shared Bowie's birthday), and Little Richard. Upon listening to Little Richard's song \"Tutti Frutti\", Bowie would later say that he had \"heard God\".Bowie was first impressed with Presley when he saw his cousin Kristina dance to \"Hound Dog\" soon after it was released in 1956. According to Kristina, she and David \"danced like possessed elves\" to records of various artists. By the end of the following year, Bowie had taken up the ukulele and tea-chest bass, begun to participate in skiffle sessions with friends, and had started to play the piano; meanwhile, his stage presentation of numbers by both Presley and Chuck Berry\u2014complete with gyrations in tribute to the original artists\u2014to his local Wolf Cub group was described as \"mesmerizing ... like someone from another planet\". Having encouraged his son to follow his dreams of being an entertainer since he was a toddler, in the late 1950s David's father took him to meet singers and other performers preparing for the Royal Variety Performance, introducing him to Alma Cogan and Tommy Steele. After taking his eleven-plus exam at the conclusion of his Burnt Ash Junior education, Bowie went to Bromley Technical High School.It was an unusual technical school, as biographer Christopher Sandford wrote:\n\nDespite its status it was, by the time David arrived in 1958, as rich in arcane ritual as any [English] public school. There were houses named after eighteenth-century statesmen like Pitt and Wilberforce. There was a uniform and an elaborate system of rewards and punishments. There was also an accent on languages, science and particularly design, where a collegiate atmosphere flourished under the tutorship of Owen Frampton. In David's account, Frampton led through force of personality, not intellect; his colleagues at Bromley Tech were famous for neither and yielded the school's most gifted pupils to the arts, a regime so liberal that Frampton actively encouraged his own son, Peter, to pursue a musical career with David, a partnership briefly intact thirty years later.\nBowie's maternal half-brother, Terry Burns, was a substantial influence on his early life. Burns, who was 10 years older than Bowie, suffered from schizophrenia and seizures, and lived alternately at home and in psychiatric wards; while living with Bowie, he introduced the younger man to many of his lifelong influences, such as modern jazz, Buddhism, Beat poetry, and the occult. In addition to Burns, a significant proportion of Bowie's extended family members had schizophrenia spectrum disorders, including an aunt who was institutionalised and another who underwent a lobotomy; this has been labelled as an influence on his early work.Bowie studied art, music, and design, including layout and typesetting. After Burns introduced him to modern jazz, his enthusiasm for players like Charles Mingus and John Coltrane led his mother to give him a Grafton saxophone in 1961. He was soon receiving lessons from baritone saxophonist Ronnie Ross. He received a serious injury at school in 1962 when his friend George Underwood punched him in the left eye during a fight over a girl. After a series of operations during a four-month hospitalisation, his doctors determined that the damage could not be fully repaired and Bowie was left with faulty depth perception and anisocoria (a permanently dilated pupil), which gave a false impression of a change in the iris' colour, erroneously suggesting he had heterochromia iridum (one iris a different colour to the other); his eye later became one of Bowie's most recognisable features. Despite their altercation, Bowie remained on good terms with Underwood, who went on to create the artwork for Bowie's early albums.\n\n\n== Music career ==\n\n\n=== 1962\u20131967: Early career to debut album ===\n\nBowie formed his first band, the Konrads, in 1962 at the age of 15. Playing guitar-based rock and roll at local youth gatherings and weddings, the Konrads had a varying line-up of between four and eight members, Underwood among them. When Bowie left the technical school the following year, he informed his parents of his intention to become a pop star. His mother arranged his employment as an electrician's mate. Frustrated by his bandmates' limited aspirations, Bowie left the Konrads and joined another band, the King Bees. He wrote to the newly successful washing-machine entrepreneur John Bloom inviting him to \"do for us what Brian Epstein has done for the Beatles\u2014and make another million.\" Bloom did not respond to the offer, but his referral to Dick James's partner Leslie Conn led to Bowie's first personal management contract.Conn quickly began to promote Bowie. The singer's debut single, \"Liza Jane\", credited to Davie Jones with the King Bees, was not commercially successful. Dissatisfied with the King Bees and their repertoire of Howlin' Wolf and Willie Dixon covers, Bowie quit the band less than a month later to join the Manish Boys, another blues outfit, who incorporated folk and soul\u2014\"I used to dream of being their Mick Jagger\", Bowie was to recall. Their cover of Bobby Bland's \"I Pity the Fool\" was no more successful than \"Liza Jane\", and Bowie soon moved on again to join the Lower Third, a blues trio strongly influenced by the Who. \"You've Got a Habit of Leaving\" fared no better, signalling the end of Conn's contract. Declaring that he would exit the pop music world \"to study mime at Sadler's Wells\", Bowie nevertheless remained with the Lower Third. His new manager, Ralph Horton, later instrumental in his transition to solo artist, soon witnessed Bowie's move to yet another group, the Buzz, yielding the singer's fifth unsuccessful single release, \"Do Anything You Say\". While with the Buzz, Bowie also joined the Riot Squad; their recordings, which included one of Bowie's original songs and material by The Velvet Underground, went unreleased. Kenneth Pitt, introduced by Horton, took over as Bowie's manager.Dissatisfied with Davy (and Davie) Jones, which in the mid-1960s invited confusion with Davy Jones of the Monkees, he took on the stage name David Bowie after the 19th-century American pioneer James Bowie and the knife he had popularised. His April 1967 solo single, \"The Laughing Gnome\", using speeded-up thus high-pitched vocals, failed to chart. Released six weeks later, his album debut, David Bowie, an amalgam of pop, psychedelia, and music hall, met the same fate. It was his last release for two years.\n\n\n=== 1968\u20131971: Space Oddity to Hunky Dory ===\n\nStudying the dramatic arts under Lindsay Kemp, from avant-garde theatre and mime to commedia dell'arte, Bowie became immersed in the creation of personae to present to the world. Satirising life in a British prison, the Bowie composition \"Over The Wall We Go\" became a 1967 single for Oscar; another Bowie song, \"Silly Boy Blue\", was released by Billy Fury the following year. Playing acoustic guitar, Hermione Farthingale formed a group with Bowie and guitarist John Hutchinson named Feathers; between September 1968 and early 1969 the trio gave a small number of concerts combining folk, Merseybeat, poetry, and mime.After the break-up with Farthingale, Bowie moved in with Mary Finnigan as her lodger. In February and March 1969, he undertook a short tour with Marc Bolan's duo Tyrannosaurus Rex, as third on the bill, performing a mime act. On 11 July 1969, \"Space Oddity\" was released five days ahead of the Apollo 11 launch, and reached the top five in the UK. Continuing the divergence from rock and roll and blues begun by his work with Farthingale, Bowie joined forces with Finnigan, Christina Ostrom and Barrie Jackson to run a folk club on Sunday nights at the Three Tuns pub in Beckenham High Street. The club was influenced by the Arts Lab movement, developing into the Beckenham Arts Lab and became extremely popular. The Arts Lab hosted a free festival in a local park, the subject of his song \"Memory of a Free Festival\".Bowie's second album followed in November; originally issued in the UK as David Bowie, it caused some confusion with its predecessor of the same name, and the early US release was instead titled Man of Words/Man of Music; it was reissued internationally in 1972 by RCA Records as Space Oddity. Featuring philosophical post-hippie lyrics on peace, love, and morality, its acoustic folk rock occasionally fortified by harder rock, the album was not a commercial success at the time of its release.Bowie met Angela Barnett in April 1969. They married within a year. Her impact on him was immediate, and her involvement in his career far-reaching, leaving manager Ken Pitt with limited influence which he found frustrating. Having established himself as a solo artist with \"Space Oddity\", Bowie began to sense a lacking: \"a full-time band for gigs and recording\u2014people he could relate to personally\". The shortcoming was underlined by his artistic rivalry with Marc Bolan, who was at the time acting as his session guitarist. The band Bowie assembled comprised John Cambridge, a drummer Bowie met at the Arts Lab, Tony Visconti on bass and Mick Ronson on electric guitar. Known as Hype, the bandmates created characters for themselves and wore elaborate costumes that prefigured the glam style of the Spiders from Mars. After a disastrous opening gig at the London Roundhouse, they reverted to a configuration presenting Bowie as a solo artist. Their initial studio work was marred by a heated disagreement between Bowie and Cambridge over the latter's drumming style. Matters came to a head when an enraged Bowie accused the drummer of the disturbance, exclaiming \"You're fucking up my album.\" Cambridge left and was replaced by Mick Woodmansey. Not long after, the singer fired his manager and replaced him with Tony Defries. This resulted in years of litigation that concluded with Bowie having to pay Pitt compensation.The studio sessions continued and resulted in Bowie's third album, The Man Who Sold the World (1970), which contained references to schizophrenia, paranoia, and delusion. It represented a departure from the acoustic guitar and folk-rock style established by Space Oddity, to a more hard rock sound. To promote it in the US, Mercury Records financed a coast-to-coast publicity tour across America in which Bowie, between January and February 1971, was interviewed by radio stations and the media. Exploiting his androgynous appearance, the original cover of the UK version unveiled two months later depicted the singer wearing a dress: taking the garment with him, he wore it during interviews\u2014to the approval of critics, including Rolling Stone's John Mendelsohn who described him as \"ravishing, almost disconcertingly reminiscent of Lauren Bacall\" \u2013 and in the street, to mixed reaction including laughter and, in the case of one male pedestrian, producing a gun and telling Bowie to \"kiss my ass\".During the tour, Bowie's observation of two seminal American proto-punk artists led him to develop a concept that eventually found form in the Ziggy Stardust character: a melding of the persona of Iggy Pop with the music of Lou Reed, producing \"the ultimate pop idol\". A girlfriend recalled his \"scrawling notes on a cocktail napkin about a crazy rock star named Iggy or Ziggy\", and on his return to England he declared his intention to create a character \"who looks like he's landed from Mars\". The \"Stardust\" surname was a tribute to the \"Legendary Stardust Cowboy\", whose record he was given during the tour. Bowie would later cover \"I Took a Trip on a Gemini Space Ship\" on 2002's Heathen.Hunky Dory (1971) found Visconti, Bowie's producer and bassist, supplanted in both roles by Ken Scott and Trevor Bolder, respectively. It again featured a stylistic shift towards art pop and melodic pop rock. It featured light fare tracks such as \"Kooks\", a song written for his son, Duncan Zowie Haywood Jones, born on 30 May. (His parents chose \"his kooky name\"\u2014he was known as Zowie for the next 12 years\u2014after the Greek word zoe, life.) Elsewhere, the album explored more serious subjects, and found Bowie paying unusually direct homage to his influences with \"Song for Bob Dylan\", \"Andy Warhol\", and \"Queen Bitch\", the latter a Velvet Underground pastiche. His first release through RCA Records, it was a commercial failure, partly due lack of promotion from the label.\n\n\n=== 1972\u20131974: Ziggy Stardust ===\n\nDressed in a striking costume, his hair dyed reddish-brown, Bowie launched his Ziggy Stardust stage show with the Spiders from Mars\u2014Ronson, Bolder, and Woodmansey\u2014at the Toby Jug pub in Tolworth in Kingston upon Thames on 10 February 1972. The show was hugely popular, catapulting him to stardom as he toured the UK over the next six months and creating, as described by Buckley, a \"cult of Bowie\" that was \"unique\u2014its influence lasted longer and has been more creative than perhaps almost any other force within pop fandom.\" The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars (1972), combining the hard rock elements of The Man Who Sold the World with the lighter experimental rock and pop of Hunky Dory, was released in June and was considered one of the defining albums of glam rock. \"Starman\", issued as an April single ahead of the album, was to cement Bowie's UK breakthrough: both single and album charted rapidly following his July Top of the Pops performance of the song. The album, which remained in the chart for two years, was soon joined there by the 6-month-old Hunky Dory. At the same time, the non-album single \"John, I'm Only Dancing\", and \"All the Young Dudes\", a song he wrote and produced for Mott the Hoople, were successful in the UK. The Ziggy Stardust Tour continued to the United States.Bowie contributed backing vocals, keyboards, and guitar to Reed's 1972 solo breakthrough Transformer, co-producing the album with Mick Ronson. The following year, Bowie co-produced and mixed the Stooges' album Raw Power alongside Iggy Pop. His own Aladdin Sane (1973) topped the UK chart, his first number-one album. Described by Bowie as \"Ziggy goes to America\", it contained songs he wrote while travelling to and across the US during the earlier part of the Ziggy tour, which now continued to Japan to promote the new album. Aladdin Sane spawned the UK top five singles \"The Jean Genie\" and \"Drive-In Saturday\".Bowie's love of acting led to his total immersion in the characters he created for his music. \"Offstage I'm a robot. Onstage I achieve emotion. It's probably why I prefer dressing up as Ziggy to being David.\" With satisfaction came severe personal difficulties: acting the same role over an extended period, it became impossible for him to separate Ziggy Stardust\u2014and later, the Thin White Duke\u2014from his own character offstage. Ziggy, Bowie said, \"wouldn't leave me alone for years. That was when it all started to go sour ... My whole personality was affected. It became very dangerous. I really did have doubts about my sanity.\" His later Ziggy shows, which included songs from both Ziggy Stardust and Aladdin Sane, were ultra-theatrical affairs filled with shocking stage moments, such as Bowie stripping down to a sumo wrestling loincloth or simulating oral sex with Ronson's guitar. Bowie toured and gave press conferences as Ziggy before a dramatic and abrupt on-stage \"retirement\" at London's Hammersmith Odeon on 3 July 1973. Footage from the final show was released the same year for the film Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars.\nAfter breaking up the Spiders from Mars, Bowie attempted to move on from his Ziggy persona. His back catalogue was now highly sought after: The Man Who Sold the World had been re-released in 1972 along with Space Oddity. \"Life on Mars?\", from Hunky Dory, was released in June 1973 and peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart. Entering the same chart in September, Bowie's novelty record from 1967, \"The Laughing Gnome\", reached number six. Pin Ups, a collection of covers of his 1960s favourites, followed in October, producing a UK number three hit in his version of the McCoys's \"Sorrow\" and itself peaking at number one, making David Bowie the best-selling act of 1973 in the UK. It brought the total number of Bowie albums concurrently on the UK chart to six.\n\n\n=== 1974\u20131976: \"Plastic soul\" and the Thin White Duke ===\n\nBowie moved to the US in 1974, initially staying in New York City before settling in Los Angeles. Diamond Dogs (1974), parts of which found him heading towards soul and funk, was the product of two distinct ideas: a musical based on a wild future in a post-apocalyptic city, and setting George Orwell's 1984 to music. The album went to number one in the UK, spawning the hits \"Rebel Rebel\" and \"Diamond Dogs\", and number five in the US. To promote it, Bowie launched the Diamond Dogs Tour, visiting cities in North America between June and December 1974. Choreographed by Toni Basil, and lavishly produced with theatrical special effects, the high-budget stage production was filmed by Alan Yentob. The resulting documentary, Cracked Actor, featured a pasty and emaciated Bowie: the tour coincided with the singer's slide from heavy cocaine use into addiction, producing severe physical debilitation, paranoia, and emotional problems. He later commented that the accompanying live album, David Live, ought to have been titled \"David Bowie Is Alive and Well and Living Only in Theory\". David Live nevertheless solidified Bowie's status as a superstar, charting at number two in the UK and number eight in the US. It also spawned a UK number ten hit in Bowie's cover of Eddie Floyd's \"Knock on Wood\". After a break in Philadelphia, where Bowie recorded new material, the tour resumed with a new emphasis on soul.\n\nThe fruit of the Philadelphia recording sessions was Young Americans (1975). Biographer Christopher Sandford writes, \"Over the years, most British rockers had tried, one way or another, to become black-by-extension. Few had succeeded as Bowie did now.\" The album's sound, which the singer identified as \"plastic soul\", constituted a radical shift in style that initially alienated many of his UK devotees. Young Americans yielded Bowie's first US number one, \"Fame\", co-written with John Lennon, who contributed backing vocals, and Carlos Alomar. Lennon called Bowie's work \"great, but it's just rock'n'roll with lipstick on\". Earning the distinction of being one of the first white artists to appear on the US variety show Soul Train, Bowie mimed \"Fame\", as well as \"Golden Years\", his November single, which was originally offered to Elvis Presley, who declined it. Young Americans was a commercial success in both the US and the UK, and a re-issue of the 1969 single \"Space Oddity\" became Bowie's first number-one hit in the UK a few months after \"Fame\" achieved the same in the US. Despite his by now well-established superstardom, Bowie, in the words of Sandford, \"for all his record sales (over a million copies of Ziggy Stardust alone), existed essentially on loose change.\" In 1975, in a move echoing Ken Pitt's acrimonious dismissal five years earlier, Bowie fired his manager. At the culmination of the ensuing months-long legal dispute, he watched, as described by Sandford, \"millions of dollars of his future earnings being surrendered\" in what were \"uniquely generous terms for Defries\", then \"shut himself up in West 20th Street, where for a week his howls could be heard through the locked attic door.\" Michael Lippman, Bowie's lawyer during the negotiations, became his new manager; Lippman, in turn, was awarded substantial compensation when Bowie fired him the following year.\n\nStation to Station (1976), produced by Bowie and Harry Maslin, introduced a new Bowie persona, \"The Thin White Duke\" of its title-track. Visually, the character was an extension of Thomas Jerome Newton, the extraterrestrial being he portrayed in the film The Man Who Fell to Earth the same year. Developing the funk and soul of Young Americans, Station to Station's synthesizer-heavy arrangements prefigured the krautrock-influenced music of his next releases. The extent to which drug addiction was now affecting Bowie was made public when Russell Harty interviewed the singer for his London Weekend Television talk show in anticipation of the album's supporting tour. Shortly before the satellite-linked interview was scheduled to commence, the death of the Spanish dictator Francisco Franco was announced. Bowie was asked to relinquish the satellite booking, to allow the Spanish Government to put out a live newsfeed. This he refused to do, and his interview went ahead. In the ensuing lengthy conversation with Harty, Bowie was incoherent and looked \"disconnected\". His sanity\u2014by his own later admission\u2014had become twisted from cocaine; he overdosed several times during the year and was withering physically to an alarming degree.Station to Station's January 1976 release was followed in February by a 31/2-month-long concert tour of Europe and North America. Featuring a starkly lit set, the Isolar \u2013 1976 Tour with its colour newsprint Isolar concert program, highlighted songs from the album, including the dramatic and lengthy title track, the ballads \"Wild Is the Wind\" and \"Word on a Wing\", and the funkier \"TVC 15\" and \"Stay\". The core band that coalesced to record this album and tour\u2014rhythm guitarist Carlos Alomar, bassist George Murray, and drummer Dennis Davis\u2014continued as a stable unit for the remainder of the 1970s. The tour was highly successful but mired in political controversy. Bowie was quoted in Stockholm as saying that \"Britain could benefit from a Fascist leader\", and was detained by customs on the Russian/Polish border for possessing Nazi paraphernalia.\n\nMatters came to a head in London in May in what became known as the \"Victoria Station incident\". Arriving in an open-top Mercedes convertible, Bowie waved to the crowd in a gesture that some alleged was a Nazi salute, which was captured on camera and published in NME. Bowie said the photographer caught him in mid-wave. He later blamed his pro-fascism comments and his behaviour during the period on his addictions and the character of the Thin White Duke. \"I was out of my mind, totally crazed. The main thing I was functioning on was mythology ... that whole thing about Hitler and Rightism ... I'd discovered King Arthur\". According to playwright Alan Franks, writing later in The Times, \"he was indeed 'deranged'. He had some very bad experiences with hard drugs.\" Bowie's cocaine addiction, which had motivated these controversies, had much to do with his time living in Los Angeles, a city which alienated him. Discussing his flirtations with fascism in a 1980 interview with NME, Bowie explained that Los Angeles was \"where it had all happened. The fucking place should be wiped off the face of the Earth. To be anything to do with rock and roll and go and live in Los Angeles is, I think, just heading for disaster. It really is.\"After recovering from addiction, Bowie apologised for these statements, and throughout the 1980s and '90s criticised racism in European politics and the American music industry. Nevertheless, Bowie's comments on fascism, as well as Eric Clapton's alcohol-fuelled denunciations of Pakistani immigrants in 1976, led to the establishment of Rock Against Racism.\n\n\n=== 1976\u20131979: Berlin era ===\n\nBefore the end of 1976, Bowie's interest in the burgeoning German music scene, as well as his drug addiction, prompted him to move to West Berlin to clean up and revitalise his career. There he was often seen riding a bicycle between his apartment on Hauptstra\u00dfe in Sch\u00f6neberg and Hansa Tonstudio, the recording studio he used, located on K\u00f6thener Stra\u00dfe in Kreuzberg, near the Berlin Wall. While working with Brian Eno and sharing an apartment with Iggy Pop, he began to focus on minimalist, ambient music for the first of three albums, co-produced with Tony Visconti, that became known as the Berlin Trilogy. During the same period, Iggy Pop, with Bowie as a co-writer and musician, completed his solo album debut The Idiot and its follow-up Lust for Life, touring the UK, Europe, and the US in March and April 1977.\n\nThe album Low (1977), partly influenced by the Krautrock sound of Kraftwerk and Neu!, evinced a move away from narration in Bowie's songwriting to a more abstract musical form in which lyrics were sporadic and optional. Although he completed the album in November 1976, it took his unsettled record company another three months to release it. It received considerable negative criticism upon its release\u2014a release which RCA, anxious to maintain the established commercial momentum, did not welcome, and which Bowie's former manager, Tony Defries, who still maintained a significant financial interest in the singer's affairs, tried to prevent. Despite these forebodings, Low yielded the UK number three single \"Sound and Vision\", and its own performance surpassed that of Station to Station in the UK chart, where it reached number two. Contemporary composer Philip Glass described Low as \"a work of genius\" in 1992, when he used it as the basis for his Symphony No. 1 \"Low\"; subsequently, Glass used Bowie's next album as the basis for his 1996 Symphony No. 4 \"Heroes\". Glass has praised Bowie's gift for creating \"fairly complex pieces of music, masquerading as simple pieces\". Also in 1977, London released Starting Point, a ten-song LP containing releases from Bowie's Deram period (1966\u201367).\nEchoing Low's minimalist, instrumental approach, the second of the trilogy, \"Heroes\" (1977), incorporated pop and rock to a greater extent, seeing Bowie joined by guitarist Robert Fripp. Like Low, \"Heroes\" evinced the zeitgeist of the Cold War, symbolised by the divided city of Berlin. Incorporating ambient sounds from a variety of sources including white noise generators, synthesisers and koto, the album was another hit, reaching number three in the UK. Its title-track, though only reaching number 24 in the UK singles chart, gained lasting popularity, and within months had been released in both German and French. Towards the end of the year, Bowie performed the song for Marc Bolan's television show Marc, and again two days later for Bing Crosby's final CBS television Christmas special, when he joined Crosby in \"Peace on Earth/Little Drummer Boy\", a version of \"The Little Drummer Boy\" with a new, contrapuntal verse. Five years later, the duet proved a worldwide seasonal hit, charting in the UK at number three on Christmas Day, 1982.After completing Low and \"Heroes\", Bowie spent much of 1978 on the Isolar II world tour, bringing the music of the first two Berlin Trilogy albums to almost a million people during 70 concerts in 12 countries. By now he had broken his drug addiction; biographer David Buckley writes that Isolar II was \"Bowie's first tour for five years in which he had probably not anaesthetised himself with copious quantities of cocaine before taking the stage. ... Without the oblivion that drugs had brought, he was now in a healthy enough mental condition to want to make friends.\" Recordings from the tour made up the live album Stage, released the same year. Bowie also recorded narration for an adaptation of Sergei Prokofiev's classical composition Peter and the Wolf, which was released as an album in May 1978.The final piece in what Bowie called his \"triptych\", Lodger (1979), eschewed the minimalist, ambient nature of the other two, making a partial return to the drum- and guitar-based rock and pop of his pre-Berlin era. The result was a complex mixture of new wave and world music, in places incorporating Hijaz non-Western scales. Some tracks were composed using Eno and Peter Schmidt's Oblique Strategies cards: \"Boys Keep Swinging\" entailed band members swapping instruments, \"Move On\" used the chords from Bowie's early composition \"All the Young Dudes\" played backwards, and \"Red Money\" took backing tracks from \"Sister Midnight\", a piece previously composed with Iggy Pop. The album was recorded in Switzerland. Ahead of its release, RCA's Mel Ilberman stated, \"It would be fair to call it Bowie's Sergeant Pepper ... a concept album that portrays the Lodger as a homeless wanderer, shunned and victimized by life's pressures and technology.\" As described by biographer Christopher Sandford, \"The record dashed such high hopes with dubious choices, and production that spelt the end\u2014for fifteen years\u2014of Bowie's partnership with Eno.\" Lodger reached number four in the UK and number 20 in the US, and yielded the UK hit singles \"Boys Keep Swinging\" and \"DJ\". Towards the end of the year, Bowie and Angie initiated divorce proceedings, and after months of court battles the marriage was ended in early 1980.\n\n\n=== 1980\u20131988: New Romantic and pop era ===\n\nScary Monsters (and Super Creeps) (1980) produced the number-one hit \"Ashes to Ashes\", featuring the textural work of guitar-synthesist Chuck Hammer and revisiting the character of Major Tom from \"Space Oddity\". The song gave international exposure to the underground New Romantic movement when Bowie visited the London club \"Blitz\"\u2014the main New Romantic hangout\u2014to recruit several of the regulars (including Steve Strange of the band Visage) to act in the accompanying video, renowned as one of the most innovative of all time. While Scary Monsters used principles established by the Berlin albums, it was considered by critics to be far more direct musically and lyrically. The album's hard rock edge included conspicuous guitar contributions from Robert Fripp, Chuck Hammer, and Pete Townshend. As \"Ashes to Ashes\" hit number one on the UK charts, Bowie opened a five-month run on Broadway on 29 July, starring as John Merrick in The Elephant Man.Bowie paired with Queen in 1981 for a one-off single release, \"Under Pressure\". The duet was a hit, becoming Bowie's third UK number-one single. Bowie was given the lead role in the BBC's 1982 televised adaptation of Bertolt Brecht's play Baal. Coinciding with its transmission, a five-track EP of songs from the play, recorded earlier in Berlin, was released as David Bowie in Bertolt Brecht's Baal. In March 1982, the month before Paul Schrader's film Cat People came out, Bowie's title song, \"Cat People (Putting Out Fire)\", was released as a single, becoming a minor US hit and entering the UK Top 30.Bowie reached his peak of popularity and commercial success in 1983 with Let's Dance. Co-produced by Chic's Nile Rodgers, the album went platinum in both the UK and the US. Its three singles became Top 20 hits in both countries, where its title track reached number one. \"Modern Love\" and \"China Girl\" each made number two in the UK, accompanied by a pair of \"absorbing\" promotional videos that biographer David Buckley said \"activated key archetypes in the pop world. 'Let's Dance', with its little narrative surrounding the young Aborigine couple, targeted 'youth', and 'China Girl', with its bare-bummed (and later partially censored) beach lovemaking scene (a homage to the film From Here to Eternity), was sufficiently sexually provocative to guarantee heavy rotation on MTV\". Stevie Ray Vaughan was a guest guitarist playing solo on \"Let's Dance\", although the video depicts Bowie miming this part. By 1983, Bowie had emerged as one of the most important video artists of the day. Let's Dance was followed by the Serious Moonlight Tour, during which Bowie was accompanied by guitarist Earl Slick and backing vocalists Frank and George Simms. The world tour lasted six months and was extremely popular. At the 1984 MTV Video Music Awards Bowie received two awards including the inaugural Video Vanguard Award.\n\nTonight (1984), another dance-oriented album, found Bowie collaborating with Tina Turner and, once again, Iggy Pop. It included a number of cover songs, among them the 1966 Beach Boys hit \"God Only Knows\". The album bore the transatlantic Top 10 hit \"Blue Jean\", itself the inspiration for a short film that won Bowie a Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video, Jazzin' for Blue Jean. Bowie performed at Wembley Stadium in 1985 for Live Aid, a multi-venue benefit concert for Ethiopian famine relief. During the event, the video for a fundraising single was premiered, Bowie's duet with Mick Jagger. \"Dancing in the Street\" quickly went to number one on release. The same year, Bowie worked with the Pat Metheny Group to record \"This Is Not America\" for the soundtrack of The Falcon and the Snowman. Released as a single, the song became a Top 40 hit in the UK and US.Bowie was given a role in the 1986 film Absolute Beginners. It was poorly received by critics, but Bowie's theme song, also named \"Absolute Beginners\", rose to number two in the UK charts. He also appeared as Jareth, the Goblin King, in the 1986 Jim Henson film Labyrinth, for which he worked with composer Trevor Jones and wrote five original songs. His final solo album of the decade was 1987's Never Let Me Down, where he ditched the light sound of his previous two albums, instead offering harder rock with an industrial/techno dance edge. Peaking at number six in the UK, the album yielded the hits \"Day-In, Day-Out\", \"Time Will Crawl\", and \"Never Let Me Down\". Bowie later described it as his \"nadir\", calling it \"an awful album\". Supporting Never Let Me Down, and preceded by nine promotional press shows, the 86-concert Glass Spider Tour commenced on 30 May. Bowie's backing band included Peter Frampton on lead guitar. Contemporary critics maligned the tour as overproduced, saying it pandered to the current stadium rock trends in its special effects and dancing, although in later years critics acknowledged the tour's strengths and influence on concert tours by other artists, such as Britney Spears, Madonna, and U2.\n\n\n=== 1989\u20131991: Tin Machine ===\n\nBowie shelved his solo career in 1989, retreating to the relative anonymity of band membership for the first time since the early 1970s. A hard-rocking quartet, Tin Machine came into being after Bowie began to work experimentally with guitarist Reeves Gabrels. The line-up was completed by Tony and Hunt Sales, whom Bowie had known since the late 1970s for their contribution, on bass and drums respectively, to Iggy Pop's 1977 album Lust for Life.\n\nAlthough he intended Tin Machine to operate as a democracy, Bowie dominated, both in songwriting and in decision-making. The band's album debut, Tin Machine (1989), was initially popular, though its politicised lyrics did not find universal approval: Bowie described one song as \"a simplistic, naive, radical, laying-it-down about the emergence of Neo-Nazis\"; in the view of biographer Christopher Sandford, \"It took nerve to denounce drugs, fascism and TV ... in terms that reached the literary level of a comic book.\" EMI complained of \"lyrics that preach\" as well as \"repetitive tunes\" and \"minimalist or no production\". The album nevertheless reached number three and went gold in the UK.Tin Machine's first world tour was a commercial success, but there was growing reluctance\u2014among fans and critics alike\u2014to accept Bowie's presentation as merely a band member. A series of Tin Machine singles failed to chart, and Bowie, after a disagreement with EMI, left the label. Like his audience and his critics, Bowie himself became increasingly disaffected with his role as just one member of a band. Tin Machine began work on a second album, but Bowie put the venture on hold and made a return to solo work. Performing his early hits during the seven-month Sound+Vision Tour, he found commercial success and acclaim once again.In October 1990, a decade after his divorce from Angie, Bowie and Somali-born supermodel Iman were introduced by a mutual friend. Bowie recalled, \"I was naming the children the night we met ... it was absolutely immediate.\" They married in 1992. Tin Machine resumed work the same month, but their audience and critics, ultimately left disappointed by the first album, showed little interest in a second. Tin Machine II's arrival was marked by a widely publicised and ill-timed conflict over the cover art: after production had begun, the new record label, Victory, deemed the depiction of four ancient nude Kouroi statues, judged by Bowie to be \"in exquisite taste\", to be \"a show of wrong, obscene images\", requiring air-brushing and patching to render the figures sexless. Tin Machine toured again, but after the live album Tin Machine Live: Oy Vey, Baby failed commercially, the band drifted apart, and Bowie, though he continued to collaborate with Gabrels, resumed his solo career.\n\n\n=== 1992\u20131998: Electronic period ===\nOn 20 April 1992, Bowie appeared at The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert, following the Queen singer's death the previous year. As well as performing \"'Heroes'\" and \"All the Young Dudes\", he was joined on \"Under Pressure\" by Annie Lennox, who took Mercury's vocal part; during his appearance, Bowie knelt and recited the Lord's Prayer at Wembley Stadium. Four days later, Bowie and Iman were married in Switzerland. Intending to move to Los Angeles, they flew in to search for a suitable property, but found themselves confined to their hotel, under curfew: the 1992 Los Angeles riots began the day they arrived. They settled in New York instead.\n\nIn 1993, Bowie released his first solo offering since his Tin Machine departure, the soul, jazz, and hip-hop influenced Black Tie White Noise. Making prominent use of electronic instruments, the album, which reunited Bowie with Let's Dance producer Nile Rodgers, confirmed Bowie's return to popularity, hitting the number-one spot on the UK charts and spawning three Top 40 hits, including the Top 10 single \"Jump They Say\". Bowie explored new directions on The Buddha of Suburbia (1993), ostensibly a soundtrack album of his music composed for the BBC television adaptation of Hanif Kureishi's novel. Only the title track had been used in the television adaptation, although some of his themes for it were also present on the album. It contained some of the new elements introduced in Black Tie White Noise, and also signalled a move towards alternative rock. The album was a critical success but received a low-key release and only made number 87 in the UK charts.Reuniting Bowie with Eno, the quasi-industrial Outside (1995) was originally conceived as the first volume in a non-linear narrative of art and murder. Featuring characters from a short story written by Bowie, the album achieved UK and US chart success and yielded three Top 40 UK singles. In a move that provoked mixed reactions from both fans and critics, Bowie chose Nine Inch Nails as his tour partner for the Outside Tour. Visiting cities in Europe and North America between September 1995 and February 1996, the tour saw the return of Gabrels as Bowie's guitarist. On 7 January 1997, Bowie celebrated his half century with a 50th birthday concert at Madison Square Garden, New York, at which he was joined in playing his songs and those of his guests, Lou Reed, Dave Grohl and the Foo Fighters, Robert Smith of the Cure, Billy Corgan of the Smashing Pumpkins, Black Francis of the Pixies, and Sonic Youth.Bowie was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on 17 January 1996. Incorporating experiments in British jungle and drum 'n' bass, Earthling (1997) was a critical and commercial success in the UK and the US, and two singles from the album \u2013 \"Little Wonder\" and \"Dead Man Walking\" \u2013 became UK Top 40 hits. Bowie's song \"I'm Afraid of Americans\" from the Paul Verhoeven film Showgirls was re-recorded for the album, and remixed by Trent Reznor for a single release. The heavy rotation of the accompanying video, also featuring Trent Reznor, contributed to the song's 16-week stay in the US Billboard Hot 100. Reznor also executive produced the Lost Highway soundtrack (1997) which begins and ends with different mixes of Bowie's Outside song \"I'm Deranged\". Bowie received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on 12 February 1997. The Earthling Tour took place in Europe and North America between June and November 1997. In November 1997, Bowie performed on the BBC's Children in Need charity single \"Perfect Day\", which reached number one in the UK. Bowie reunited with Visconti in 1998 to record \"(Safe in This) Sky Life\" for The Rugrats Movie. Although the track was edited out of the final cut, it was later re-recorded and released as \"Safe\" on the B-side of Bowie's 2002 single \"Everyone Says 'Hi'\". The reunion led to other collaborations including a limited-edition single release version of Placebo's track \"Without You I'm Nothing\", co-produced by Visconti, with Bowie's harmonised vocal added to the original recording.\n\n\n=== 1999\u20132012: Neoclassicist era ===\n\nBowie, with Reeves Gabrels, created the soundtrack for Omikron: The Nomad Soul, a 1999 computer game in which he and Iman also voiced characters based on their likenesses. Released the same year and containing re-recorded tracks from Omikron, his album Hours featured a song with lyrics by the winner of his \"Cyber Song Contest\" Internet competition, Alex Grant. Making extensive use of live instruments, the album was Bowie's exit from heavy electronica. Hours and a performance on VH1 Storytellers in mid-1999 represented the end of Gabrels' association with Bowie as a performer and songwriter. Sessions for the planned album Toy, intended to feature new versions of some of Bowie's earliest pieces as well as three new songs, commenced in 2000, but the album was never released. Bowie and Visconti continued their collaboration, producing a new album of completely original songs instead: the result of the sessions was the 2002 album Heathen.On 25 June 2000, Bowie made his second appearance at the Glastonbury Festival in England, playing 30 years after his first. The performance was released as a posthumous live album in November 2018. On 27 June, Bowie performed a concert at BBC Radio Theatre in London, which was released in the compilation album Bowie at the Beeb, which also featured BBC recording sessions from 1968 to 1972. Bowie and Iman's daughter was born on 15 August. His interest in Buddhism led him to support the Tibetan cause by performing at the February 2001 and February 2003 concerts to support Tibet House US at Carnegie Hall in New York.\n\nIn October 2001, Bowie opened the Concert for New York City, a charity event to benefit the victims of the September 11 attacks, with a minimalist performance of Simon & Garfunkel's \"America\", followed by a full band performance of \"'Heroes'\". 2002 saw the release of Heathen, and, during the second half of the year, the Heathen Tour. Taking place in Europe and North America, the tour opened at London's annual Meltdown festival, for which Bowie was that year appointed artistic director. Among the acts he selected for the festival were Philip Glass, Television, and the Dandy Warhols. As well as songs from the new album, the tour featured material from Bowie's Low era. Reality (2003) followed, and its accompanying world tour, the A Reality Tour, with an estimated attendance of 722,000, grossed more than any other in 2004. On 13 June, Bowie headlined the last night of the Isle of Wight Festival 2004, his final live show in the UK. On 25 June, he suffered chest pain while performing at the Hurricane Festival in Schee\u00dfel, Germany. Originally thought to be a pinched nerve in his shoulder, the pain was later diagnosed as an acutely blocked coronary artery, requiring an emergency angioplasty in Hamburg. The remaining 14 dates of the tour were cancelled.In the years following his recuperation from the heart attack, Bowie reduced his musical output, making only one-off appearances on stage and in the studio. He sang in a duet of his 1971 song \"Changes\" with Butterfly Boucher for the 2004 animated film Shrek 2. During a relatively quiet 2005, he recorded the vocals for the song \"(She Can) Do That\", co-written with Brian Transeau, for the film Stealth. He returned to the stage on 8 September 2005, appearing with Arcade Fire for the US nationally televised event Fashion Rocks, and performed with the Canadian band for the second time a week later during the CMJ Music Marathon. He contributed backing vocals on TV on the Radio's song \"Province\" for their album Return to Cookie Mountain, and joined with Lou Reed on Danish alt-rockers Kashmir's 2005 album No Balance Palace.\n\nBowie was awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award on 8 February 2006. In April, he announced, \"I'm taking a year off\u2014no touring, no albums.\" He made a surprise guest appearance at David Gilmour's 29 May concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London. The event was recorded, and a selection of songs on which he had contributed joint vocals were subsequently released. He performed again in November, alongside Alicia Keys, at the Black Ball, a benefit event for Keep a Child Alive at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York. The performance marked the last time Bowie performed his music on stage.Bowie was chosen to curate the 2007 High Line Festival, selecting musicians and artists for the Manhattan event, including electronic pop duo AIR, surrealist photographer Claude Cahun, and English comedian Ricky Gervais. Bowie performed on Scarlett Johansson's 2008 album of Tom Waits covers, Anywhere I Lay My Head. In June 2008 a live album was released of a Ziggy Stardust-era concert from 1972. On the 40th anniversary of the July 1969 moon landing\u2014and Bowie's accompanying commercial breakthrough with \"Space Oddity\"\u2014EMI released the individual tracks from the original eight-track studio recording of the song, in a 2009 contest inviting members of the public to create a remix. A Reality Tour, a double album of live material from the 2003 concert tour, was released in January 2010.In late March 2011, Toy, Bowie's previously unreleased album from 2001, was leaked onto the internet, containing material used for Heathen and most of its single B-sides, as well as unheard new versions of his early back catalogue.\n\n\n=== 2013\u20132016: Final years ===\nOn 8 January 2013, his 66th birthday, his website announced a new album, to be titled The Next Day and scheduled for release in March. Bowie's first studio album in a decade, The Next Day contains 14 songs plus 3 bonus tracks. His website acknowledged the length of his hiatus. Producer and longtime collaborator Tony Visconti said 29 tracks were recorded for the album, some of which could appear on Bowie's next record, which he might start work on later in 2013. The announcement was accompanied by the immediate release of a single, \"Where Are We Now?\", written and recorded by Bowie in New York and produced by Visconti.A music video for \"Where Are We Now?\" was released onto Vimeo the same day, directed by New York artist Tony Oursler. The single topped the UK iTunes Chart within hours of its release, and debuted in the UK Singles Chart at number six, his first single to enter the Top 10 for two decades (since \"Jump They Say\" in 1993).  A second video, \"The Stars (Are Out Tonight)\", was released 25 February. Directed by Floria Sigismondi, it stars Bowie and Tilda Swinton as a married couple. On 1 March, the album was made available to stream for free through iTunes. The Next Day debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart, was his first album to achieve that position since Black Tie White Noise (1993), and was the fastest-selling album of 2013 at the time. The music video for the song \"The Next Day\" created some controversy, initially being removed from YouTube for terms-of-service violation, then restored with a warning recommending viewing only by those 18 or over.According to The Times, Bowie ruled out ever giving an interview again. Later in 2013, Bowie was featured in a cameo vocal in the Arcade Fire song \"Reflektor\". A poll carried out by BBC History Magazine, in October 2013, named Bowie as the best-dressed Briton in history. In mid-2014, Bowie was diagnosed with liver cancer, a diagnosis he kept private. New information was released in September 2014 regarding his next compilation album, Nothing Has Changed, which was released in November. The album featured rare tracks and old material from his catalogue in addition to a new song titled \"Sue (Or in a Season of Crime)\". In May 2015, \"Let's Dance\" was announced to be reissued as a yellow vinyl single on 16 July 2015 in conjunction with the David Bowie Is exhibition at the Australian Centre for the Moving Image in Melbourne, Australia.In August 2015, it was announced that Bowie was writing songs for a Broadway musical based on the SpongeBob SquarePants cartoon series. Bowie wrote and recorded the opening title song to the television series The Last Panthers, which aired in November 2015. The theme that was used for The Last Panthers was also the title track for his January 2016 release Blackstar which is said to take cues from his earlier krautrock-influenced work. According to The Times: \"Blackstar may be the oddest work yet from Bowie\". On 7 December 2015, Bowie's musical Lazarus debuted in New York. His last public appearance was at opening night of the production.Blackstar was released on 8 January 2016, Bowie's 69th birthday, and was met with critical acclaim. Following his death on 10 January, Visconti revealed that Bowie had planned the album to be his swan song, and a \"parting gift\" for his fans before his death. Several reporters and critics subsequently noted that most of the lyrics on the album seem to revolve around his impending death, with CNN noting that the album \"reveals a man who appears to be grappling with his own mortality\". Visconti later said that Bowie had been planning a post-Blackstar album, and had written and recorded demo versions of five songs in his final weeks, suggesting that Bowie believed he had a few months left. The day following his death, online viewing of Bowie's music skyrocketed, breaking the record for Vevo's most viewed artist in a single day. On 15 January, Blackstar debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart; nineteen of his albums were in the UK Top 100 Albums Chart, and thirteen singles were in the UK Top 100 Singles Chart. Blackstar also debuted at number one on album charts around the world, including Australia, France, Germany, Italy, New Zealand, and the US Billboard 200.\n\n\n=== 2016\u2013present: Posthumous releases ===\nIn September 2016 a box set was released covering Bowie's mid-70s soul period, including The Gouster, a previously unreleased 1974 album. An EP, No Plan, was released on 8 January 2017, which would have been Bowie's 70th birthday. Apart from \"Lazarus\", the EP includes three songs that Bowie recorded during the Blackstar sessions, but were left off the album and appeared on the soundtrack album for the Lazarus musical in October 2016. A music video for the title track was also released. 2017 and 2018 also saw the release of a series of posthumous live albums, covering the Diamond Dogs tour of 1974, the Isolar tour of 1976 and the Isolar II tour of 1978. In the two years following his death, Bowie sold 5 million records in the UK alone. In their top 10 list for the Global Recording Artist of the Year, the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry named Bowie the second-bestselling artist worldwide in 2016, behind Drake.At the 59th Annual Grammy Awards on 12 February 2017, Bowie won all five nominated awards: Best Rock Performance; Best Alternative Music Album; Best Engineered Album, Non-Classical; Best Recording Package; and Best Rock Song. They were Bowie's first Grammy wins in musical categories. On 8 January 2020, on what would have been Bowie's 73rd birthday, a previously unreleased version of \"The Man Who Sold the World\" was released and two releases were announced: a streaming-only EP, Is It Any Wonder?, and an album, CHANGESNOWBOWIE, released in November 2020 for Record Store Day. In August 2020, another series of live shows were released, including sets from Dallas in 1995 and Paris in 1999. These and other shows, part of a series of live concerts spanning his tours from 1995 to 1999, was released in late 2020 and early 2021 as part of the box set Brilliant Live Adventures.\n\n\n== Acting career ==\nWhile always primarily a musician, Bowie took acting roles throughout his career, appearing in over 30 films, television shows and theatrical productions. Bowie's acting career was \"productively selective,\" largely eschewing starring roles for cameos and supporting parts. Many critics have observed that, had Bowie not chosen to pursue music, he could have found great success as an actor. Other critics have noted that, while his screen presence was singular, his best contributions to film were the use of his songs in films such as Lost Highway, A Knight's Tale, The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou and Inglourious Basterds.\n\n\n=== 1960s and 1970s ===\nThe beginnings of Bowie's acting career predate his commercial breakthrough as a musician. Studying avant-garde theatre and mime under Lindsay Kemp, he was given the role of Cloud in Kemp's 1967 theatrical production Pierrot in Turquoise (later made into the 1970 television film The Looking Glass Murders). Bowie filmed a walk-on role for the BBC drama series Theater 625 that aired in May 1968. In the black-and-white short The Image (1969), he played a ghostly boy who emerges from a troubled artist's painting to haunt him. The same year, the film of Leslie Thomas's 1966 comic novel The Virgin Soldiers saw Bowie make a brief appearance as an extra.In 1976, Bowie earned acclaim for his first major film role, portraying Thomas Jerome Newton, an alien from a dying planet, in The Man Who Fell to Earth, directed by Nicolas Roeg. He later admitted that his severe cocaine use during the film's production left him in such a fragile state of mind that he barely understood the film. Just a Gigolo (1979), an Anglo-German co-production directed by David Hemmings, saw Bowie in the lead role as Prussian officer Paul von Przygodski, who, returning from World War I, is discovered by a Baroness (Marlene Dietrich) and put into her gigolo stable. The film was a critical and commercial bomb, and Bowie later expressed embarrassment at his role in it.\n\n\n=== 1980s ===\n\nBowie played Joseph Merrick in the Broadway theatre production The Elephant Man, which he undertook wearing no stage make-up, and which earned high praise for his expressive performance. He played the part 157 times between 1980 and 1981. Christiane F. \u2013 We Children from Bahnhof Zoo, a 1981 biographical film focusing on a young girl's drug addiction in West Berlin, featured Bowie in a cameo appearance as himself at a concert in Germany. Its soundtrack album, Christiane F. (1981), featured much material from his Berlin Trilogy albums. In 1982, he starred in the titular role in a BBC adaptation of the Bertolt Brecht play Baal. Bowie portrayed a vampire in Tony Scott's erotic horror film The Hunger (1983), with Catherine Deneuve and Susan Sarandon. In Nagisa Oshima's film the same year, Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence, based on Laurens van der Post's novel The Seed and the Sower, Bowie played Major Jack Celliers, a prisoner of war in a Japanese internment camp. Bowie had a cameo in Yellowbeard, a 1983 pirate comedy created by Monty Python members and directed by Mel Damski.To promote the single \"Blue Jean\", Bowie filmed the 21 minute short film Jazzin' for Blue Jean (1984) with director Julien Temple, and played the dual roles of romantic protagonist Vic and arrogant rock star Screaming Lord Byron. The short won Bowie his only non-posthumous Grammy award. Bowie had a supporting role as hitman Colin in the 1985 John Landis film Into the Night. He declined to play the villain Max Zorin in the James Bond film A View to a Kill (1985). Bowie reteamed with Temple for Absolute Beginners (1986), a rock musical film adapted from Colin MacInnes's book of the same name about life in late 1950s London, in a supporting role as ad man Vendice Partners. The same year, Jim Henson's dark musical fantasy Labyrinth cast him as Jareth, the villainous Goblin King. Despite initial poor box office, the film grew in popularity and became a cult film. Two years later, he played Pontius Pilate in Martin Scorsese's critically acclaimed biblical epic The Last Temptation of Christ (1988).\n\n\n=== 1990s ===\nIn 1991, Bowie reteamed with director John Landis for an episode of the HBO sitcom Dream On and played a disgruntled restaurant employee opposite Rosanna Arquette in The Linguini Incident. Bowie portrayed the mysterious FBI agent Phillip Jeffries in David Lynch's Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me (1992). The prequel to the television series was poorly received at the time of its release, but has since been critically reevaluated. He took a small but pivotal role as his friend Andy Warhol in Basquiat, artist/director Julian Schnabel's 1996 biopic of Jean-Michel Basquiat, another artist he considered a friend and colleague. Bowie co-starred in Giovanni Veronesi's Spaghetti Western Il Mio West (1998, released as Gunslinger's Revenge in the US in 2005) as the most feared gunfighter in the region. He played the aging gangster Bernie in Andrew Goth's Everybody Loves Sunshine (1999, released in the U.S. as B.U.S.T.E.D.), and appeared as the host in the second season of the television horror anthology series The Hunger. Despite having several episodes which focus on vampires and Bowie's involvement, the show had no plot connection to the 1983 film of the same name. In 1999, Bowie voiced two characters in the Sega Dreamcast game Omikron: The Nomad Soul, his only appearance in a video game.\n\n\n=== 2000s and posthumous notes ===\nIn Mr. Rice's Secret (2000), Bowie played the title role as the neighbour of a terminally ill 12-year-old. Bowie appeared as himself in the 2001 Ben Stiller comedy Zoolander, judging a \"walk-off\" between rival male models, and in Eric Idle's 2002 mockumentary The Rutles 2: Can't Buy Me Lunch. In 2005, he filmed a commercial with Snoop Dogg for XM Satellite Radio. Bowie portrayed a fictionalized version of physicist and inventor Nikola Tesla in Christopher Nolan's film The Prestige (2006), which was about the bitter rivalry between two magicians in the late 19th century. Nolan later claimed that Bowie was his only preference to play Tesla, and that he personally appealed to Bowie to take the role after he initially passed. In the same year, he voice-acted in Luc Besson's animated film Arthur and the Invisibles as the powerful villain Maltazard, and appeared as himself in an episode of the Ricky Gervais television series Extras. In 2007, he lent his voice to the character Lord Royal Highness in the SpongeBob's Atlantis SquarePantis television film. In the 2008 film August, directed by Austin Chick, he played a supporting role as Ogilvie, a \"ruthless venture capitalist.\" Bowie's final film appearance was a cameo as himself in the 2009 teen comedy Bandslam.In a 2017 interview with Consequence of Sound, director Denis Villeneuve revealed his intention to cast Bowie in Blade Runner 2049 as the lead villain, Niander Wallace, but when news broke of Bowie's death in January of the same year, Villeneuve was forced to look for talent with similar \"rock star\" qualities. He eventually cast actor and lead singer of Thirty Seconds to Mars, Jared Leto. Talking about the casting process, Villeneuve said: \"Our first thought [for the character] had been David Bowie, who had influenced Blade Runner in many ways. When we learned the sad news, we looked around for someone like that. He [Bowie] embodied the Blade Runner spirit.\". David Lynch also hoped to have Bowie reprise his Fire Walk With Me character for Twin Peaks: The Return but Bowie's illness prevented this. His character was portrayed via archival footage. At Bowie's request, Lynch overdubbed Bowie's original dialogue with a different actor's voice, as Bowie was unhappy with his Cajun accent in the original film.\n\n\n== Other works ==\n\n\n=== Painter and art collector ===\n\nBowie was also a painter and artist. He moved to Switzerland in 1976, purchasing a chalet in the hills to the north of Lake Geneva. In the new environment, his cocaine use decreased and he found time for other pursuits outside his musical career. He devoted more time to his painting, and produced a number of post-modernist pieces. When on tour, he took to sketching in a notebook, and photographing scenes for later reference. Visiting galleries in Geneva and the Br\u00fccke Museum in Berlin, Bowie became, in the words of biographer Christopher Sandford, \"a prolific producer and collector of contemporary art. ... Not only did he become a well-known patron of expressionist art: locked in Clos des M\u00e9sanges he began an intensive self-improvement course in classical music and literature, and started work on an autobiography.\"One of Bowie's paintings sold at auction in late 1990 for $500, and the cover for his 1995 album Outside is a close-up of a self-portrait (from a series of five) he painted that same year.His first solo show was at The Gallery, Cork Street in 1995, entitled New Afro/Pagan and Work: 1975\u20131995. He was invited to join the editorial board of the journal Modern Painters in 1998, and participated in the Nat Tate art hoax later that year.In 1998, during an interview with Michael Kimmelman for The New York Times, he said \"Art was, seriously, the only thing I'd ever wanted to own.\" Subsequently, in a 1999 interview for the BBC, he said \"The only thing I buy obsessively and addictively is art\". His art collection, which included works by Damien Hirst, Derek Boshier, Frank Auerbach, Henry Moore, and Jean-Michel Basquiat among others, was valued at over \u00a310m in mid-2016.After his death, his family decided to sell most of the collection because they \"didn't have the space\" to store it. On 10 and 11 November, three auctions were held at Sotheby's in London, first with 47 lots and second with 208 paintings, drawings, and sculptures, third with 100 design lots. The items on sale represented about 65 percent of the collection. Exhibition of the works in the auction attracted 51,470 visitors, the auction itself was attended by 1,750 bidders, with over 1,000 more bidding online. The auctions has overall sale total \u00a332.9 million (app. $41.5 million), while the highest-selling item, Basquiat's graffiti-inspired painting Air Power, sold for \u00a37.09 million.\n\n\n=== Bowie Bonds ===\n\n\"Bowie Bonds\", the first modern example of celebrity bonds, were asset-backed securities of current and future revenues of the 25 albums (287 songs) that Bowie recorded before 1990. Issued in 1997, the bonds were bought for US$55 million by the Prudential Insurance Company of America. Royalties from the 25 albums generated the cash flow that secured the bonds' interest payments. By forfeiting 10 years worth of royalties, Bowie received a payment of US$55 million up front. Bowie used this income to buy songs owned by his former manager, Tony Defries. The bonds liquidated in 2007 and the rights to the income from the songs reverted to Bowie.\n\n\n=== BowieNet ===\nIn September 1998, Bowie launched an Internet service provider, BowieNet, developed in conjunction with Robert Goodale and Ron Roy. Subscribers to the dial-up service were offered exclusive content as well as a BowieNet email address and Internet access. The service was closed by 2006.\n\n\n== Legacy and influence ==\n\nBowie's songs and stagecraft brought a new dimension to popular music in the early 1970s, strongly influencing both its immediate forms and its subsequent development. Bowie was a pioneer of glam rock, according to music historians Schinder and Schwartz, who credited Bowie and Marc Bolan with creating the genre. At the same time, he inspired the innovators of the punk rock music movement. When punk musicians were \"noisily reclaiming the three-minute pop song in a show of public defiance\", biographer David Buckley wrote that \"Bowie almost completely abandoned traditional rock instrumentation.\" Bowie's record company promoted his unique status in popular music with the slogan, \"There's old wave, there's new wave, and there's David Bowie\".Musicologist James Perone credited Bowie with having \"brought sophistication to rock music\", and critical reviews frequently acknowledged the intellectual depth of his work and influence. The Human League founder Martyn Ware remarked that Bowie lived his life \"as though he were an art installation.\" The BBC's arts editor Will Gompertz likened Bowie to Pablo Picasso, writing that he was \"an innovative, visionary, restless artist who synthesised complex avant garde concepts into beautifully coherent works that touched the hearts and minds of millions\". U2 lead singer Bono commented, \"I like Bowie when he\u2019s evenly pulled in the direction of being a pop star and Picasso, where he's right down the middle. That\u2019s usually my favorite, when the songwriting is disciplined but the recording is not. I love when he's pulled equally in the directions of art and populism.\"Broadcaster John Peel contrasted Bowie with his progressive rock contemporaries, arguing that Bowie was \"an interesting kind of fringe figure... on the outskirts of things\". Peel said he \"liked the idea of him reinventing himself... the one distinguishing feature about early-70s progressive rock was that it didn't progress. Before Bowie came along, people didn't want too much change\". Buckley called the era \"bloated, self-important, leather-clad, self-satisfied\"; then Bowie \"subverted the whole notion of what it was to be a rock star\".\n\nAfter Bowie there has been no other pop icon of his stature, because the pop world that produces these rock gods doesn't exist any more. ... The fierce partisanship of the cult of Bowie was also unique\u2014its influence lasted longer and has been more creative than perhaps almost any other force within pop fandom.\nBuckley called Bowie \"both star and icon. The vast body of work he has produced ... has created perhaps the biggest cult in popular culture. ... His influence has been unique in popular culture\u2014he has permeated and altered more lives than any comparable figure.\"Through continual reinvention, his influence broadened and extended. Biographer Thomas Forget added, \"Because he has succeeded in so many different styles of music, it is almost impossible to find a popular artist today that has not been influenced by David Bowie.\" In 2000, Bowie was voted by other music stars as the \"most influential artist of all time\" in a poll by NME. Alexis Petridis of The Guardian wrote that Bowie was confirmed by 1980 to be \"the most important and influential artist since the Beatles\". Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph stated that Bowie had \"one of the supreme careers in popular music, art and culture of the 20th century\" and \"he was too inventive, too mercurial, too strange for all but his most devoted fans to keep up with\". The BBC's Mark Easton argued that Bowie provided fuel for \"the creative powerhouse that Britain has become\" by challenging future generations \"to aim high, to be ambitious and provocative, to take risks\". Easton concluded that Bowie had \"changed the way the world sees Britain. And the way Britain sees itself\". In 2006, Bowie was voted the fourth greatest living British icon in a poll held by the BBC's Culture Show. Annie Zaleski of Alternative Press wrote, \"Every band or solo artist who's decided to rip up their playbook and start again owes a debt to Bowie\". In 2016, he was dubbed \"The Greatest Rock Star Ever\" by Rolling Stone.Numerous figures from the music industry whose careers Bowie had influenced paid tribute to him following his death; panegyrics on Twitter (tweets about him peaked at 20,000 a minute an hour after the announcement of his death) also came from outside the entertainment industry and pop culture, such as those from the Vatican, namely Cardinal Gianfranco Ravasi, who quoted \"Space Oddity\", and the Federal Foreign Office, which thanked Bowie for his part in the fall of the Berlin Wall and referenced \"Heroes\".Belgian amateur astronomers at the MIRA Public Observatory in conjunction with Studio Brussel created a \"Bowie asterism\" in homage to Bowie in January 2016; it depicts the lightning bolt of Aladdin Sane using the stars Sigma Librae, Spica, Zeta Centauri, SAO 204132, Sigma Octantis, SAO 241641 and Beta Trianguli Australis which were near Mars at the time of Bowie's death.On 7 January 2017, the BBC broadcast the 90-minute documentary David Bowie: The Last Five Years, taking a detailed look at Bowie's last albums, The Next Day and Blackstar, and his play Lazarus. On 8 January 2017, which would have been Bowie's 70th birthday, a charity concert in his birthplace of Brixton was hosted by actor Gary Oldman, a close friend. A David Bowie walking tour through Brixton was also launched, and other events marking his birthday weekend included concerts in New York, Los Angeles, Sydney, and Tokyo.On 6 February 2018, the maiden flight of the SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket carried Elon Musk's personal Tesla Roadster and a mannequin affectionately named Starman into space. \"Space Oddity\" and \"Life on Mars?\" were looping on the car's sound system during the launch.\n\n\n=== David Bowie Is ===\n\nAn exhibition of Bowie artefacts, called David Bowie Is, was organised by the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, and shown there in 2013. The London exhibit was visited by over 300,000 people, making it one of the most successful exhibitions ever staged at the museum. Later that year the exhibition began a world tour which started in Toronto and included stops in Chicago, Paris, Melbourne, Groningen and Brooklyn, New York where the exhibit ended in 2018 at the Brooklyn Museum. The exhibition hosted around 2,000,000 visitors over the entire course of its run.\n\n\n=== Stardust biopic ===\n\nA biopic, Stardust, was announced on 31 January 2019, with musician and actor Johnny Flynn as Bowie, Jena Malone as his wife Angie, and Marc Maron as his publicist. The film follows Bowie on his first trip to the United States in 1971. The film was written by Christopher Bell and directed by Gabriel Range. Bowie's son Duncan Jones spoke out against the film, saying he was not consulted and that the film would not have permission to use Bowie's music. The film was set to premiere at the 2020 Tribeca Film Festival, but the festival was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.\n\n\n== Musicianship ==\n\nFrom the time of his earliest recordings in the 1960s, Bowie employed a wide variety of musical styles. His early compositions and performances were strongly influenced by rock and roll singers like Little Richard and Elvis Presley, and also the wider world of show business. He particularly strove to emulate the British musical theatre singer-songwriter and actor Anthony Newley, whose vocal style he frequently adopted, and made prominent use of for his 1967 debut release, David Bowie (to the disgust of Newley himself, who destroyed the copy he received from Bowie's publisher). Bowie's fascination with music hall continued to surface sporadically alongside such diverse styles as hard rock and heavy metal, soul, psychedelic folk, and pop.Musicologist James Perone observes Bowie's use of octave switches for different repetitions of the same melody, exemplified in his commercial breakthrough single, \"Space Oddity\", and later in the song \"'Heroes'\" to dramatic effect; Perone notes that \"in the lowest part of his vocal register ... his voice has an almost crooner-like richness.\"Voice instructor Jo Thompson describes Bowie's vocal vibrato technique as \"particularly deliberate and distinctive\". Schinder and Schwartz call him \"a vocalist of extraordinary technical ability, able to pitch his singing to particular effect.\" Here, too, as in his stagecraft and songwriting, the singer's role playing is evident: historiographer Michael Campbell says that Bowie's lyrics \"arrest our ear, without question. But Bowie continually shifts from person to person as he delivers them ... His voice changes dramatically from section to section.\" In a 2014 analysis of 77 \"top\" singers' vocal ranges, Bowie was 8th, just behind Christina Aguilera and just ahead of Paul McCartney. In addition to the guitar, Bowie also played a variety of keyboards, including piano, Mellotron, Chamberlin, and synthesisers; harmonica; alto and baritone saxophones; stylophone; viola; cello; koto (in the \"Heroes\" track \"Moss Garden\"); thumb piano; drums (on the Heathen track \"Cactus\"), and various percussion instruments.\n\n\n== Personal life ==\n\n\n=== Early relationships ===\nBowie met dancer Lindsay Kemp in 1967 and enrolled in his dance class at the London Dance Centre. He commented in 1972 that meeting Kemp was when his interest in image \"really blossomed\". \"He lived on his emotions, he was a wonderful influence. His day-to-day life was the most theatrical thing I had ever seen, ever. It was everything I thought Bohemia probably was. I joined the circus.\" In January 1968, Kemp choreographed a dance scene for a BBC play, The Pistol Shot, in the Theatre 625 series, and used Bowie with a dancer, Hermione Farthingale; the pair began dating, and moved into a London flat together. Bowie and Farthingale broke up in early 1969 when she went to Norway to take part in a film, Song of Norway; this affected him, and several songs, such as \"Letter to Hermione\" and \"Life on Mars?\" reference her, and for the video accompanying \"Where Are We Now?\", he wore a T-shirt with the words \"m/s Song of Norway\". They were last together in January 1969 for the filming of Love You till Tuesday, a 30-minute film that was not released until 1984: intended as a promotional vehicle, it featured performances from Bowie's repertoire, including \"Space Oddity\", which had not been released when the film was made.\n\n\n=== Family ===\n\nBowie married his first wife, Mary Angela Barnett, on 19 March 1970 at Bromley Register Office in Bromley, London. They had an open marriage. Angela described their union as a marriage of convenience. \"We got married so that I could [get a permit to] work. I didn't think it would last and David said, before we got married, 'I'm not really in love with you' and I thought that's probably a good thing,\" she said. Bowie said about Angela that \"living with her is like living with a blow torch.\" Their son Duncan, born on 30 May 1971, was at first known as Zowie. Bowie and Angela divorced on 8 February 1980 in Switzerland. Bowie received custody of their son. After the gag order that was part of their divorce agreement ended, Angela wrote, Backstage Passes: Life on the Wild Side with David Bowie, a memoir of their turbulent marriage.On 24 April 1992, Bowie married Somali-American model Iman in a private ceremony in Lausanne. The wedding was later solemnised on 6 June in Florence. They had one daughter, Alexandria \"Lexi\" Zahra Jones, born in August 2000. The couple resided primarily in New York City and London, as well as owning an apartment in Sydney's Elizabeth Bay and Britannia Bay House on the island of Mustique.\n\n\n=== Sexuality ===\nBowie declared himself gay in an interview with Michael Watts for a 1972 issue of Melody Maker, coinciding with his campaign for stardom as Ziggy Stardust. According to Buckley, \"If Ziggy confused both his creator and his audience, a big part of that confusion centred on the topic of sexuality.\" In a September 1976 interview with Playboy, Bowie said, \"It's true\u2014I am a bisexual. But I can't deny that I've used that fact very well. I suppose it's the best thing that ever happened to me.\" His first wife, Angie, supports his claim of bisexuality and alleges that Bowie had a relationship with Mick Jagger.In a 1983 interview with Rolling Stone, Bowie said his public declaration of bisexuality was \"the biggest mistake I ever made\" and \"I was always a closet heterosexual.\" On other occasions, he said his interest in homosexual and bisexual culture had been more a product of the times and the situation in which he found himself than of his own feelings.Blender asked Bowie in 2002 whether he still believed his public declaration was his biggest mistake. After a long pause, he said, \"I don't think it was a mistake in Europe, but it was a lot tougher in America. I had no problem with people knowing I was bisexual. But I had no inclination to hold any banners nor be a representative of any group of people.\" Bowie said he wanted to be a songwriter and performer rather than a headline for his bisexuality, and in \"puritanical\" America, \"I think it stood in the way of so much I wanted to do.\"Buckley wrote that Bowie \"mined sexual intrigue for its ability to shock\", and was probably \"never gay, nor even consistently actively bisexual\", instead experimenting \"out of a sense of curiosity and a genuine allegiance with the 'transgressional'.\" Biographer Christopher Sandford said, according to Mary Finnigan\u2014with whom Bowie had an affair in 1969\u2014the singer and his first wife Angie \"created their bisexual fantasy\". Sandford wrote that Bowie \"made a positive fetish of repeating the quip that he and his wife had met while 'fucking the same bloke' ... Gay sex was always an anecdotal and laughing matter. That Bowie's actual tastes swung the other way is clear from even a partial tally of his affairs with women.\" The BBC's Mark Easton wrote in 2016 that Britain was \"far more tolerant of difference\", and that gay rights (such as same-sex marriage) and gender equality would not have \"enjoyed the broad support they do today without Bowie's androgynous challenge all those years ago\".\n\n\n=== Spirituality and religion ===\nOver the years, Bowie made numerous references to religions and to his evolving spirituality. Beginning in 1967 from the influence of his brother, he became interested in Buddhism and considered becoming a Buddhist monk. After a few months' study at Tibet House in London, he was told by a Lama, \"You don't want to be Buddhist. ... You should follow music.\" By 1975, Bowie admitted, \"I felt totally, absolutely alone. And I probably was alone because I pretty much had abandoned God.\" In his will, Bowie stipulated that he be cremated and his ashes scattered in Bali \"in accordance with the Buddhist rituals\".After Bowie married Iman in a private ceremony in 1992, he said they knew that their \"real marriage, sanctified by God, had to happen in a church in Florence\". Earlier that year, he knelt on stage at The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert and recited the Lord's Prayer before a television audience. In 1993, Bowie said he had an \"undying\" belief in the \"unquestionable\" existence of God. In a separate 1993 interview, while describing the genesis of the music for his album Black Tie White Noise, he said \" \u2026 it was important for me to find something [musically] that also had no sort of representation of institutionalized and organized religion, of which I'm not a believer, I must make that clear.\" Interviewed in 2005, Bowie said whether God exists \"is not a question that can be answered. ... I'm not quite an atheist and it worries me. There's that little bit that holds on: 'Well, I'm almost an atheist. Give me a couple of months. ... I've nearly got it right.'\" He had a tattoo of the Serenity Prayer in Japanese on his left calf.\"Questioning [his] spiritual life [was] always ... germane\" to Bowie's songwriting. The song \"Station to Station\" is \"very much concerned with the Stations of the Cross\"; the song also specifically references Kabbalah. Bowie called the album \"extremely dark ... the nearest album to a magick treatise that I've written\". Earthling showed \"the abiding need in me to vacillate between atheism or a kind of gnosticism ... What I need is to find a balance, spiritually, with the way I live and my demise.\" Released shortly before his death, \"Lazarus\"\u2014from his final album, Blackstar\u2014began with the words, \"Look up here, I'm in Heaven\" while the rest of the album deals with other matters of mysticism and mortality.\n\n\n=== Politics ===\nIn 1976, speaking as The Thin White Duke, Bowie's persona at the time, and \"at least partially tongue-in-cheek\", he made statements that expressed support for fascism and perceived admiration for Adolf Hitler in interviews with Playboy, NME, and a Swedish publication. Bowie was quoted as saying: \"Britain is ready for a fascist leader ... I think Britain could benefit from a fascist leader. After all, fascism is really nationalism... I believe very strongly in fascism, people have always responded with greater efficiency under a regimental leadership.\" He was also quoted as saying: \"Adolf Hitler was one of the first rock stars\" and \"You've got to have an extreme right front come up and sweep everything off its feet and tidy everything up.\" Bowie later retracted these comments in an interview with Melody Maker in October 1977, blaming them on mental instability caused by his drug problems at the time, saying: \"I was out of my mind, totally, completely crazed.\" In the same interview, Bowie described himself as \"apolitical\", stating \"The more I travel and the less sure I am about exactly which political philosophies are commendable. The more government systems I see, the less enticed I am to give my allegiance to any set of people, so it would be disastrous for me to adopt a definitive point of view, or to adopt a party of people and say 'these are my people'.\"In the 1980s and 1990s, Bowie's public statements shifted sharply towards anti-racism and anti-fascism. In an interview with MTV anchor Mark Goodman in 1983, Bowie criticised the channel for not providing enough coverage of Black musicians, becoming visibly uncomfortable when Goodman suggested that the network's fear of backlash from the American Midwest was one reason for such a lack of coverage. The music videos for \"China Girl\" and \"Let's Dance\" were described by Bowie as a \"very simple, very direct\" statement against racism. The album Tin Machine took a more direct stance against fascism and neo-Nazism, and was criticised for being too preachy.At the 2014 Brit Awards on 19 February, Bowie became the oldest recipient of a Brit Award in the ceremony's history when he won the award for British Male Solo Artist, which was collected on his behalf by Kate Moss. His speech read: \"I'm completely delighted to have a Brit for being the best male \u2013 but I am, aren't I Kate? Yes. I think it's a great way to end the day. Thank you very, very much and Scotland stay with us.\" Bowie's reference to the forthcoming September 2014 Scottish independence referendum garnered a significant reaction throughout the UK on social media.In 2016, filmmaker and activist Michael Moore said he had wanted to use \"Panic in Detroit\" for his 1998 documentary The Big One. Denied at first, Moore was given the rights after calling Bowie personally, recalling: \"I've read stuff since his death saying that he wasn't that political and he stayed away from politics. But that wasn't the conversation that I had with him.\"\n\n\n== Death ==\n\nOn 10 January 2016, Bowie died of liver cancer in his New York City apartment. He had been diagnosed 18 months earlier but had not made his condition public. The Belgian theatre director Ivo van Hove, who had worked with the singer on his off-Broadway musical Lazarus, explained that Bowie was unable to attend rehearsals due to the progression of the disease. He noted that Bowie had kept working during the illness.Visconti wrote:\n\nHe always did what he wanted to do. And he wanted to do it his way and he wanted to do it the best way. His death was no different from his life \u2013 a work of art. He made Blackstar for us, his parting gift. I knew for a year this was the way it would be. I wasn't, however, prepared for it. He was an extraordinary man, full of love and life. He will always be with us. For now, it is appropriate to cry.\nFollowing Bowie's death, fans gathered at impromptu street shrines. At the mural of Bowie in his birthplace of Brixton, south London, which shows him in his Aladdin Sane character, fans laid flowers and sang his songs. Other memorial sites included Berlin, Los Angeles, and outside his apartment in New York. After news of his death, sales of his albums and singles soared. Bowie had insisted that he did not want a funeral, and according to his death certificate he was cremated in New Jersey on 12 January. As he wished in his will, his ashes were scattered in a Buddhist ceremony in Bali, Indonesia.\n\n\n== Awards and achievements ==\n\nBowie's 1969 commercial breakthrough, the song \"Space Oddity\", won him an Ivor Novello Special Award For Originality. For his performance in the 1976 science fiction film The Man Who Fell to Earth, he won a Saturn Award for Best Actor. In the ensuing decades he was honoured with numerous awards for his music and its accompanying videos, receiving, among others, six Grammy Awards and four Brit Awards\u2014winning Best British Male Artist twice; the award for Outstanding Contribution to Music in 1996; and the Brits Icon award for his \"lasting impact on British culture\", given posthumously in 2016.In 1999, Bowie was made a Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French government. He received an honorary doctorate from Berklee College of Music the same year. He declined the royal honour of Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 2000, and turned down a knighthood in 2003. Bowie later stated \"I would never have any intention of accepting anything like that. I seriously don't know what it's for. It's not what I spent my life working for.\"\n\nBowie has sold over 100 million records worldwide, making him one of the best-selling music artists. In the United Kingdom, he was awarded 9 platinum, 11 gold, and 8 silver albums, and in the United States, 5 platinum and 9 gold.Five of Bowie's albums appear on Rolling Stone's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. Four of Bowie's songs appear on the Rolling Stone list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. Additionally, four of his songs are included in The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. According to Acclaimed Music, he is the fourth most celebrated artist in popular music history.In the BBC's 2002 poll of the 100 Greatest Britons, he was ranked 29. In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked him 39th on their list of the 100 Greatest Rock Artists of All Time. Bowie was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996. He was inducted into the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame in 2013. In 2016, Rolling Stone proclaimed Bowie \"the greatest rock star ever\".In 2008, the spider Heteropoda davidbowie was named in Bowie's honour. On 5 January 2015, a main-belt asteroid was named 342843 Davidbowie. On 13 January 2016, Belgian amateur astronomers at MIRA Public Observatory created a \"Bowie asterism\" of seven stars which had been in the vicinity of Mars at the time of Bowie's death; the \"constellation\" forms the lightning bolt on Bowie's face from the cover of his Aladdin Sane album.On 25 March 2018, a statue of Bowie was unveiled in Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, the town where he debuted Ziggy Stardust. The statue features a likeness of Bowie in 2002 accompanied with various characters and looks from over his career, with Ziggy stardust at the front.\n\n\n== Discography ==\n\n\n== Filmography ==\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of ambient music artists\nList of artists who reached number one in the United States\nList of artists who reached number one on the US Dance Club Songs chart\nList of Billboard number-one Dance Club songs\nList of Billboard number-one singles\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Sources ===\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nOfficial website \nDavid Bowie \u2013 Sound and Vision BBC Documentary (YouTube), 2003, 1:26 h,\nDavid Bowie at IMDb\nDavid Bowie at the TCM Movie Database\nDavid Bowie at the Internet Broadway Database \nDavid Bowie at Curlie\n\"David Bowie\". Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. \nWorks by or about David Bowie in libraries (WorldCat catalog)\nDavid Bowie National Portrait Gallery", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Audio_a.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Berliner_Gedenktafel_Hauptstr_155_%28Sch%C3%B6n%29_David_Bowie.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Bowie-DD-1974-3.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Bowie_1983_serious_moonlight.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/David-Bowie_Chicago_2002-08-08_photoby_Adam-Bielawski-cropped.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/David_Bowie%27s_Outfits_-_Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame_%282014-12-30_13.09.55_by_Sam_Howzit%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/David_Bowie%27s_Vox_Mark_VI_guitar%2C_HRC_Warsaw.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/David_Bowie_%28135687113%29.jpeg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/David_Bowie_%281967%29.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/David_Bowie_%281987%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/David_Bowie_-_TopPop_1974_08.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/David_Bowie_1976.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/David_Bowie_1997.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/David_Bowie_Death_New_York_Apartment_Memorial_2016_7.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/David_Bowie_and_Cher_1975.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/David_Bowie_holywood.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/David_bowie_05061978_01_150.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Duncan_Jones_and_David_Bowie_at_the_premiere_of_Moon.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/EMP_2015-06_Labrynth.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Hauptstra%C3%9Fe_155_Berlin-Sch%C3%B6neberg.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Heathen_Tour_Bowie_and_Sterling_Campbell.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Iman_and_David_Bowie_at_the_premiere_of_Moon.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Nuvola_LGBT_flag.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Nuvola_apps_package_graphics.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Statue_of_David_Bowie_%28geograph_5942789%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/David-Bowie_Early.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/aa/David_Bowie_-_Heroes.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/51/David_Bowie_-_Ziggy_Stardust.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/David_Bowie_Chile.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/P_vip.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e7/Video-x-generic.svg"], "summary": "David Robert Jones OAL (8 January 1947 \u2013 10 January 2016), known professionally as David Bowie ( BOH-ee), was an English singer-songwriter and actor. A leading figure in the music industry, Bowie is regarded as one of the most influential musicians of the 20th century. He was acclaimed by critics and musicians, particularly for his innovative work during the 1970s. His career was marked by reinvention and visual presentation, with his music and stagecraft having a significant impact on popular music.\nBorn in Brixton, South London, Bowie developed an interest in music as a child. He studied art, music and design before embarking on a professional career as a musician in 1963. \"Space Oddity\", released in 1969, was his first top-five entry on the UK Singles Chart. After a period of experimentation, he re-emerged in 1972 during the glam rock era with his flamboyant and androgynous alter ego Ziggy Stardust. The character was spearheaded by the success of Bowie's single \"Starman\" and album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars, which won him widespread popularity. In 1975, Bowie's style shifted towards a sound he characterised as \"plastic soul\", initially alienating many of his UK fans but garnering him his first major US crossover success with the number-one single \"Fame\" and the album Young Americans. In 1976, Bowie starred in the cult film The Man Who Fell to Earth, directed by Nicolas Roeg, and released Station to Station. In 1977, he further confounded expectations with the electronic-inflected album Low, the first of three collaborations with Brian Eno that came to be known as the \"Berlin Trilogy\". \"Heroes\" (1977) and Lodger (1979) followed; each album reached the UK top five and received lasting critical praise.\nAfter uneven commercial success in the late 1970s, Bowie had UK number ones with the 1980 single \"Ashes to Ashes\", its album Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps), and \"Under Pressure\", a 1981 collaboration with Queen. He reached his commercial peak in 1983 with Let's Dance; its title track topped both the UK and US charts. Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, Bowie continued to experiment with musical styles, including industrial and jungle. He also continued acting; his roles included Major Jack Celliers in Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence (1983), Jareth the Goblin King in Labyrinth (1986), Pontius Pilate in The Last Temptation of Christ (1988), and Nikola Tesla in The Prestige (2006), among other film and television appearances and cameos. He stopped touring after 2004 and his last live performance was at a charity event in 2006. In 2013, Bowie returned from a decade-long recording hiatus with The Next Day. He remained musically active until his death from liver cancer at his home in New York City, two days after his 69th birthday and the release of his final album, Blackstar (2016).\nDuring his lifetime, his record sales, estimated at over 100 million records worldwide, made him one of the best-selling music artists of all time. In the UK, he was awarded ten platinum album certifications, eleven gold and eight silver, and released eleven number-one albums. In the US, he received five platinum and nine gold certifications. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996. Rolling Stone placed him among its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time and named him the \"Greatest Rock Star Ever\" after his death in 2016.\n\n"}, "Denis_Villeneuve": {"links": ["Doctor Who", "Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences", "District nine", "Deepa Mehta", "Andrew Stanton", "Collider ", "Howl's Moving Castle ", "Universit\u00e9 du Qu\u00e9bec \u00e0 Montr\u00e9al", "Enemy ", "Terminator two: Judgment Day", "Philippe Falardeau", "Maelstr\u00f6m ", "Micheline Lanct\u00f4t", "Broadcast Film Critics Association", "Jean-Claude Lauzon", "Timoth\u00e9e Chalamet", "French Canadians", "Whenever You're Ready ", "Beno\u00eet Pilon", "Yuri Rasovsky", "The Doctor's Wife", "Jean Beaudin", "The Globe and Mail", "Ted Chiang", "Michel Brault", "Toronto International Film Festival", "S\u00e9minaire Saint-Joseph de Trois-Rivi\u00e8res", "twond Canadian Screen Awards", "Gene Wilder", "Xavier Dolan", "Inception", "Pan's Labyrinth", "Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse", "Academy Award for Best Picture", "Dune ", "M. 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Greenberg", "Guardians of the Galaxy ", "Paul Almond", "The Numbers ", "David Cronenberg", "Film producer", "Eric Roth", "George Miller ", "Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television Award for Best Achievement in Editing", "The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers", "Warner Bros.", "Gravity ", "Philippa Boyens", "Thrillers", "Lenny Abrahamson", "The Sixth Sense", "Toronto International Film Festival Award for Best Canadian Film", "Dennis Villanueva", "Crime thriller", "James Gunn", "twenty eighteen Cannes Film Festival", "August thirty-twond on Earth", "Un Certain Regard", "Jo Nesb\u00f8", "Communication with extraterrestrial intelligence", "Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay", "nineteen ninety-eight Cannes Film Festival", "Amy Adams", "Harvey Hart", "Jim Reardon", "Pete Docter", "Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television Award for Best Achievement in Cinematography", "Nebula Award for Best Script"], "content": "Denis Villeneuve  (French: [d\u0259ni viln\u0153v]; born October 3, 1967) is a French Canadian film director, producer, and screenwriter. He is a four-time recipient of the Canadian Screen Award (formerly Genie Award) for Best Direction, for Maelstr\u00f6m in 2001, Polytechnique in 2009, Incendies in 2010 and Enemy in 2013. The first three of these films also won the Canadian Screen Award for Best Motion Picture, while the latter was awarded the prize for best Canadian film of the year by the Toronto Film Critics Association.\nInternationally, he is known for directing several critically acclaimed films, including the thrillers Prisoners (2013) and Sicario (2015), as well as the science fiction films Arrival (2016) and Blade Runner 2049 (2017). For his work on Arrival, he received an Academy Award nomination for Best Director. He was awarded the prize of Director of the Decade by the Hollywood Critics Association in December 2019.His next film, Dune, based on Frank Herbert's novel of the same name, is scheduled to be released on October 22, 2021.\n\n\n== Early life ==\nVilleneuve was born on October 3, 1967, in the village of Gentilly in B\u00e9cancour, Quebec, to Nicole Demers, a homemaker, and Jean Villeneuve, a notary. He is the eldest of four siblings. His younger brother, Martin, also became a filmmaker.Villeneuve attended the S\u00e9minaire Saint-Joseph de Trois-Rivi\u00e8res and later studied science at the C\u00e9gep de Trois-Rivi\u00e8res. He studied cinema at the Universit\u00e9 du Qu\u00e9bec \u00e0 Montr\u00e9al.\n\n\n== Career ==\nVilleneuve began his career making short films and won Radio-Canada's youth film competition, La Course Europe-Asie, in 1991.August 32nd on Earth (1998), Villeneuve's feature film directorial debut, premiered in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival. Alexis Martin won the Prix Jutra for Best Actor. The film was selected as the Canadian entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 71st Academy Awards, but was not nominated.His second film, Maelstr\u00f6m (2000), attracted further attention and screened at festivals worldwide, ultimately winning eight Jutra Awards and the award for Best Canadian Film from the Toronto International Film Festival. He followed that up with the controversial, but critically acclaimed black and white film Polytechnique (2009) about the shootings that occurred at the Montreal university. The film premiered at the Cannes Film Festival and received numerous honours, including nine Genie Awards, becoming Villeneuve's first film to win the Genie (now known as a Canadian Screen Award) for Best Motion Picture.\n\nVilleneuve's fourth film Incendies (2010) garnered critical acclaim when it premiered at the Venice and Toronto International Film Festivals in 2010. Incendies was subsequently chosen to represent Canada at the 83rd Academy Awards in the category of Best Foreign Language Film and was eventually nominated for the award, though it did not win. The film went on to win eight awards at the 31st Genie Awards, including Best Motion Picture, Best Direction, Best Actress (Lubna Azabal), Best Adapted Screenplay, Cinematography, Editing, Overall Sound, and Sound Editing. Incendies was chosen by The New York Times as one of the top 10 best films of that year.In January 2011, he was selected by Variety as one of the top ten filmmakers to watch. Also in 2011, Villeneuve won the National Arts Centre Award.Villeneuve followed Incendies with the crime thriller film Prisoners, starring Hugh Jackman and Jake Gyllenhaal. The film screened at festivals across the globe, won several awards, and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Cinematography in 2014.Following Incendies and Prisoners, Villeneuve won Best Director for his sixth film, the psychological thriller Enemy (2014), at the 2nd Canadian Screen Awards. The film was awarded the $100,000 cash prize for best Canadian film of the year by the Toronto Film Critics Association in 2015.Later that year, Villeneuve directed the crime thriller film Sicario, scripted by Taylor Sheridan, and starring Emily Blunt, Benicio del Toro, Daniel Kaluuya, and Josh Brolin. The film competed for the Palme d'Or at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival, though it did not win. It screened at the Toronto International Film Festival in 2015 and went on to gross nearly $80 million worldwide.Villeneuve subsequently directed his eighth film, Arrival (2016), based on the short story Story of Your Life by author Ted Chiang, from an adapted script by Eric Heisserer, with Amy Adams and Jeremy Renner starring. Principal photography began on June 7, 2015 in Montreal, and the film was released in 2016. Arrival grossed $203 million worldwide and received critical acclaim, specifically for Adams's performance, Villeneuve's direction, and the film's exploration of communicating with extraterrestrial intelligence. Arrival appeared on numerous critics' best films of the year lists, and was selected by the American Film Institute as one of ten films of the year. It received eight nominations at the 89th Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Adapted Screenplay, ultimately winning one award for Best Sound Editing. It was also awarded the Ray Bradbury Award for Outstanding Dramatic Presentation and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation in 2017.In February 2015, it was announced that Villeneuve would direct Blade Runner 2049, the sequel to Ridley Scott's Blade Runner (1982). Scott served as the film's executive producer on behalf of Warner Bros. It was released on October 6, 2017 to critical acclaim and middling box office returns. David Ehrlich of IndieWire wrote, \"Few filmmakers of the 21st century have risen to prominence and prestige with the forcefulness of Blade Runner 2049 director Denis Villeneuve, whose seemingly unstoppable career has been bolstered by a steady balance of critical respect and commercial success. In fact, Christopher Nolan is the only other person who comes to mind, and the similarities between the two of them are hard to ignore.\"In December 2016, it was announced Villeneuve would direct Dune, a new adaption of the 1965 novel for Legendary Pictures with Villeneuve, Eric Roth, and Jon Spaihts writing the screenplay. Timoth\u00e9e Chalamet, Rebecca Ferguson, Oscar Isaac and Zendaya will star in the film. It is scheduled to be released on October 22, 2021, by Warner Bros. Pictures. Additionally, Villeneuve will serve as an executive producer and direct the first episode of Dune: The Sisterhood, a spin-off television series focusing on the female characters in the novel, for HBO Max.Villeneuve is set to direct the adaptation of Jo Nesb\u00f8's crime novel The Son, which will star Jake Gyllenhaal and will be an HBO Max limited series.\n\n\n== Personal life ==\nVilleneuve is married to Tanya Lapointe, a journalist and filmmaker, and he has three children from a previous relationship. His younger brother, Martin Villeneuve, is also a filmmaker.\n\n\n== Filmography ==\n\n\n=== Feature films ===\n\n\n=== Short films ===\n\n\n=== Television ===\n\n\n== Reception ==\nCritical, public and commercial reception to Villeneuve's directorial features.\n\n\n== Accolades ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nDenis Villeneuve at IMDb", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Cannes_2015_24.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Denis_Villeneuve_Cannes_2015.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Denis_Villeneuve_Cannes_2018.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "Denis Villeneuve  (French: [d\u0259ni viln\u0153v]; born October 3, 1967) is a French Canadian film director, producer, and screenwriter. He is a four-time recipient of the Canadian Screen Award (formerly Genie Award) for Best Direction, for Maelstr\u00f6m in 2001, Polytechnique in 2009, Incendies in 2010 and Enemy in 2013. The first three of these films also won the Canadian Screen Award for Best Motion Picture, while the latter was awarded the prize for best Canadian film of the year by the Toronto Film Critics Association.\nInternationally, he is known for directing several critically acclaimed films, including the thrillers Prisoners (2013) and Sicario (2015), as well as the science fiction films Arrival (2016) and Blade Runner 2049 (2017). For his work on Arrival, he received an Academy Award nomination for Best Director. He was awarded the prize of Director of the Decade by the Hollywood Critics Association in December 2019.His next film, Dune, based on Frank Herbert's novel of the same name, is scheduled to be released on October 22, 2021."}, "Eric_Heisserer": {"links": ["Soylent Green", "Noah Baumbach", "Anne Spielberg", "Denne Bart Petitclerc", "Simon Beaufoy", "Jason Reitman", "Alfred Uhry", "Ernest Tidyman", "Alfonso Cuar\u00f3n", "Terri Tatchell", "Charles Randolph", "Ruth Prawer Jhabvala", "Samuel Bayer", "Damien Chazelle", "Phyllis Nagy", "Babylon five", "Phil Lord and Christopher Miller", "Charlie Kaufman", "Jimmy Sangster", "The Grisha Trilogy", "The Sixth Sense", "The Conjuring two", "Curtis Hanson", "Alexander Dinelaris Jr.", "Ted Tally", "Michael Tolkin", "Ring Lardner Jr.", "Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Adapted Screenplay", "J. J. Abrams", "George Miller ", "Coen brothers", "Bernard Slade", "William Goldman", "Larry McMurtry", "David Seidler", "Jim Sheridan", "David Zucker", "Ted Chiang", "Jerzy Kosi\u0144ski", "Elaine May", "Michael Dougherty", "Creepypasta", "Jon Cohen ", "Final Destination ", "Frank Darabont", "Brendan McCarthy", "Emma Donoghue", "Spike Jonze", "Rodney Rothman", "Writers Guild of America Award for Best Adapted Screenplay", "Blake Edwards", "Inception", "Josh Malerman", "Jerry Bruckheimer", "Hossein Amini", "Mike Werb", "Chlo\u00e9 Zhao", "Gillian Flynn", "Waldo Salt", "Costa-Gavras", "Robert Benton", "Donald E. Stewart", "Bloodshot ", "Nick Hornby", "Steve Martin", "Emerald Fennell", "Christine Boylan", "Lawrence Kasdan", "Oliver Stone", "two thousandX", "Norman Wexler", "Jon\u00e1s Cuar\u00f3n", "George Lucas", "Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Adapted Screenplay", "David Hare ", "IMDb", "VIAF ", "Wesley Strick", "Guillermo del Toro", "Paramount Pictures", "eighty-nineth Academy Awards", "Dan Harris ", "Paul Haggis", "John Krasinski", "Brad Bird", "Frank Waldman", "Tony Kushner", "Your Name", "Robert Gordon ", "Peter Jackson", "Warren Beatty", "San Francisco Bay Area Film Critics Circle Award for Best Adapted Screenplay", "Richard Condon", "Jackie Earle Haley", "Mel Brooks", "Stephen Gaghan", "Hours ", "J. Michael Straczynski", "Paul Thomas Anderson", "Good Omens ", "Lucy Alibar", "Regency Enterprises", "Shari Springer Berman and Robert Pulcini", "Philippa Boyens", "Arrival ", "Dan Futterman", "SUDOC ", "A Nightmare on Elm Street ", "David Koepp", "Galaxy Quest", "Rian Johnson", "Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Screenplay", "Shadow and Bone ", "Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay", "Akiva Goldsman", "Greta Gerwig", "Graham Moore ", "Film director", "Denis Villeneuve", "Peter Morgan", "Kevin Willmott", "Pan's Labyrinth", "Alvin Sargent", "Andrew Niccol", "Howl's Moving Castle ", "Melissa Mathison", "Peter Baynham", "James Gunn", "Jordan Peele", "Neil Gaiman", "Saturn Award for Best Writing", "William Peter Blatty", "Sarah Polley", "Diana Ossana", "Wayback Machine", "Sacha Baron Cohen", "John Ajvide Lindqvist", "Brian Helgeland", "Neil Simon", "Star Wars ", "BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay", "Julius J. Epstein", "William Monahan", "Michael Colleary", "Jeff Wadlow", "Nicole Perlman", "Aaron Sorkin", "Jim Rash", "Ernest Thompson", "Billy Bob Thornton", "Kevin Williamson ", "Beasts of the Southern Wild", "Michael Arndt", "Barry Jenkins", "The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring", "Film producer", "Emma Thompson", "David S. Goyer", "Stanley R. Greenberg", "Jeff Nichols", "Gale Anne Hurd", "Netflix", "Warner Bros.", "Agnosticism", "James Cameron", "Sleeper ", "Steven Zaillian", "Pete Docter", "James L. Brooks", "Anthony Minghella", "Alan Ball ", "Bryan Woods", "Whenever You're Ready ", "Michael Schur", "Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse", "Paul Walker", "The Doctor's Wife", "Nicholas Meyer", "Eric Roth", "Susanne Bier", "Benh Zeitlin", "Tom McCarthy ", "Deadline Hollywood", "Jonathan Raymond", "Platinum Dunes", "Alejandro Gonz\u00e1lez I\u00f1\u00e1rritu", "Jay Presson Allen", "John Carpenter", "Scott Frank", "Ib Melchior", "Horror films", "Michael Blake ", "Lights Out ", "Peter Straughan", "Jim Harrison", "Diablo Cody", "Dan Mazer", "Nebula Award for Best Script", "Jeff Whitty", "Guardians of the Galaxy ", "Edward Neumeier", "Billy Ray ", "Yuri Rasovsky", "Neill Blomkamp", "Norman, Oklahoma", "Christopher Nolan", "Kelly Reichardt", "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon", "Lionel Chetwynd", "Francis Ford Coppola", "Spike Lee", "Gravity ", "Terminator two: Judgment Day", "Hayao Miyazaki", "Gary Ross", "Chris Terrio", "Stephen Sinclair", "M. Night Shyamalan", "Ray Bradbury Award", "The Thing ", "Todd Field", "Mad Max: Fury Road", "Nat Faxon", "Andrew Kevin Walker", "Tom Holland ", "Jim Reardon", "Sandra Bullock", "Christopher Hampton", "Robert Anderson ", "Andrew Stanton", "Matt Damon", "Kenneth Lonergan", "Gene Wilder", "Tom Perrotta", "Jonathan Nolan", "Adam McKay", "Paul Schrader", "Michael Crichton", "James Ivory", "James Schamus", "Joss Whedon", "The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King", "Dan Swimer", "District nine", "Young Frankenstein", "Jim Taylor ", "James V. Hart", "Mordecai Richler", "Bruce Robinson", "Get Out", "Screenwriter", "Lee Isaac Chung", "John Ridley", "Larry Gelbart", "Tom Stoppard", "Fran Walsh", "David O. Russell", "Scott Smith ", "Scott Beck", "Epistolary novel", "Serenity ", "ISNI ", "Carey Hayes", "Alexander Payne", "Emily V. Gordon", "Quentin Tarantino", "Prequel", "Ray Bradbury", "Woody Allen", "Kirsten Sheridan", "Best Adapted Screenplay", "John Paxton", "The New York Times", "Stan Chervin", "Mark Fergus and Hawk Ostby", "Chad Hayes ", "Final Destination five", "Harlan Ellison", "Wes Anderson", "Mario Puzo", "Ben Affleck", "Bo Goldman", "Robert Moresco", "Josh Singer", "Arnold Schulman", "Armando B\u00f3 ", "WALL-E", "Nicol\u00e1s Giacobone", "Jerry Zucker", "Lawrence Hauben", "Bird Box ", "Liking What You See: A Documentary", "David Hayter", "Jena Friedman", "Six of Crows", "Cameron Crowe", "Taika Waititi", "Marc Norman", "Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Adapted Screenplay", "Virgil Williams", "Nico Lathouris", "Bridget O'Connor", "Nicole Holofcener", "The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers", "CBS", "Bloody Disgusting", "Sheldon Turner", "Richard Clark ", "Steven Spielberg", "The Good Place", "Dee Rees", "Jim Abrahams", "Doctor Who", "Austin Film Critics Association Award for Best Adapted Screenplay"], "content": "Eric Andrew Heisserer (born 1970) is an American screenwriter and comic book writer. His screenplay for the film Arrival earned him a Best Adapted Screenplay nomination at the 89th Academy Awards in 2016.\nHe also wrote the horror films A Nightmare on Elm Street (2010 remake), Final Destination 5, The Thing (2011 prequel film), Lights Out and Bird Box, and wrote and directed Hours with Paul Walker.\n\n\n== Career ==\nHeisserer's professional screenwriting career was launched with the sale of The Dionaea House to Warner Bros. in 2005, based on an online epistolary story of the same name that he wrote from autumn 2004 to winter 2006. The Dionaea House was a multimedia novel told across multiple blogs run by fictional characters, and concerned an ominous house that existed in multiple places across the United States. It is considered to be one of the first popular creepypasta stories.  He then developed an original television pilot for Paramount Pictures and CBS, and wrote feature projects for Jerry Bruckheimer Films and Warner Bros.. In 2007, he sold a pitch to Regency Enterprises and Fox called Inhuman, a supernatural thriller set in Tokyo that combines live action and anime sequences.In December 2008, Heisserer was hired to re-envision and rewrite the script for the franchise reboot of A Nightmare on Elm Street, produced by Platinum Dunes. An early draft had been written by Wesley Strick. The script went on to land director Samuel Bayer, actor Jackie Earle Haley, and began filming in May 2009.He rewrote the prequel to director John Carpenter's 1982 remake The Thing. In April 2010, Heisserer signed on to write Final Destination 5, the fifth film of the horror film franchise.\nHeisserer made his directorial debut with the film Hours, starring Paul Walker. Heisserer co-wrote The Conjuring 2 along with the brothers Chad Hayes and Carey Hayes. Heisserer wrote along with artist Felipe Massafera and Colorist Wes Dzioba, the comic book series Shaper.Heisserer wrote the 2016 film Arrival based on Ted Chiang's short story \"The Story of Your Life\". Heisserer has said that he was attracted to the challenge of adapting the non-linear story by its emotional content. After the release of the film, he was nominated for Best Adapted Screenplay at the 89th Academy Awards.\nIn July 2017, Heisserer announced that he was developing a science fiction series based on another Ted Chiang's story, \"Liking What You See: A Documentary\", for AMC. The series will explore concepts such as beauty, relationships, and advertising.On 27 September 2017, there was an announcement that Heisserer would write the script for the live-action remake of the sci-fi romance anime Your Name. By September 2020, he was replaced by Lee Isaac Chung and Emily V. Gordon.Heisserer wrote the script for Bird Box (2018), based on the thriller book Bird Box, by Josh Malerman. Released by Netflix, the film stars Sandra Bullock and was directed by Susanne Bier.Heisserer is serving as creator, head writer, show runner, and executive producer of the 2021 Netflix series Shadow and Bone, an adaptation of the fantasy book series The Grisha Trilogy and the Six of Crows Duology.\n\n\n== Personal life ==\nHeisserer is the son of Margaret L., a senior editor for a publishing company, and Andrew J. Heisserer, a professor of ancient history, of Norman, Oklahoma. Heisserer married television producer/writer Christine Boylan in 2010. His previous marriage ended in divorce.Heisserer identifies as agnostic.\n\n\n== Filmography ==\n\n\n=== Film ===\n\n\n=== Television ===\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nEric Heisserer at IMDb", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Eric_heisserer_2021_1.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "Eric Andrew Heisserer (born 1970) is an American screenwriter and comic book writer. His screenplay for the film Arrival earned him a Best Adapted Screenplay nomination at the 89th Academy Awards in 2016.\nHe also wrote the horror films A Nightmare on Elm Street (2010 remake), Final Destination 5, The Thing (2011 prequel film), Lights Out and Bird Box, and wrote and directed Hours with Paul Walker."}, "Hours_": {"links": ["Time signature", "Eon ", "Age ", "Bishopstone, East Sussex", "Sothic cycle", "Egyptian intercalary month", "Sinosphere", "Marine sandglass", "Blue hour", "Pyramid Texts", "Chinese calendar", "Katal", "Decibel", "Geologic time scale", "Calendar", "Lumen ", "Proto-Indo-European", "French Revolution", "Volt", "Sidereal time", "Egyptian lunar calendar", "Future", "Greek Orthodox Church", "Gregorian calendar", "Sermon", "Month", "History of timekeeping devices", "Horsepower-hour", "Late Antiquity", "Marine chronometer", "Noon", "Minute and second of arc", "Tonne", "Orders of magnitude ", "Olympiad", "Al-Biruni", "Robert Scott ", "Present", "Ancient China", "Epact", "Time capsule", "Hour ", "Chronobiology", "Meridian ", "Relative hour", "Theory of relativity", "Celestial equator", "Tesla ", "Rosy retrospection", "Nuclear timescale", "Course ", "Hourglass", "Vespers", "Philosophical presentism", "Employment", "French language", "Sundial", "Time translation symmetry", "Root ", "Saeculum", "Angelus", "Periodization", "Italy", "Karnak", "Su Song", "Astronomical year numbering", "Steradian", "Gong", "Part-time job", "Earth's rotation", "Egyptian underworld", "Sunset", "Origen", "Past", "Egyptian New Kingdom", "Nautical mile", "Time metrology", "Eternalism ", "Indoor air quality", "Kilowatt-hour", "Litre", "Decimal time", "Truck driver", "Ohm", "Units accepted for use with SI", "International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service", "Astronomical unit", "Candela", "Falstaff ", "Linguistic reconstruction", "Halakha", "Lord's Prayer", "Time zone", "Leap second", "Gravitational time dilation", "Wage labor", "Science", "Verdi", "Solar calendar", "Vatican II", "Compline", "Midnight", "Destiny", "Julian Date", "Egyptian civil calendar", "Hexadecimal time", "Mass flow", "Forum ", "Cambridge, England", "Vedas", "Galactic year", "Heliacal rising", "Hipparchus", "Astronomy", "Old French", "Maghrib", "British Museum", "Farad", "Tempus fugit", "Barycentric Coordinate Time", "ISO 3one-one", "Orloj", "List of calendars", "Names of the days of the week", "UTC offset", "Glottochronology", "Pound per hour", "twelve-hour clock", "Decade", "Equation of time", "Precession", "Time travel", "Geocentric Coordinate Time", "Becquerel", "Degree ", "twenty nineteen redefinition of the SI base units", "Jupiter", "History of sundials", "Hours of service", "Ancient Near East", "Clock", "Event ", "Horologion", "Doi ", "Dynasty V", "Chinese language", "Beijing", "Shake ", "Temporal parts", "Sievert", "Prime meridian", "Church bell", "Stopwatch", "F. Richard Stephenson", "Second", "Time geography", "Non-SI units mentioned in the SI", "Barycentric Dynamical Time", "Lustrum", "Big History", "Spacetime", "Solar Hijri calendar", "Un ballo in maschera", "Book of Yuan", "Radio clock", "Passengers per hour per direction", "Cobra", "Static interpretation of time", "International Commission on Stratigraphy", "Rush hour", "Yesterday ", "Time discipline", "Metre", "Andronicus of Cyrrhus", "Century", "Dialing scales", "Hour circle", "Coffin", "Day", "Gray ", "Calendar era", "Earth", "Egyptian hieroglyphs", "Ages of Man", "Quantum clock", "Space", "Time standard", "Simplified characters", "Deep time", "Ayutthaya Kingdom", "Continuous signal", "Liturgy of the Hours", "Nonnus", "Hindu calendar", "Moment ", "Ming dynasty", "Thailand", "Tide dial", "The Unreality of Time", "Wheel of time", "Clement of Alexandria", "International System of Units", "Pascal ", "Era ", "Horae", "System of measurement", "Pope Paul VI", "Horology", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Terrestrial Time", "Greenwich Mean Time", "Public transport", "K\u0101la", "Tower of the Winds", "Chronology", "Epoch ", "Wadjet", "The Dreaming", "Daylight saving time", "Bibcode ", "Sexagesima Sunday", "Astrolabe", "Perdurantism", "Ancient Greek", "Water clock", "History of timekeeping devices in Egypt", "Samvatsara", "Tang dynasty", "Pinyin", "Regnal year", "Second Temple Judaism", "Hour record", "Ampere hour", "Cambridge, Massachusetts", "Working hours", "SI derived unit", "Prehistoric China", "2005\u2013twenty nineteen definitions of the SI base units", "Lunar calendar", "Vigil", "Conversion of units", "New Kingdom", "ISO eighty-six oh-one", "UTone", "Night", "Universal Time", "one eightyth meridian", "Astrarium", "Tense\u2013aspect\u2013mood", "Memory", "Time value of money", "Hour angle", "Sinhalese people", "Neper", "Jiffy ", "Tempo", "Metrology", "Lauds", "Air changes per hour", "British thermal unit", "Ancient Egypt", "Chronon", "Church Fathers", "Lux", "Millennium", "Astronomical clock", "Asterism ", "Traditional characters", "St mark's clock", "Matins", "Electrochemistry", "Coulomb", "Determination of the day of the week", "Latin", "Shuowen Jiezi", "Time perception", "Old Chinese", "Laos", "Islamic calendar", "Kaifeng", "Mile per hour", "Radian", "Electrical charge", "History of Song ", "Tidal deceleration", "Flick ", "Mean solar time", "Minute", "Eternity", "Sacrobosco", "Watch", "Endurantism", "Chronometry", "Sidereal day", "DUTone", "Happy hour", "Knot ", "Arrow of time", "Full-time job", "Bohemia", "Astronomical chronology", "Schema for horizontal dials", "Geochronology", "Solar day", "Electric power industry", "Amenhotep III", "Public domain", "Italian six-hour clock", "Year", "two thousand and five\u20132019 definitions of the SI base units", "Thai six-hour clock", "Lunisolar calendar", "Pendulum", "Complication ", "Henry Liddell", "Western Han", "Terce", "Ancient Japan", "Local church", "Poland", "Geology", "Latitude", "Time and fate deities", "Digital clock", "Yellow Emperor", "Timekeeper", "Chinese zodiac", "Book of Han", "Marshall Clagett", "Didache", "Geological period", "Philosophy of space and time", "Metre per hour", "Credit hour", "Middle English", "Mole ", "Time dilation", "Mean solar day", "Equinox", "Tertullian", "Ra ", "Determinative", "Duration ", "Time immemorial", "Hectare", "Civil time", "Labor movement", "List of Chinese dynasties", "Time", "Cosmological decade", "Beijing Drum Tower", "Celsius", "Anglo-Norman language", "Sunrise", "Egyptian calendar", "International Date Line", "Latin language", "Borrowing ", "Eternal return", "Three Kingdoms", "Metric prefix", "Watt", "Mechanical watch", "Weber ", "Timeline", "Book of Sui", "Traditional Chinese timekeeping", "Prime ", "Tropical year", "Moon", "Generation time", "University of Chicago Press", "Circadian rhythm", "Babylonian astronomy", "Julian calendar", "Decans", "Chronocentrism", "Summer", "Kilogram", "Cambodia", "Eastern Han Dynasty", "Eight-hour day", "Metric symbol", "Geological history of Earth", "Discrete time and continuous time", "Atomic mass unit", "Coordinated Universal Time", "Kelvin", "Nones ", "Earthly branches", "Fortnight", "Kalachakra", "Uraeus", "System time", "Unit of measurement", "Unit of time", "Calendrical Calculations", "Sext", "ISO thirty-one-1", "Atet", "Hertz", "Siemens ", "Ephemeris time", "Kilometres per hour", "Early Christianity", "Puranas", "B-theory of time", "Chronemics", "Chronozone", "Henry ", "Newton ", "Week", "Temporal finitism", "Chemical clock", "Sussex", "Imperial China", "Yuan Dynasty", "Man-hour", "A series and B series", "twenty-four-hour clock", "Atomic clock", "Cycling", "International Atomic Time", "zero\u00b0 longitude", "Solar time", "Cuckoo clock", "Timeline of time measurement inventions", "Cognate ", "French Indochina", "Ampere", "Ecliptic", "\u0394T ", "French Revolutionary units", "ISBN ", "Hebrew calendar", "Dynasty IX", "Midnight office", "Opera", "Equatorial coordinate system", "SI base unit", "Chronological dating", "Proper time", "Time-use research", "Time domain", "Richard Anthony Parker", "Catholic Church", "Dominical letter", "History", "Leap year", "Time management", "Holocene calendar", "Joule", "Electronvolt", "Salary", "StwoCID ", "Hellenistic period", "King Chulalongkorn", "Absolute space and time", "Drum", "Islamic", "Time in physics", "Solstice", "Father Time", "Maya calendar", "Metric system", "Metric time", "Season", "T-symmetry", "Intercalation ", "Rigoletto", "Canonical hours", "Drivers' working hours", "Coordinate time", "Hindu units of time", "Grandfather clock", "Mental chronometry", "Golden Hour ", "Tomorrow ", "Daytime"], "content": "An hour (symbol: h; also abbreviated hr) is a unit of time conventionally reckoned as 1\u204424 of a day and scientifically reckoned as 3,599\u20133,601 seconds, depending on conditions. There are 60 minutes in an hour, and 24 hours in a day.\nThe hour was initially established in the ancient Near East as a variable measure of 1\u204412 of the night or daytime. Such seasonal, temporal, or unequal hours varied by season and latitude.\nEqual or equinoctial hours were taken as 1\u204424 of the day as measured from noon to noon; the minor seasonal variations of this unit were eventually smoothed by making it 1\u204424 of the mean solar day. Since this unit was not constant due to long term variations in the Earth's rotation, the hour was finally separated from the Earth's rotation and defined in terms of the atomic or physical second.\nIn the modern metric system, hours are an accepted unit of time defined as 3,600 atomic seconds. However, on rare occasions an hour may incorporate a positive or negative leap second, making it last 3,599 or 3,601 seconds, in order to keep it within 0.9 seconds of UT1, which is based on measurements of the mean solar day.\n\n\n== Name ==\nHour is a development of the Anglo-Norman houre and Middle English ure, first attested in the 13th century.It displaced tide t\u012bd, \"time\" and stound stund, span of time. The Anglo-Norman term was a borrowing of Old French ure, a variant of ore, which derived from Latin h\u014dra and Greek h\u1e53r\u0101 (\u1f65\u03c1\u03b1).\nLike Old English t\u012bd and stund, h\u1e53r\u0101 was originally a vaguer word for any span of time, including seasons and years. Its Proto-Indo-European root has been reconstructed as *yeh\u2081- (\"year, summer\"), making hour distantly cognate with year.\nThe time of day is typically expressed in English in terms of hours. Whole hours on a 12-hour clock are expressed using the contracted phrase o'clock, from the older of clock. (10 am and 10 pm are both read as \"ten o'clock\".)\nHours on a 24-hour clock (\"military time\") are expressed as \"hundred\" or \"hundred hours\". (1000 is read \"ten hundred\" or \"ten hundred hours\"; 10 pm would be \"twenty-two hundred\".)\nFifteen and thirty minutes past the hour is expressed as \"a quarter past\" or \"after\" and \"half past\", respectively, from their fraction of the hour. Fifteen minutes before the hour may be expressed as \"a quarter to\", \"of\", \"till\", or \"before\" the hour. (9:45 may be read \"nine forty-five\" or \"a quarter till ten\".)\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Antiquity ===\n\nThe Greeks kept time differently than we do. Instead of dividing the time between one midnight and the next into 24 equal hours, they divided the time from sunrise to sunset into 12 \"seasonal hours\" (their actual duration depending on season), and the time from sunset to the next sunrise again in 12 \"seasonal hours\". Initially, only the day was divided into 12 seasonal hours and the night into 3\nor 4 night watches.\nBy the Hellenistic period the night was also divided into 12 hours. The day-and-night (\u03bd\u03c5\u03c7\u03b8\u03ae\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd) was probably first divided into twenty-four hours by Hipparchus of Nicaea. The Greek astronomer Andronicus of Cyrrhus oversaw the construction of a horologion called the Tower of the Winds in Athens during the first century BCE. This structure tracked a 24-hour day using both sundials and mechanical hour indicators.The canonical hours were introduced to early Christianity  from Second Temple Judaism.\nBy AD 60, the Didache recommends disciples to pray the Lord's Prayer three times a day; this practice found its way into the canonical hours as well. By the second and third centuries, such Church Fathers as Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Tertullian wrote of the practice of Morning and Evening Prayer, and of the prayers at the third, sixth and ninth hours.\nIn the early church, during the night before every feast, a vigil was kept. The word \"Vigils\", at first applied to the Night Office, comes from a Latin source, namely the Vigiliae or nocturnal watches or guards of the soldiers. The night from six o'clock in the evening to six o'clock in the morning was divided into four watches or vigils of three hours each, the first, the second, the third, and the fourth vigil.The Horae were originally personifications of seasonal aspects of nature, not of the time of day.\nThe list of twelve Horae representing the twelve hours of the day is recorded only in Late Antiquity, by Nonnus. The first and twelfth of the Horae were added to the original set of ten:\n\nAuge (first light)\nAnatole (sunrise)]\nMousike (morning hour of music and study)\nGymnastike (morning hour of exercise)\nNymphe (morning hour of ablutions)\nMesembria (noon)\nSponde (libations poured after lunch)\nElete (prayer)\nAkte (eating and pleasure)\nHesperis (start of evening)\nDysis (sunset)\nArktos (night sky)\n\n\n=== Middle Ages ===\n\nMedieval astronomers such as al-Biruni and Sacrobosco,   divided the hour into 60 minutes, each of 60 seconds; this derives from Babylonian astronomy, where the corresponding terms denoted the time required for the Sun's apparent motion through the ecliptic to describe one minute or second of arc, respectively. \nIn present terms, the Babylonian degree of time was thus four minutes long, the \"minute\" of time was thus four seconds long and the \"second\" 1/15 of a second.)\nIn medieval Europe, the Roman hours continued to be marked on sundials but the more important units of time were the canonical hours of the Orthodox and Catholic Church. During daylight, these followed the pattern set by the three-hour bells of the Roman markets, which were succeeded by the bells of local churches. They rang prime at about 6 am, terce at about 9 am, sext at noon, nones at about 3 pm, and vespers at either 6 pm or sunset. Matins and lauds precede these irregularly in the morning hours; compline follows them irregularly before sleep; and the midnight office follows that. Vatican II ordered their reformation for the Catholic Church in 1963, though they continue to be observed in the Orthodox churches.\nWhen mechanical clocks began to be used to show hours of daylight or nighttime, their period needed to be changed every morning and evening (for example, by changing the length of their pendula). The use of 24 hours for the entire day meant hours varied much less and the clocks needed to be adjusted only a few times a month.\n\n\n=== Modernity ===\n\nThe minor irregularities of the apparent solar day were smoothed by measuring time using the mean solar day, using the Sun's movement along the celestial equator rather than along the ecliptic. The irregularities of this time system were so minor that most clocks reckoning such hours did not need adjustment. However, scientific measurements eventually became precise enough to note the effect of tidal deceleration of the Earth by the Moon, which gradually lengthens the Earth's days.\nDuring the French Revolution, a general decimalisation of measures was enacted, including decimal time between 1793 and 1795. Under its provisions, the French hour (French: heure) was 1\u204410 of the day and divided formally into 100 decimal minutes (minute d\u00e9cimale) and informally into 10 tenths (d\u00e9cime). This hour was only briefly in official use, being repealed by the same 1795 legislation that first established the metric system.\nThe metric system bases its measurements of time upon the second, defined since 1952 in terms of the Earth's rotation in AD 1900. Its hours are a secondary unit computed as precisely 3,600 seconds. However, an hour of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), used as the basis of most civil time, has lasted 3,601 seconds 27 times since 1972 in order to keep it within 0.9 seconds of universal time, which is based on measurements of the mean solar day at 0\u00b0 longitude. The addition of these seconds accommodates the very gradual slowing of the rotation of the Earth.\nIn modern life, the ubiquity of clocks and other timekeeping devices means that segmentation of days according to their hours is commonplace. Most forms of employment, whether wage or salaried labour, involve compensation based upon measured or expected hours worked. The fight for an eight-hour day was a part of labour movements around the world. Informal rush hours and happy hours cover the times of day when commuting slows down due to congestion or alcoholic drinks being available at discounted prices. The hour record for the greatest distance travelled by a cyclist within the span of an hour is one of cycling's greatest honours.\n\n\n== Counting hours ==\n\nMany different ways of counting the hours have been used. Because sunrise, sunset, and, to a lesser extent, noon, are the conspicuous points in the day, starting to count at these times was, for most people in most early societies, much easier than starting at midnight. However, with accurate clocks and modern astronomical equipment (and the telegraph or similar means to transfer a time signal in a split-second), this issue is much less relevant.\nAstrolabes, sundials, and astronomical clocks sometimes show the hour length and count using some of these older definitions and counting methods.\n\n\n=== Counting from dawn ===\nIn ancient and medieval cultures, the counting of hours generally started with sunrise. Before the widespread use of artificial light, societies were more concerned with the division between night and day, and daily routines often began when light was sufficient.\"Babylonian hours\" divide the day and night into 24 equal hours, reckoned from the time of sunrise.  They are so named from the false belief of ancient authors that the Babylonians divided the day into 24 parts, beginning at sunrise.  In fact, they divided the day into 12 parts (called kaspu or \"double hours\") or into 60 equal parts.\n\n\n==== Unequal hours ====\nSunrise marked the beginning of the first hour, the middle of the day was at the end of the sixth hour and sunset at the end of the twelfth hour. This meant that the duration of hours varied with the season. In the Northern hemisphere, particularly in the more northerly latitudes, summer daytime hours were longer than winter daytime hours, each being one twelfth of the time between sunrise and sunset. These variable-length hours were variously known as temporal, unequal, or seasonal hours and were in use until the appearance of the mechanical clock, which furthered the adoption of equal length hours.This is also the system used in Jewish law and frequently called \"Talmudic hour\" (Sha'a Zemanit) in a variety of texts. The Talmudic hour is one twelfth of time elapsed from sunrise to sunset, day hours therefore being longer than night hours in the summer; in winter they reverse.\nThe Indic day began at sunrise. The term hora was used to indicate an hour. The time was measured based on the length of the shadow at day time. A hora translated to 2.5 pe. There are 60 pe per day, 60 minutes per pe and 60 kshana (snap of a finger or instant) per minute. Pe was measured with a bowl with a hole placed in still water. Time taken for this graduated bowl was one pe. Kings usually had an officer in charge of this clock.\n\n\n=== Counting from sunset ===\nIn so-called \"Italian time\", \"Italian hours\", or \"old Czech time\", the first hour started with the sunset Angelus bell (or at the end of dusk, i.e., half an hour after sunset, depending on local custom and geographical latitude). The hours were numbered from 1 to 24. For example, in Lugano, the sun rose in December during the 14th hour and noon was during the 19th hour; in June the sun rose during the 7th hour and noon was in the 15th hour. Sunset was always at the end of the 24th hour. The clocks in church towers struck only from 1 to 12, thus only during night or early morning hours.\nThis manner of counting hours had the advantage that everyone could easily know how much time they had to finish their day's work without artificial light. It was already widely used in Italy by the 14th century and lasted until the mid-18th century; it was officially abolished in 1755, or in some regions customary until the mid-19th century.The system of Italian hours can be seen on a number of clocks in Europe, where the dial is numbered from 1 to 24 in either Roman or Arabic numerals. The St Mark's Clock in Venice, and the Orloj in Prague are famous examples. It was also used in Poland and Bohemia until the 17th century.\nThe Islamic day begins at sunset. The first prayer of the day (maghrib) is to be performed between just after sunset and the end of twilight. Until 1968 Saudi Arabia used the system of counting 24 equal hours with the first hour starting at sunset.\n\n\n=== Counting from noon ===\nFor many centuries, up to 1925, astronomers counted the hours and days from noon, because it was the easiest solar event to measure accurately. An advantage of this method (used in the Julian Date system, in which a new Julian Day begins at noon) is that the date doesn't change during a single night's observing.\n\n\n=== Counting from midnight ===\nIn the modern 12-hour clock, counting the hours starts at midnight and restarts at noon. Hours are numbered 12, 1, 2, ..., 11. Solar noon is always close to 12 noon (ignoring artificial adjustments due to time zones and daylight saving time), differing according to the equation of time by as much as fifteen minutes either way. At the equinoxes sunrise is around 6 a.m. (Latin: ante meridiem, before noon), and sunset around 6 p.m. (Latin: post meridiem, after noon).\nIn the modern 24-hour clock, counting the hours starts at midnight, and hours are numbered from 0 to 23. Solar noon is always close to 12:00, again differing according to the equation of time. At the equinoxes sunrise is around 06:00, and sunset around 18:00.\n\n\n== History of timekeeping in other cultures ==\n\n\n=== Egypt ===\n\nThe ancient Egyptians began dividing the night into wnwt at some time before the compilation of the Dynasty V Pyramid Texts in the 24th century BC. By 2150 BC (Dynasty IX), diagrams of stars inside Egyptian coffin lids\u2014variously known as \"diagonal calendars\" or \"star clocks\"\u2014attest that there were exactly 12 of these. Clagett writes that it is \"certain\" this duodecimal division of the night followed the adoption of the Egyptian civil calendar, usually placed c.\u20092800 BC on the basis of analyses of the Sothic cycle, but a lunar calendar presumably long predated this and also would have had twelve months in each of its years. The coffin diagrams show that the Egyptians took note of the heliacal risings of 36 stars or constellations (now known as \"decans\"), one for each of the ten-day \"weeks\" of their civil calendar.  (12 sets of alternate \"triangle decans\" were used for the 5 epagomenal days between years.) Each night, the rising of eleven of these decans were noted, separating the night into twelve divisions whose middle terms would have lasted about 40 minutes each. (Another seven stars were noted by the Egyptians during the twilight and predawn periods, although they were not important for the hour divisions.) The original decans used by the Egyptians would have fallen noticeably out of their proper places over a span of several centuries. By the time of Amenhotep III (c.\u20091350 BC), the priests at Karnak were using water clocks to determine the hours. These were filled to the brim at sunset and the hour determined by comparing the water level against one of its twelve gauges, one for each month of the year. During the New Kingdom, another system of decans was used, made up of 24 stars over the course of the year and 12 within any one night.\nThe later division of the day into 12 hours was accomplished by sundials marked with ten equal divisions. The morning and evening periods when the sundials failed to note time were observed as the first and last hours.The Egyptian hours were closely connected both with the priesthood of the gods and with their divine services. By the New Kingdom, each hour was conceived as a specific region of the sky or underworld through which Ra's solar barge travelled. Protective deities were assigned to each and were used as the names of the hours. As the protectors and resurrectors of the sun, the goddesses of the night hours were considered to hold power over all lifespans and thus became part of Egyptian funerary rituals. Two fire-spitting cobras were said to guard the gates of each hour of the underworld, and Wadjet and the rearing cobra (uraeus) were also sometimes referenced as wnwt from their role protecting the dead through these gates. The Egyptian word for astronomer, used as a synonym for priest, was wnwty, \"one of the wnwt\", as it were \"one of the hours\". The earliest forms of wnwt include one or three stars, with the later solar hours including the determinative hieroglyph for \"sun\".\n\n\n=== East Asia ===\n\nAncient China divided its day into 100 \"marks\" (Chinese: \u523b, oc *k\u02b0\u0259k, p k\u00e8) running from midnight to midnight. The system is said to have been used since remote antiquity, credited to the legendary Yellow Emperor, but is first attested in Han-era water clocks and in the 2nd-century history of that dynasty. It was measured with sundials and water clocks. Into the Eastern Han, the Chinese measured their day schematically, adding the 20-ke difference between the solstices evenly throughout the year, one every nine days. During the night, time was more commonly reckoned during the night by the \"watches\" (Chinese: \u66f4, oc *k\u00e6\u014b, p g\u0113ng) of the guard, which were reckoned as a fifth of the time from sunset to sunrise.Imperial China continued to use ke and geng but also began to divide the day into 12 \"double hours\" (t \u6642, s \u65f6, oc *d\u0259, p sh\u00ed, lit. \"time[s]\") named after the earthly branches and sometimes also known by the name of the corresponding animal of the Chinese zodiac. The first shi originally ran from 11 pm to 1 am but was reckoned as starting at midnight by the time of the History of Song, compiled during the early Yuan. These apparently began to be used during the Eastern Han that preceded the Three Kingdoms era, but the sections that would have covered them are missing from their official histories; they first appear in official use in the Tang-era Book of Sui. Variations of all these units were subsequently adopted by Japan and the other countries of the Sinosphere.\nThe 12 shi supposedly began to be divided into 24 hours under the Tang, although they are first attested in the Ming-era Book of Yuan. In that work, the hours were known by the same earthly branches as the shi, with the first half noted as its \"starting\" and the second as \"completed\" or \"proper\" shi. In modern China, these are instead simply numbered and described as \"little shi\". The modern ke is now used to count quarter-hours, rather than a separate unit.\nAs with the Egyptian night and daytime hours, the division of the day into twelve shi has been credited to the example set by the rough number of lunar cycles in a solar year, although the 12-year Jovian orbital cycle was more important to traditional Chinese and Babylonian reckoning of the zodiac.\n\n\n=== Southeast Asia ===\n\nIn Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, the traditional system of noting hours is the six-hour clock. This reckons each of a day's 24 hours apart from noon as part of a fourth of the day. 7 am was the first hour of the first half of daytime; 1 pm the first hour of the latter half of daytime; 7 pm the first hour of the first half of nighttime; and 1 am the first hour of the latter half of nighttime. This system existed in the Ayutthaya Kingdom, deriving its current phrasing from the practice of publicly announcing the daytime hours with a gong and the nighttime hours with a drum. It was abolished in Laos and Cambodia during their French occupation and is uncommon there now. The Thai system remains in informal use in the form codified in 1901 by King Chulalongkorn.\n\n\n=== India ===\n\nThe Vedas and Puranas employed units of time based on the sidereal day (nak\u1e63atra ahor\u0101tram). This was variously divided into 30 muh\u016btras of 48 minutes each or 60 dandas or nad\u00eds of 24 minutes each. The solar day was later similarly divided into 60 gha\u1e6dik\u00e1s of about the same duration, each divided in turn into 60 vinadis. The Sinhalese followed a similar system but called their sixtieth of a day a peya.\n\n\n== Derived measures ==\nair changes per hour (ACH), a measure of the replacements of air within a defined space used for indoor air quality\nampere hour (Ah), a measure of electrical charge used in electrochemistry\nBTU-hour, a measure of power used in the power industry and for air conditioners and heaters\ncredit hour, a measure of an academic course's contracted instructional time per week for a semester\nhorsepower-hour (hph), a measure of energy used in the railroad industry\nhour angle, a measure of the angle between the meridian plane and the hour circle passing through a certain point used in the equatorial coordinate system\nkilometres per hour (km/h), a measure of land speed\nkilowatt-hour (kWh), a measure of energy commonly used as an electrical billing unit\nknot (kn), a measure of nautical miles per hour, used for maritime and aerial speed\nman-hour, the amount of work performed by the average worker in one hour, used in productivity analysis\nmetre per hour (m/h), a measure of slow speeds\nmile per hour (mph), a measure of land speed\npassengers per hour per direction (p/h/d), a measure of the capacity of public transportation systems\npound per hour (PPH), a measure of mass flow used for engines' fuel flow\nwork or working hour, a measure of working time used in various regulations, such as those distinguishing part- and full-time employment and those limiting truck drivers' working hours or hours of service\n\n\n== See also ==\nLiturgy of the Hours\nHorology\nHorae, the deified hours of ancient Greece and Rome\nHexadecimal hour, a proposed unit lasting 1 h 30 min\nDecimal hour or deciday, a French Revolutionary unit lasting 2 h 24 min\nGolden Hour & Blue Hour in photography\nMetric time\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\nThe Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press.\nBaxter, William H.;  et al. (2014), Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction, Oxford: Oxford University Press, available in part here [4].\nClagett, Marshall (1995), Ancient Egyptian Science, Vol. II: Calendars, Clocks, and Astronomy, Memoirs of the APS, No. 214, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, ISBN 9780871692146.\nDershowitz, Nachum;  et al. (2008), Calendrical Calculations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521885409.\nHolford-Strevens, Leofranc (2005), The History of Time: A Very Short Introduction, Very Short Introductions, Vol. 133, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780192804990.\nLandes, David S. (1983), Revolution in Time, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.\nParker, Richard Anthony (1950), The Calendars of Ancient Egypt (PDF), Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, No. 26, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.\nPetersen, Jens \u00d8sterg\u00e5rd (1992), \"The Taiping Jing and the A.D. 102 Clepsydra Reform\", Acta Orientalia, 53, Copenhagen, pp. 122\u2013158.\nRogers, J.H. (1998), \"Origins of the Ancient Constellations\", Journal of the British Astronomical Association, No. 108, London: BAA.\nSewell, Robert (1924), The Siddhantas and the Indian Calendar, Kolkata: Government of India Central Publication Branch, ISBN 9788120603646.\nS\u014dma, Mitsuru;  et al. (25 October 2004), \"Units of Time in Ancient China and Japan\", Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan, Vol. 56, No. 5, 56, Tokyo: ASJ, pp. 887\u2013904, doi:10.1093/pasj/56.5.887.\nSteele, J.M. (2000), Observations and Predications of Eclipse Times by Early Astronomers, Amsterdam: Kluwer Academic Publications.\nStephenson, F. Richard (1997), Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\nStephenson, F. Richard;  et al. (2002), Historical Supernovae and Their Remnants, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-850766-6.\nThongprasert, Chamnong (1985), \"\u0e17\u0e38\u0e48\u0e21-\u0e42\u0e21\u0e07-\u0e19\u0e32\u0e2c\u0e34\u0e01\u0e32 [Thum-Mong-Nalika]\", \u0e20\u0e32\u0e29\u0e32\u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\u0e44\u0e02\u0e02\u0e32\u0e19 [Thai Unlocked], Bangkok: Prae Pitaya Press. (in Thai)\nWall, J. Charles (1912), Porches & Fonts, London: Wells, Gardner, Darton & Co.\nWilkinson, Richard H. (2003), The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt, Singapore: Tien Wah Press for Thames & Hudson.\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nGerhard Dohrn-van Rossum (1996). History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal Orders. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-15510-4.\nChristopher Walker (ed.), Astronomy before the Telescope. London: British Museum Press, 1996.\n\n\n== External links ==\nWorld time zones\nAccurate time vs. PC Clock Difference", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/AnalogClockAnimation1_2hands_1h_in_6sec.gif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Beijing_2006_1-14.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Bishopstone_sundial.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/DigitalClock_1hour.gif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Drei_Horen.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Equatorial_sundial_topview.gif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/International_System_of_Units_Logo.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Planispheric_astrolabe.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/WPtimetracer.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Wooden_hourglass_3.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/62/PD-icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "An hour (symbol: h; also abbreviated hr) is a unit of time conventionally reckoned as 1\u204424 of a day and scientifically reckoned as 3,599\u20133,601 seconds, depending on conditions. There are 60 minutes in an hour, and 24 hours in a day.\nThe hour was initially established in the ancient Near East as a variable measure of 1\u204412 of the night or daytime. Such seasonal, temporal, or unequal hours varied by season and latitude.\nEqual or equinoctial hours were taken as 1\u204424 of the day as measured from noon to noon; the minor seasonal variations of this unit were eventually smoothed by making it 1\u204424 of the mean solar day. Since this unit was not constant due to long term variations in the Earth's rotation, the hour was finally separated from the Earth's rotation and defined in terms of the atomic or physical second.\nIn the modern metric system, hours are an accepted unit of time defined as 3,600 atomic seconds. However, on rare occasions an hour may incorporate a positive or negative leap second, making it last 3,599 or 3,601 seconds, in order to keep it within 0.9 seconds of UT1, which is based on measurements of the mean solar day.\n\n"}, "Rosy_retrospection": {"links": ["Ambiguity effect", "Hostile attribution bias", "Retrospective memory", "Impact bias", "Jonathan Hancock", "Precision bias", "Memory consolidation", "Methods used to study memory", "Henry Molaison", "Overton window", "Retrograde amnesia", "Inductive bias", "Negativity bias", "Media of Norway", "Autobiographical memory", "Information bias ", "Selective amnesia", "Shas Pollak", "Steven Rose", "False memory syndrome", "Cosmos Rossellius", "Sigmund Freud", "Observer bias", "Brain", "Doi ", "Roman Empire", "Lead time bias", "The Seven Sins of Memory", "Retrieval-induced forgetting", "Survivorship bias", "Trait ascription bias", "Misinformation effect", "Academic bias", "Belief bias", "Media of Sweden", "Recovered-memory therapy", "Acquiescence bias", "Memory and trauma", "Memory errors", "Flashback ", "Authority bias", "Mnemonic", "Context-dependent memory", "Active recall", "Framing effect ", "Attribution bias", "Chunking ", "English language", "Compassion fade", "Larry Squire", "Meaningful learning", "Neuron", "Self-serving bias", "Short-term memory", "False balance", "Wet bias", "Bias ", "Memory inhibition", "Priming ", "Halo effect", "Emotion and memory", "Cognitive bias in animals", "Horn effect", "Courtesy bias", "Fading affect bias", "Eyewitness memory", "Visual memory", "Zero-risk bias", "Cognitive bias mitigation", "Latin", "Political bias", "Semantic memory", "Selection bias", "Attentional bias", "Effects of alcohol on memory", "Paul R. McHugh", "Systematic error", "Imagination inflation", "Idiom", "FUTON bias", "Inherent bias", "Net bias", "Atkinson\u2013Shiffrin memory model", "Infrastructure bias", "Reporting bias", "Memory implantation", "Bias", "Well-being", "Misattribution of memory", "Implicit stereotype", "Chris Marker", "Out-group homogeneity", "Elizabeth Loftus", "False memory", "Memorization", "Memory sport", "Reference class forecasting", "Patricia Goldman-Rakic", "Sensory memory", "Eidetic memory", "Media bias in South Asia", "Forgetting", "Nostalgia", "Repressed memory", "Metamemory", "Prospective memory", "Stephen J. Ceci", "Memory disorder", "Childhood memory", "Declinism", "Publication bias", "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two", "Memory conformity", "Emotional bias", "Exceptional memory", "Egocentric bias", "Leigh Thompson ", "Omitted-variable bias", "Long-term memory", "Bias in education", "Optimism bias", "Arthur P. Shimamura", "Outcome bias", "Phenomenon", "Rote learning", "Flashbulb memory", "Healthy user bias", "James McGaugh", "Media coverage of the Arab\u2013Israeli conflict", "Automation bias", "Sampling bias", "Kent Cochrane", "Mere-exposure effect", "Source-monitoring error", "Psychology", "Hindsight bias", "Echoic memory", "Memory and aging", "Art of memory", "Debiasing", "Data compression", "Cognitive bias", "Sleep and memory", "Recall bias", "Exosomatic memory", "Implicit memory", "Robert A. Bjork", "Media bias", "Hyperthymesia", "Daniel Schacter", "Haptic memory", "Forecast bias", "Intertrial priming", "Muscle memory", "Weapon focus", "Wernicke\u2013Korsakoff syndrome", "Brenda Milner", "Memory", "Recall ", "Positivity effect", "Decay theory", "Iconic memory", "Bias of an estimator", "Choice-supportive bias", "Marcia K. Johnson", "Normalcy bias", "Reality", "List of memory biases", "Susumu Tonegawa", "Collective memory", "Neuroanatomy of memory", "Pollyanna principle", "Verification bias", "Ivan Izquierdo", "Levels-of-processing effect", "Spectrum bias", "ISBN ", "Post-traumatic amnesia", "Tip of the tongue", "Hermann Ebbinghaus", "Endel Tulving", "Andriy Slyusarchuk", "Memory and social interactions", "Omission bias", "Richard Shiffrin", "Cryptomnesia", "Encoding ", "Self-selection bias", "Social comparison bias", "Memory improvement", "Time-saving bias", "Anterograde amnesia", "Pro-innovation bias", "Von Restorff effect", "Selective retention", "Actor\u2013observer asymmetry", "Restraint bias", "Subconscious", "Amnesia", "Transient global amnesia", "White hat bias", "Fundamental attribution error", "Heuristics in judgment and decision-making", "Data", "Motor learning", "Susan Clancy", "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise", "Self-esteem", "Free recall", "Storage ", "Henry L. Roediger III", "PMID ", "Attention", "Clive Wearing", "Computer", "Episodic memory", "Extrinsic incentives bias", "George Armitage Miller", "Procedural memory", "Status quo bias", "Working memory", "Personal-event memory", "Length time bias", "Judith Lewis Herman", "Confirmation bias", "Eleanor Maguire", "Frequency illusion", "Confabulation", "List of cognitive biases", "Indirect tests of memory", "Politics of memory", "Participation bias", "State-dependent memory", "Dunning\u2013Kruger effect", "Absent-mindedness", "Childhood amnesia", "Transactive memory", "Systemic bias", "Interference theory", "World Memory Championships", "Anchoring ", "Motivated forgetting", "Funding bias", "Bias blind spot", "United States news media and the Vietnam War", "Algorithm", "Media portrayal of the Ukrainian crisis", "Dominic O'Brien", "Anne Treisman", "Psychogenic amnesia", "Response bias", "Ben Pridmore", "Congruence bias", "Cultural memory", "Deese\u2013Roediger\u2013McDermott paradigm", "Eric Kandel", "Forgetting curve", "Explicit memory", "Intermediate-term memory", "Lost in the mall technique", "Distinction bias", "Present bias", "Lynn Nadel", "Cultural bias", "In-group favoritism", "Social-desirability bias", "Geoffrey Loftus", "Media bias in the United States", "Robert Stickgold", "Involuntary memory"], "content": "Rosy retrospection refers to the psychological phenomenon of people sometimes judging the past disproportionately more positively than they judge the present. The Romans occasionally referred to this phenomenon with the Latin phrase \"memoria praeteritorum bonorum\", which translates into English roughly as \"the past is always well remembered\". Rosy retrospection is very closely related to the concept of nostalgia. The difference between the terms is that rosy retrospection could be understood as a cognitive bias, whereas the broader phenomenon of nostalgia is not usually seen as based on a biased perspective.\nAlthough according to this view rosy retrospection is a cognitive bias, which would distort a person's view of reality to some extent, some people theorize that it may in part serve a useful purpose in increasing self-esteem and a person's overall sense of well-being. For example, Terence Mitchell and Leigh Thompson mention this possibility in a chapter entitled \"A Theory of Temporal Adjustments of the Evaluation of Events\" in a book of collected research reports from various authors entitled \"Advances in Managerial Cognition and Organizational Information Processing\".Simplifications and exaggerations of memories (such as occurs in rosy retrospection) may also make it easier for people's brains to store long-term memories, as removing details may reduce the burden of those memories on the brain and make the brain require fewer neural connections to form and engrain memories. Mnemonics, psychological chunking, and subconscious distortions of memories may in part serve a similar purpose: memory compression by way of simplification. Data compression in computers works on similar principles: compression algorithms tend to either (1) remove unnecessary details from data or (2) reframe the details in a simpler way from which the data can subsequently be reconstructed as needed, or (3) both. Much the same can be said of human memories and the human brain's own process of memorization.\nIn English, the idiom \"rose-colored glasses\" or \"rose-tinted glasses\" is also sometimes used to refer to the phenomenon of rosy retrospection. Usually this idiom occurs as some variation of the phrase \"seeing things through rose-tinted glasses\" or some other roughly similar phrasing.Rosy retrospection is also related to the concept of declinism.\n\n\n== Research ==\nIn one group of experiments, three groups going on different vacations were interviewed before, during, and after their vacations. Most followed the pattern of initially positive anticipation, followed by mild disappointment thereafter. Generally, most subjects reviewed the events more favorably some time after the events had occurred than they did while experiencing them.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nMitchell, T.; Thompson, L. (1994). \"A theory of temporal adjustments of the evaluation of events: Rosy Prospection & Rosy Retrospection\" (PDF).  In Stubbart, C.; Porac, J.; Meindl, J. (eds.). Advances in managerial cognition and organizational information-processing. 5. Greenwich, CT: JAI press. pp. 85\u2013114. ISBN 978-1-55938-447-6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-12-02.", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Psi2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Socrates.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg"], "summary": "Rosy retrospection refers to the psychological phenomenon of people sometimes judging the past disproportionately more positively than they judge the present. The Romans occasionally referred to this phenomenon with the Latin phrase \"memoria praeteritorum bonorum\", which translates into English roughly as \"the past is always well remembered\". Rosy retrospection is very closely related to the concept of nostalgia. The difference between the terms is that rosy retrospection could be understood as a cognitive bias, whereas the broader phenomenon of nostalgia is not usually seen as based on a biased perspective.\nAlthough according to this view rosy retrospection is a cognitive bias, which would distort a person's view of reality to some extent, some people theorize that it may in part serve a useful purpose in increasing self-esteem and a person's overall sense of well-being. For example, Terence Mitchell and Leigh Thompson mention this possibility in a chapter entitled \"A Theory of Temporal Adjustments of the Evaluation of Events\" in a book of collected research reports from various authors entitled \"Advances in Managerial Cognition and Organizational Information Processing\".Simplifications and exaggerations of memories (such as occurs in rosy retrospection) may also make it easier for people's brains to store long-term memories, as removing details may reduce the burden of those memories on the brain and make the brain require fewer neural connections to form and engrain memories. Mnemonics, psychological chunking, and subconscious distortions of memories may in part serve a similar purpose: memory compression by way of simplification. Data compression in computers works on similar principles: compression algorithms tend to either (1) remove unnecessary details from data or (2) reframe the details in a simpler way from which the data can subsequently be reconstructed as needed, or (3) both. Much the same can be said of human memories and the human brain's own process of memorization.\nIn English, the idiom \"rose-colored glasses\" or \"rose-tinted glasses\" is also sometimes used to refer to the phenomenon of rosy retrospection. Usually this idiom occurs as some variation of the phrase \"seeing things through rose-tinted glasses\" or some other roughly similar phrasing.Rosy retrospection is also related to the concept of declinism."}, "Transient_global_amnesia": {"links": ["Cultural memory", "Differential diagnosis", "The Lancet", "Iconic memory", "Brain ischemia", "International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems", "Myocardial infarct", "Autobiographical memory", "Priming ", "George Armitage Miller", "Weber's syndrome", "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two", "Long-term memory", "Intertrial priming", "Storage ", "Larry Squire", "Exosomatic memory", "Hermann Ebbinghaus", "Chris Marker", "False memory", "Intracranial hemorrhage", "Anterior spinal artery syndrome", "Forgetting curve", "Kent Cochrane", "Epilepsy", "Childhood memory", "Lacunar stroke", "Procedural memory", "Brain stem", "Haptic memory", "Paul R. 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Shimamura", "Richard Shiffrin", "Neurological disorder", "Charcot\u2013Bouchard aneurysm", "Confabulation", "Imagination inflation", "Ischaemic stroke", "Intermediate-term memory", "Cosmos Rossellius", "Active recall", "Indirect tests of memory", "Ben Pridmore", "Ischemia", "List of memory biases", "Neurology", "Pons", "Short-term memory", "Millard\u2013Gubler syndrome", "Prospective memory", "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise", "Metamemory", "Vertebrobasilar insufficiency", "Muscle memory", "Cerebrovascular disease", "Brain", "CiteSeerX ", "Context-dependent memory", "Frontal lobe epilepsy", "Ivan Izquierdo", "Tip of the tongue", "Susan Clancy", "Post-traumatic amnesia", "Absent-mindedness", "Visual memory", "Medscape", "Status epilepticus", "Binswanger's disease", "Selective retention", "Paroxysmal", "Echoic memory", "Precerebral artery", "Claude's syndrome", "Childhood amnesia", "Statin", "The Seven Sins of Memory", "Memory and trauma", "Flashbulb memory", "Duret haemorrhages", "Syncope ", "Explicit memory", "Elizabeth Loftus", "Source-monitoring error", "Semantic memory", "Episodic memory", "False memory syndrome", "Brenda Milner", "Memory sport", "Transient Ischemic Attack", "Anne Treisman", "Lateral medullary syndrome", "Free recall", "Working memory", "Cerebral vascular disease", "Memory inhibition", "Clive Wearing", "Recall ", "Sigmund Freud", "Lacunar syndromes", "Meaningful learning", "Hyperthymesia", "Amnesia", "Cerebral vasculitis", "Eleanor Maguire", "Temporal lobe epilepsy", "Selective amnesia", "Psychogenic amnesia", "Basilar artery", "Memory disorder", "Dejerine\u2013Roussy syndrome", "Levels-of-processing effect", "Patricia Goldman-Rakic", "Memory consolidation", "Emotion and memory", "Posterior cerebral artery", "Diseases Database", "Benedikt syndrome", "Endel Tulving", "Sleep and memory", "Brainstem stroke syndrome", "PMC ", "Andriy Slyusarchuk", "Geoffrey Loftus", "Memory", "Misattribution of memory", "Art of memory", "Amaurosis fugax", "Memory conformity", "Haemorrhagic stroke", "Retrieval-induced forgetting", "Robert A. Bjork", "Intracranial aneurysm", "Aneurysm", "Atkinson\u2013Shiffrin memory model", "Hippocampus", "Robert Stickgold", "Intraventricular hemorrhage", "Memory errors", "PMID ", "Transient ischemic attack", "Collective memory", "Repressed memory", "Memory implantation", "EEG", "Intracerebral hemorrhage", "Middle cerebral artery syndrome", "Henry Molaison", "Midbrain", "List of ICD-nine codes"], "content": "Transient global amnesia (TGA) is a neurological disorder whose key defining characteristic is a temporary but almost total disruption of short-term memory with a range of problems accessing older memories. A person in a state of TGA exhibits no other signs of impaired cognitive functioning but recalls only the last few moments of consciousness, as well as possibly a few deeply encoded facts of the individual's past, such as their childhood, family, or home perhaps.Both TGA and anterograde amnesia deal with disruptions of short-term memory. However, a TGA episode generally lasts no more than 2 to 8 hours before the patient returns to normal with the ability to form new memories. A patient with anterograde amnesia may not be able to form new memories indefinitely.\n\n\n== Signs and symptoms ==\nA person having an attack of TGA has almost no capacity to establish new memories, but generally appears otherwise mentally alert and lucid, possessing full knowledge of self-identity and identity of close family, and maintaining  intact perceptual skills and a wide repertoire of complex learned behavior. The individual simply cannot recall anything that happened outside the last few minutes, while memory for more temporally distant events may or may not be largely intact. The degree of amnesia is profound, and, in the interval during which the individual is aware of his or her condition, is often accompanied by anxiety.\nThe diagnostic criteria for TGA, as defined for purposes of clinical research, include:\nThe attack was witnessed by a capable observer and reported as being a definite loss of recent memory (anterograde amnesia).\nThere was an absence of clouding of consciousness or other cognitive impairment other than amnesia.\nThere were no focal neurological signs or deficits during or after the attack.\nThere were no features of epilepsy, or active epilepsy in the past two years, and the patient did not have any recent head injury.\nThe attack resolved within 24 hours.\n\n\n=== Progression of a TGA event ===\nThis onset of TGA is generally fairly rapid, and its duration varies but generally lasts between 2 and 8 hours. A person experiencing TGA typically has memory only of the past few minutes or less, and cannot retain new information beyond that period of time. One of its bizarre features is perseveration, in which the victim of an attack faithfully and methodically repeats statements or questions, complete with profoundly identical intonation and gestures \"as if a fragment of a sound track is being repeatedly rerun.\" This is found in almost all TGA attacks and is sometimes considered a defining characteristic of the condition. The individual experiencing TGA retains social skills and older significant memories, almost always including knowing his or her own identity and the identity of family members, and the ability to perform various complex learned tasks including driving and other learned behavior; one individual \"was able to continue putting together the alternator of his car.\" Though outwardly appearing to be normal, a person with TGA is disoriented in time and space, perhaps knowing neither the year nor where they reside. Although confusion is sometimes reported,  others consider this an imprecise observation, but an elevated emotional state (compared to patients experiencing Transient Ischemic Attack, or TIA) is common. In a large survey, 11% of individuals in a TGA state were described as exhibiting \"emotionalism\" and 14% \"fear of dying\". The attack lessens over a period of hours, with older memories returning first, and the repetitive fugue slowly lengthening so that the victim retains short-term memory for longer periods. While seemingly back to normal within 24 hours, there are subtle effects on memory that can persist longer. In the majority of cases there are no long-term effects other than a complete lack of recall for this period of the attack and an hour or two before its onset.\nThere is emerging evidence for observable impairments in a minority of cases weeks or even years following a TGA attack.There is also evidence that the victim is aware that something is not quite right, even though they can't pinpoint it. Persons suffering from the attack may vocalize signs that 'they just lost their memory', or that they believed they had a stroke, although they aren't aware of the other signs that they are displaying. The main sign of this condition is the repetitive actions of something that is not usually repeated.\n\n\n== Causes ==\nThe underlying cause of TGA remains enigmatic. \nThe leading hypotheses are some form of epileptic event, a problem with blood circulation around, to or from the brain, or some kind of migraine-like phenomenon.\nThe differences are sufficiently meaningful that transient amnesia may be considered a heterogeneous clinical syndrome with multiple etiologies, corresponding mechanisms, and differing prognoses.\n\n\n=== Precipitating events ===\nTGA attacks are associated with some form of precipitating event in at least one-third of cases. The most commonly cited precipitating events include vigorous exercise (including sexual intercourse), swimming in cold water or enduring other temperature changes, and emotionally traumatic or stressful events. There are reports of TGA-like conditions following certain medical procedures and disease states.  One study reports two cases of familial incidence (in which two members of the same family experienced TGA), out of 114 cases considered. This indicates the possibility that there could be a slight familial incidence.\nIf the definition of a precipitating event is widened to include events days or weeks earlier, and to take in emotionally stressful burdens such as money worries, attending a funeral or exhaustion due to overwork or unusual childcare responsibilities, a large majority, over 80%, of TGA attacks are said to correlate with precipitating events.The role of psychological co-factors has been addressed by some research. It is the case that people in a state of TGA exhibit measurably elevated levels of anxiety and/or depression. Emotional instability may leave some people vulnerable to stressful triggers and thus be associated with TGA. Individuals who have experienced TGA, compared with similar people with TIA, are more likely to have some kind of emotional problem (such as depression or phobias) in their personal or family history or to have experienced some kind of phobic or emotionally challenging precipitating event.\n\n\n=== Vascular hypotheses ===\nCerebral ischemia is a frequently disputed possible cause, at least for some segment of the TGA population, and until the 1990s it was generally thought that TGA was a variant of transient ischemic attack (TIA) secondary to some form of cerebrovascular disease. Those who argue against a vascular cause point to evidence that those experiencing TGA are no more likely than the general population to have subsequent cerebral vascular disease. In fact, \"in comparison with TIA patients, TGA patients had a significantly lower risk of combined stroke, myocardial infarct, and death.\"Other vascular origins remain a possibility, however, according to research of jugular vein valve insufficiency in patients with TGA. In these cases TGA has followed vigorous exertion. One current hypothesis is that TGA may be due to venous congestion of the brain, leading to ischemia of structures involved with memory, such as the hippocampus.  It has been shown that performing a Valsalva maneuver (involving \"bearing down\" and increasing breath pressure against a closed glottis, which occurs frequently during exertion) may be related to retrograde flow of blood in the jugular vein, and therefore, presumably, cerebral blood circulation, in patients with TGA.\n\n\n=== Migraine ===\nA history of migraine is a statistically significant risk factor identified in the medical literature. \"When comparing TGA patients with normal control subjects\u2026 the only factor significantly associated with an increased risk for TGA was migraine.\" Fourteen percent of people with TGA had a history of migraine in one study, and approximately a third of the participants in another clinical study reported such a history.However, migraine does not appear to occur simultaneously with TGA nor serve as a precipitating event. Headache frequently occurs during TGA, as does nausea, both symptoms often associated with migraine, but it appears that these do not indicate migraine in patients during a TGA event. The connection remains conceptual, and muddied further by a lack of consensus about the definition of migraine itself, and by the differences in age, gender, and psychological characteristics of migraine sufferers when compared to those variables in the TGA cohort.\n\n\n=== Epilepsy ===\nAmnesia is often a symptom in epilepsy, and for that reason people with known epilepsy are disqualified from most studies of TGA.  In a study where strict criteria were applied to TGA diagnosis, no epileptic features were seen in EEGs of over 100 patients with TGA. However, despite the fact that EEG readings are usually normal during a TGA attack, and other usual symptoms of epilepsy are not observed with TGA, it has been speculated that some initial epileptic attacks present as TGA. The observation that 7% of people who experience TGA will develop epilepsy calls into question whether those case are, in fact, TGA or transient epileptic amnesia (TEA). TEA attacks tend to be short (under one hour) and tend to recur, so that a person who has experienced both repeated attacks of temporary amnesia resembling TGA and if those events lasted less than one hour is very likely to develop epilepsy.There is additional speculation that atypical cases of TEA in the form of nonconvulsive status epilepticus may present with duration similar to TGA. This may constitute a distinct subgroup of TGA.\nTEA, as opposed to \"pure\" TGA, is also characterized by \"two unusual forms of memory deficit \u2026: (i) accelerated long-term forgetting (ALF): the excessively rapid loss of newly acquired memories over a period of days or weeks and (ii) remote autobiographical memory loss: a loss of memories for salient, personally experienced events of the past few decades.\"Whether an amnestic event is TGA or TEA thus presents a diagnostic challenge, especially in light of the recently published descriptions of possible long-term cognitive deficits with (presumably correctly diagnosed) TGA.\n\n\n=== Other putative associations ===\nThere have been assertions of a possible link between TGA and the use of statins (a class of drug used in treating cholesterol).\nEn bloc memory loss which is total, permanent, and irrecoverable can occur as an alcoholic \"black out,\" usually lasting longer than an hour and up to 2\u20135 days.\nMarijuana intoxication, Halogenated hydroxyquinolines such as Clioquinol, PDE inhibitors such as sildenafil, Digitalis and scopolamine intoxication, and general anaesthesia have been reported with TGA.\n\n\n== Diagnosis ==\n\n\n=== Differential diagnosis ===\nA differential diagnosis should include:\nThrombosis of the basilar artery\nCardioembolic stroke\nComplex partial seizures\nFrontal lobe epilepsy\nLacunar syndromes\nMigraine variants\nPosterior cerebral artery stroke\nSyncope and related paroxysmal spells\nTemporal lobe epilepsyIf the event lasts less than one hour, transient epileptic amnesia (TEA) might be implicated.If the condition lasts longer than 24 hours, it is not considered TGA by definition.  A diagnostic investigation would then probably focus on some form of undetected ischemic attack or cranial bleed.\n\n\n== Prognosis ==\nThe prognosis of \"pure\" TGA is very good. It does not affect mortality or morbidity and unlike earlier understanding of the condition, TGA is not a risk factor for stroke or ischemic disease. Rates of recurrence are variously reported, with one systematic calculation suggesting the rate is under 6% per year.  TGA \"is universally felt to be a benign condition which requires no further treatment other than reassurance to the patient and his or her family.\" \n\"The most important part of management after diagnosis is looking after the psychological needs of the patient and his or her relatives. Seeing a once competent and healthy partner, sibling or parent become incapable of remembering what was said only a minute ago is very distressing, and hence it is often the relatives who will require reassurance.\"TGA may have multiple etiologies and prognoses. Atypical presentations may masquerade as epilepsy and be more properly considered TEA. In addition to such probable TEA cases, some people experiencing amnestic events diverging from the diagnostic criteria articulated above may have a less benign prognosis than those with \"pure\" TGA.Recently, moreover, both imaging and neurocognitive testing studies question whether TGA is as benign as has been thought.  MRI scans of the brain in one study showed that among people who had experienced TGA, all had cavities in the hippocampus, and these cavities were far more numerous, larger, and more suggestive of pathological damage than in either healthy controls or a large control group of people with tumor or stroke. Verbal and cognitive impairments have been observed days after TGA attacks, of such severity that the researchers estimated the effects would be unlikely to resolve within a short time frame. A large neurocognitive study of patients more than a year after their attack has shown persistent effects consistent with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI-a) in a third of the people who had experienced TGA. In another study, \"selective cognitive dysfunctions after the clinical recovery\" were observed, suggesting a prefrontal impairment. These dysfunctions  may not be in memory per se but in retrieval, in which speed of access is part of the problem among people who have had TGA and experience ongoing memory problems.\n\n\n== Epidemiology ==\nThe estimated annual incidence of TGA varies from a minimum of 2.9 cases per 100,000 population (in Spain) and 5.2 per 100,000 (in the US), but among people aged over 50, the rate of TGA incidence is  reported to range from approximately 23 per 100,000 (in a US population) to 32 per 100,000 (in a population in Scandinavia).TGA is most common in people between age 56 and 75, with the average age of a person experiencing TGA being approximately 62.\n\n\n== See also ==\nAmnesia\nDissociative amnesia\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Psi2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Socrates.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Transiente_globale_Amnesie_MRT_DWI_axial.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "Transient global amnesia (TGA) is a neurological disorder whose key defining characteristic is a temporary but almost total disruption of short-term memory with a range of problems accessing older memories. A person in a state of TGA exhibits no other signs of impaired cognitive functioning but recalls only the last few moments of consciousness, as well as possibly a few deeply encoded facts of the individual's past, such as their childhood, family, or home perhaps.Both TGA and anterograde amnesia deal with disruptions of short-term memory. However, a TGA episode generally lasts no more than 2 to 8 hours before the patient returns to normal with the ability to form new memories. A patient with anterograde amnesia may not be able to form new memories indefinitely."}, "Sleep_and_memory": {"links": ["Cerebellum", "Memory errors", "Neuroanatomy of memory", "Basal forebrain", "Implicit memory", "Computed tomography", "Decay theory", "Muscle memory", "Semantic memory", "The Seven Sins of Memory", "Bibcode ", "Haptic memory", "Personal-event memory", "Alpha waves", "CiteSeerX ", "Confabulation", "Amygdala", "Sleep", "Imagination inflation", "Neurotrophin", "Radioactive tracer", "Recovered-memory therapy", "Brenda Milner", "Hippocampus", "Nucleus accumbens", "Cingulate gyrus", "Electromyogram", "Radionuclides", "Positron", "Memory conformity", "Methods used to study memory", "Non-rapid eye movement sleep", "Fluid intelligence", "Inferior parietal lobule", "PGO waves", "Brain-derived neurotrophic factor", "Electromyograph", "Childhood amnesia", "Chunking ", "Fusiform gyrus", "Lynn Nadel", "Mnemonic", "Synaptic vesicle", "Politics of memory", "Anterograde amnesia", "Childhood memory", "Nap", "Psychology", "James McGaugh", "Daniel Schacter", "Atkinson\u2013Shiffrin memory model", "Parietal lobe", "Cultural memory", "Lost in the mall technique", "Sleep deprived", "Tip of the tongue", "Motor skill", "REM sleep", "Parietal lobes", "Memory", "Eidetic memory", "Superior parietal lobule", "Gamma rays", "Ventral", "Dominic O'Brien", "Phosphorylation", "Acetylcholine", "Hemoglobin", "Psychogenic amnesia", "Eric Kandel", "George Armitage Miller", "Hindsight bias", "Neuroplasticity", "Amnesia", "Excitatory neurotransmitter", "Chris Marker", "Neocortex", "Nerve growth factor", "Synaptic plasticity", "Synapse", "Memory disorder", "Geoffrey Loftus", "J.M. Barrie", "Pontine tegmentum", "Long-term memory", "Motivated forgetting", "Reticular formation", "Andriy Slyusarchuk", "Misinformation effect", "Implicit learning", "Declarative memory", "Emotion and memory", "Glucose", "Ivan Izquierdo", "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise", "Shas Pollak", "Stimulus ", "Rote learning", "Patricia Goldman-Rakic", "Ammonia", "Robert A. Bjork", "False memory syndrome", "Retrieval-induced forgetting", "Visuospatial", "State-dependent memory", "Physostigmine", "Art of memory", "Protein synthesis", "Sigmund Freud", "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two", "Sleep cycle", "Neurology", "Occipital cortex", "Prospective memory", "Bloodstream", "Memory and trauma", "Anne Treisman", "Cholesterol", "Cosmos Rossellius", "Neurons", "Susumu Tonegawa", "Sleep deprivation", "Jonathan Hancock", "Memory inhibition", "Retrograde amnesia", "Selective retention", "Weapon focus", "Encoding ", "Exceptional memory", "Mitogen-activated protein kinase", "EEG", "Recall ", "Slow-wave sleep", "Richard Shiffrin", "Active recall", "Memory consolidation", "Source-monitoring error", "P wave ", "Forgetting", "Cerebral cortex", "Autobiographical memory", "Cognition", "Ben Pridmore", "Functional magnetic resonance imaging", "PMC ", "Brain stem", "Dentate nucleus", "Long term potentiation", "Serial reaction time", "Procedural memory", "Electrocardiography", "Clive Wearing", "Explicit memory", "Metamemory", "Electrode", "Henry Molaison", "Temporal lobe", "Theta waves", "Involuntary memory", "Steven Rose", "Electrooculography", "Schema ", "Neurotransmitter", "Lateral geniculate nucleus", "Polysomnography", "Memory sport", "Superior temporal sulcus", "Visual memory", "Carbachol", "Robert Stickgold", "Mere-exposure effect", "Arthur P. Shimamura", "Kent Cochrane", "Hermann Ebbinghaus", "Indirect tests of memory", "Isotopes", "Endel Tulving", "Thalamus", "About.com", "Collective memory", "Effects of alcohol on memory", "Priming ", "Shift work", "Sleep stages", "Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor", "Human brain", "Eleanor Maguire", "Sensory memory", "Cholinergic", "Electromyography", "Hyperthymesia", "Absent-mindedness", "Interference theory", "Alzheimer's disease", "ISBN ", "Misattribution of memory", "Actigraphy", "Deese\u2013Roediger\u2013McDermott paradigm", "Transactive memory", "Protein kinase", "Calmodulin", "Chemical synapse", "Doi ", "Blood-oxygen-level dependent", "Eyewitness memory", "Larry Squire", "Susan Clancy", "Repressed memory", "Cognitive psychology", "Donepezil", "Oxygen", "Memory and aging", "JSTOR ", "Functional imaging", "Marcia K. Johnson", "Attention", "Non-declarative memory", "Electroencephalography", "Delta waves", "Metabolic rate", "Premotor cortex", "Working memory", "Water", "Slow wave sleep", "Short-term memory", "Elizabeth Loftus", "Flashback ", "NREM", "Storage ", "Post-traumatic amnesia", "Electrical stimulation", "Free recall", "PMID ", "Henry L. Roediger III", "Forgetting curve", "Levels-of-processing effect", "Memory implantation", "Prefrontal cortex", "False memory", "Iconic memory", "Sleep study", "Correlation", "Echoic memory", "Meaningful learning", "Memory and social interactions", "Intermediate-term memory", "List of memory biases", "Motor learning", "Context-dependent memory", "Putamen", "Sleep spindle", "Episodic memory", "Cryptomnesia", "Membrane trafficking", "FMRI", "Flashbulb memory", "Brainstem", "Caffeine", "Middle frontal gyrus", "Selective amnesia", "Judith Lewis Herman", "Sharp waves and ripples", "Intertrial priming", "Control group", "Stephen J. Ceci", "Beta wave", "Retrospective memory", "Sleep spindles", "Positron emission tomography", "Classical conditioning", "Half lives", "Wernicke\u2013Korsakoff syndrome", "Exosomatic memory", "World Memory Championships", "Memory improvement", "Paul R. McHugh", "Radionuclide", "Olfactory tubercle", "Placebo", "Transient global amnesia"], "content": "The relationship between sleep and memory has been studied since at least the early 19th century. Memory, the cognitive process of storing and retrieving past experiences, learning and recognition, is a product of brain plasticity, the structural changes within synapses that create associations between stimuli. Stimuli are encoded within milliseconds; however, the long-term maintenance of memories can take additional minutes, days, or even years to fully consolidate and become a stable memory that is accessible (more resistant to change or interference). Therefore, the formation of a specific memory occurs rapidly, but the evolution of a memory is often an ongoing process.\nMemory processes have been shown to be stabilized and enhanced (sped up and/or integrated) and memories better consolidated by nocturnal sleep and daytime naps. Certain sleep stages have been demonstrated as improving an individual's memory, though this is task-specific. Generally, declarative memories are believed to be enhanced by slow-wave sleep, while non-declarative memories are enhanced by rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, although there are some inconsistencies among experimental results. The effect of sleep on memory, especially as it pertains to the human brain, is an active field of research in neurology, psychology, and related disciplines.\n\n\n== History ==\nIn 1801, David Hartley first suggested that dreaming altered the associative planetary links within the brain during rapid eye movement (REM) periods of the sleep cycle. The idea that sleep had a mentally restorative effect, sorting out and consolidating memories and ideas, was intellectually acceptable by the end of the 19th century. In \u2018Peter and Wendy\u2019, J.M. Barrie wrote  \u2018It is the nightly custom of every good mother after her children are asleep to rummage in their minds and put things straight for next morning, repacking into their proper places the many articles that have wandered during the day....When you wake in the morning, the naughtinesses and evil passions with which you went to bed have been folded up small and placed at the bottom of your mind; and on the top, beautifully aired, are spread out your prettier thoughts, ready for you to put on.\u2019 The stories of Peter Pan take place in a fictional world and contain many allusions to aspects of cognitive psychology, some of which predate their formal scientific investigation.The first semi-multiple-systematic study of the connection between sleep and memory was conducted in 1924 by Jenkins and Dallenbach, for the purpose of testing Hermann Ebbinghaus' memory decay theory. Their results showed that memory retention was much better after a period of sleep compared to the same time interval spent awake. It was not until 1953, however, when sleep was delineated into rapid eye movement sleep and non-rapid eye movement sleep, that studies focusing on the effect of specific sleep stages on memory were conducted. As behavioral characteristics of the effects of sleep and memory are becoming increasingly understood and supported, researchers are turning to the weakly understood neural basis of sleep and memory.\n\n\n== Sleep cycles ==\n\nSleep progresses in a cycle which consists of five stages. Four of these stages are collectively referred to as non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep whereas the last cycle is a rapid eye movement period. A cycle takes approximately 90\u2013110 minutes to complete. Wakefulness is found through an electroencephalogram (EEG) which is measured and characterized by beta waves, the highest in frequency but lowest in amplitude, and tend to move inconsistently due to the vast amount of stimuli a person encounters while awake. \n\nPre-sleep is the period of decreased perceptual awareness where brain activity is characterized by alpha waves which are more rhythmic, higher in amplitude and lower in frequency compared to beta waves.\nStage one is characterized by light sleep and lasts roughly 10 minutes. Brain waves gradually transition to theta waves.\nStage two also contains theta waves; however, random short bursts of increased frequency called sleep spindles are a defining characteristic of this stage.\nStage three and four are very similar and together are considered to be \"deep sleep\". In  these stages brain activity transitions to delta waves which are the lowest in frequency and highest in amplitude. These two stages combined are also called slow wave sleep (SWS).\nStage five, REM sleep, is one of the most interesting stages as brain wave patterns are similar to those seen in relaxed wakefulness. This is referred to as \"active sleep\" and is the period when most dreaming occurs. REM sleep is also thought to play a role in the cognitive development of infants and children as they spend much more of their sleep in REM periods opposed to adults.During the first half of the night, the largest portion of sleep is spent as SWS, but as the night progresses SWS stages decrease in length while REM stages increase.\n\n\n== Memory terms ==\n\n\n=== Stabilization vs. enhancement ===\nStabilization of a memory is the anchoring of a memory in place, in which a weak connection is established. Stabilization of procedural memories can even occur during waking hours, suggesting that specific non-declarative tasks are enhanced in the absence of sleep.\nWhen memories are said to be enhanced, however, the connection is strengthened by rehearsal as well as connecting it to other related memories thereby making the retrieval more efficient. Whereas stabilization of non-declarative memories can be seen to occur during a wakeful state, enhancement of these sensory and motor memories has most been found to occur during nocturnal sleep.\n\n\n=== Use-dependent processes vs. experience-dependent processes ===\nBrain activity that occurs during sleep is assessed in two ways: Use-dependency, and Experience-dependency. \nUse-dependent brain activity is a result of the neuronal usage that occurred during the previous waking hours.  Essentially it is neuronal regeneration, activity that occurs whether the person has learnt anything new or not.Experience-dependent brain activity is a result of a new situation, environment, or learned task or fact that has taken place in the pre-sleep period. This is the type of brain activity that denotes memory consolidation/enhancement.It is often hard to distinguish between the two in an experimental setting because the setting alone is a new environment. This new environment would be seen in the sleeping brain activity along with the newly learned task.  To avoid this, most experimenters insist participants spend one day in the experimental condition before testing begins so the setting is not novel once the experiment begins. This ensures the collected data for experience-dependent brain activity is purely from the novel task.\n\n\n=== Consolidation ===\n\nConsolidation of a memory is a process that takes an initially unstable representation and encodes it in a more sturdy, effective and efficient manner. In this new state, the memory is less susceptible to interference. There are essentially three phases of memory consolidation and all are thought to be facilitated by sleep or not sleep:\n\nStabilization is the encoding of a memory which takes only  6 milliseconds.\nEnhancement is the continual process of consolidation which can occur over minutes, 7 hours, days but not longer. Post-sleep behavioural activities can be seen to show significant improvements in the absence of practice.\nIntegration can also take hours or years and is the process of connecting recently encoded memories into existing memory networks.\n\n\n=== Reconsolidation ===\nReconsolidation of a memory involves the retrieval of an already consolidated memory (explicit or implicit), into short-term or working memory. Here it is brought into a labile state where subsequent information can interfere with what is currently in memory, therefore altering the memory. This is known as retroactive interference, and is an extremely significant issue for court and eyewitness testimonies.\n\n\n=== Pre-training vs post-training sleep deprivation ===\nResearchers approach the study of sleep and memory from different angles. Some studies measure the effects of sleep deprivation after a novel task is taught (the subject learns the task and is sleep deprived afterwards). This is referred to as post-training sleep deprivation. Conversely, other experiments have been conducted that measure the effects of sleep deprivation before a task has been taught (the subject is sleep-deprived and then learns a task). This is referred to as pre-training sleep deprivation.\n\n\n=== Offline memory processing ===\nThis is the processing of memories out of conscious awareness. For example, after someone has been reading a book, their brain continues to process the experience during other activities. This \"offline\" processing likewise occurs during sleep.\n\n\n== Methods of measuring memory ==\n\n\n=== Behavioral measures ===\nA self-ordered pointing task is a task of memory where a participant is presented with a number of images (or words) which are arranged on a display. Several trials are presented, each with a different arrangement and containing some of the previous words or images. The task for the participant is to point to a word or image they had not previously pointed to in other trials.\nIn a recency discrimination task participants are shown two trials of image presentation and then a third trial containing a mixture of images from the first and second trial. Their task is to determine whether the image was from the most recent presentation or the previous one.\nIn a route retrieval task spatial learning occurs where a participant virtual tours a particular place (such as a town or maze). Participants are asked to virtually tour the same thing at a later time while brain imaging is used to measure activity.\nA paired word associative task consists of two phases. During the first phase (acquisition), the responses of the paired-associate task are learned and become recallable. In the second phase (associative phase), the subject learns to pair each response to a separate stimulus. For example, a visual cue would provide information as to what words must be recalled after the stimulus and words are removed.\nIn a mirror tracing task participants are asked to trace several figures as fast and as accurately as possible which they can only see in a mirror. Speed is recorded as well as how much they deviate from the original image (accuracy).\nIn the Morris water maze task rats are used to test their spatial learning in two kinds of conditions: spatial and nonspatial. In the spatial condition, a platform is hidden by using murky water and in the nonspatial condition, the platform is visible. The spatial condition the rat must rely on their spatial memory to find the platform whereas the nonspatial condition is used for comparison purposes.\nThe serial reaction time task (SRT task) is a task whereby subjects face a computer screen where several markers are displayed that are spatially related to relevant markers on their keyboard. The subjects are asked to react as fast and accurately as possible to the appearance of a stimulus below one of the markers. Subjects can be trained on the task with either explicit instructions (e.g. there are colour sequences presented which must be learned) or implicit ones (e.g. the experimenter does not mention colour sequences, thus leaving the subjects to believe that they are taking place in a speed test).  When this task is used in sleep studies, after a time delay, subjects are tested for retention.\nIn the reach-to-grasp task rodents learned a skilled forelimb task. Sleep improved movement speed with preservation of accuracy. These offline improvements were linked to both replay of task-related ensembles during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and temporal shifts that more tightly bound motor cortical ensembles to movements.\nIn a neuroprosthetic task rodents trained to perform a simple brain\u2013machine interface task in which the activity of a set of motor cortical units was used to control a mechanical arm attached to a feeding spout. After successful learning, task-related units specifically experienced increased locking and coherency to slow-wave activity (SWA) during sleep. The time spent in SWA predicted the performance gains upon awakening.\nIn a block tapping task participants are asked to type a sequence of five numbers with their dominant or non-dominant hand (specified in experiment), for an allotted period of time, followed by a rest period. A number of these trials occur and the computer records the number of sequences completed to assess speed and the error rate to assess accuracy.\nA finger tapping test is commonly used when a pure motor task is needed. A finger tapping test requires subjects to continuously press four keys (typically numerical keys) on a keypad with their nondominant hand in a sequence, such as 4-3-1-2-4, for a given amount of time. Testing is done by determining the number of errors made.\n\n\n=== Neural imaging measures ===\nNeuroimaging can be classified into two categories, both used in varying situations depending on what type of information is needed. Structural imaging deals predominately with the structure of the brain (computed tomography) while functional imaging deals more heavily with metabolic processes in regards to anatomical functioning (positron emission tomography, functional magnetic resonance imaging).  In recent years, the relationship between sleep and memory processes had been aided by the development of such neuroimaging techniques.Positron emission tomography (PET) is used in viewing a functional processes of the brain (or other body parts). A Positron-emitting radionuclide is injected into the bloodstream and emits gamma rays which are detected by an imaging scanner. Computer analysis then allows for a 3-dimensional reconstruction of the brain region or body part of interest.\nFunctional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a type of brain imaging that measures the change of oxygen in the blood due to the activity of neurons. The resulting data can be visualized as a picture of the brain with colored representations of activation.\n\n\n=== Molecular measures ===\nAlthough this may be seen as similar to neuroimaging techniques, molecular measures help to enhance areas of activation that would otherwise be indecipherable to neuroimaging. One such technique that aids in both the temporal and visual resolution of fMRI is the blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) response. Changes in the BOLD response can be seen when there is differing levels of activation in suspected areas of functioning. Energy is supplied to the brain in the form glucose and oxygen (which is transferred by hemoglobin). The blood supply is consistently regulated so that areas of activation receive higher amounts of energy compared to areas that are less activated. In positron emission tomography, the use of radionuclides (isotopes with short half lives) facilitates visual resolution. These radionuclides are attached to glucose, water and ammonia so that easy absorption into the activated brain areas is accomplished. Once these radioactive tracers are injected into the bloodstream, the efficiency and location of chemical processes can be observed using PET.\n\n\n== Methods of measuring sleep ==\n\n\n=== Electrophysiological measures ===\nThe main method of measuring sleep in humans is polysomnography (PSG).  For this method, participants often must come into a lab where researchers can use PSG to measure things such as total sleep time, sleep efficiency, wake after sleep onset, and sleep fragmentation.  PSG can monitor various body functions including brain activity (electroencephalography), eye movement (electrooculography), muscle movement (electromyography), and heart rhythm (electrocardiography).\n\nElectroencephalography (EEG) is a procedure that records electrical activity along the scalp.  This procedure cannot record activity from individual neurons, but instead measures the overall average electrical activity in the brain.\nElectrooculography (EOG) measures the difference in electrical potential between the front and the back of the eye.  This does not measure a response to individual visual stimuli, but instead measures general eye movement.\nElectromyography (EMG) is used to records the electrical activity of skeletal muscles. A device called an electromyograph measures the electrical potential of muscle cells to monitor muscle movement.\nElectrocardiography (ECG or EKG) measures the electrical depolarization of the heart muscles using various electrodes placed near the chest and limbs.  This measure of depolarization can be used to monitor heart rhythm.\n\n\n=== Behavioural measures ===\nActigraphy is a common and minimally invasive way to measure sleep architecture. Actigraphy has only one method of recording, movement.  This movement can be analyzed using different actigraphic programs.  As such, an actigraph can often be worn similarly to a watch, or around the waist as a belt. Because it is minimally invasive and relatively inexpensive, this method allows for recordings outside of a lab setting and for many days at a time.  But, actigraphy often over estimates sleep time (de Souza 2003 and Kanady 2011).\n\n\n== Competing theories ==\nMost studies point to the specific deficits in declarative memories that form pre or post REM sleep deprivation.  Conversely, deficits in non-declarative memory occur pre or post NREM sleep deprivation.  This is the stage specific enhancement theory.  There is also a proposed dual-step memory hypothesis suggesting that optimal learning occurs when the memory trace is initially processed in SWS and then REM sleep.   Support for this is shown in many experiments where memory improvement is greater with either SWS or REM sleep compared to sleep deprivation, but memory is even more accurate when the sleep period contains both SWS and REM sleep.\n\n\n== Declarative memory ==\nDeclarative memory is the memory for conscious events.  There are two types of declarative memory: episodic and semantic.  Episodic memory is for remembering experiences or personal facts whereas semantic memory is remembering specific facts. Declarative memory is typically considered to be an explicit memory because the individual must consciously try to remember it. \n\n\n=== Temporal memory ===\nTemporal memory consists of three main categories, although they are still debated by psychologists and neurobiologists; the categories are immediate memory, short-term and long-term memory. Immediate memory is when a memory is recalled based on recently presented information. Short-term memory is what is used when retaining information that had been presented within seconds or minutes prior. A type of short-term memory is known as working memory, which is the ability to retain information that is necessary to carry out sequential actions. Lastly, long-term memory is the retention of information for longer periods of time, such as days, weeks or even a lifetime.\nIn a study, participants were placed into four groups: two control groups given either caffeine or a placebo, and two groups that were sleep deprived for 36 hours, given either caffeine or a placebo. The task used to measure temporal memory consisted of discriminating between recent and less recent face presentations. A set of twelve unfamiliar faces were presented sequentially every 10 seconds. A self-ordered pointing task was used afterwards for 5 minutes to prevent rehearsal and to keep tired participants occupied. This required them to mark any new items seen (either nouns or abstract shapes) presented on 12 sheets. A second set was presented, followed by another self-ordered pointing task, and then a random sequence of 48 faces either containing previously presented faces or new ones were shown to the participant. They were asked if they recognized the faces and whether they were from the first or second set. Results indicate that sleep deprivation does not significantly affect recognition of faces, but does produce a significant impairment of temporal memory (discriminating which face belonged to which set). Caffeine was found to have a greater effect on the sleep deprived group as compared to the placebo group deprived of sleep, but still performed worse than both control groups. Sleep deprivation was also found to increase beliefs of being correct, especially if the participants were wrong. Brain imaging studies of those sleep deprived found that the greatest reduction in metabolic rate is in the prefrontal cortex.\n\n\n=== Verbal learning ===\nA blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) fMRI was used in a study by Drummond et al. to measure the brain's response to verbal learning following sleep deprivation. An fMRI recorded brain activity during a verbal learning task of participants either having a normal night of sleep or those deprived of 34.7 (\u00b1 1.2) hours of sleep. The task alternated between a baseline condition of determining whether nouns were upper or lower case, and an experimental condition of memorizing a list of nouns. The results of the study indicate that performance is significantly worse on free recall of the list of nouns when sleep deprived (an average of 2.8 \u00b1 2 words) compared to having a normal night of sleep (4.7 \u00b1 4 words). In terms of brain regions activated, the left prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex, and temporal lobes were found to be activated during the task in the rested state, and discrete regions of the prefrontal cortex were even more activated during the task in the sleep deprived state. As well, the bilateral parietal lobe, left middle frontal gyrus, and right inferior frontal gyrus were found to be activated for those sleep deprived. The implication of these findings are that the brain can initially compensate for the effects of sleep deprivation while maintaining partially intact performance, which declines with an increasing time-on-task. This initial compensation may be found in the bilateral regions of both frontal and parietal lobes and the activation of the prefrontal cortex is significantly correlated with sleepiness.\n\n\n=== Cognitive performance ===\nCerebral activation during performance on three cognitive tasks (verbal learning, arithmetic, and divided attention) were compared after both normal sleep and 35 hours of total sleep deprivation (TSD) in a study by Drummond and Brown. Use of fMRI measured these differences in the brain. In the verbal learning task, fMRI indicated the regions involved in both verbal learning and memorization. The results found that both TSD and a normal night of sleep showed a significant response in the prefrontal cortex, and following TSD displayed a response of additional areas which included other prefrontal areas, bilateral inferior parietal lobule and superior parietal lobes. Increases in sleepiness also correlated with activation of two ventral prefrontal regions and a correlation between a greater activation in bilateral parietal lobes (which include language areas) and lower levels of impairment on free recall were also found following TSD. In the arithmetic task, normal sleep showed the expected activation in the bilateral prefrontal and parietal working memory regions, but following TSD only showed activation in the left superior parietal lobe and the left premotor cortex in response, with no new areas to compensate (as was found in verbal learning). Increased sleepiness was also correlated with activation in a ventral prefrontal region, but only one region. The divided attention task combined both verbal learning and the arithmetic task. fMRI indicated that cerebral response after TSD is similar to that of the verbal learning task (specifically the right prefrontal cortex, bilateral parietal lobes, and cingulate gyrus showing the strongest response). The implication of this finding is that additional brain regions activated after both verbal learning and divided attention tasks following TSD represent a cerebral compensatory response to lacking sleep. For example, there is a decline in response of the left temporal lobes during both tasks which is involved in different learning tasks during a rested state, but involvement of the left inferior parietal lobe in short-term verbal memory storage following TSD suggests that this region might compensate. No new areas for the arithmetic task may suggest that it relies heavily on working memory so compensation is not possible, in comparison to tasks such as verbal learning which rely less on working memory.\n\n\n=== Slow wave sleep (SWS) ===\nSlow wave sleep (SWS) has often been associated with successful performance in declarative memory recall tasks. For example, declarative and procedural memory recall tasks applied over early and late nocturnal sleep, as well as wakefulness controlled conditions, have been shown that declarative memory improves more during early sleep (dominated by SWS) while procedural memory during late sleep (dominated by REM sleep). Based on targeted memory reactivation (TMR) that use associated memory cues for triggering memory traces during sleep, recent studies have been reassuring the importance of nocturnal SWS for the formation of persistent memories in neocortical networks, as well as highlighting the possibility of increasing people's memory performance at declarative recalls. Increased slow activity and sleep time spent in SWS have been also related to better performance in implicit learning.\n\n\n==== Macroscopic brain systems ====\nThe most prominent population pattern in the hippocampus during nREM is called sharp wave ripples (SPW-R). SPW-Rs are the most synchronous neuronal patterns in the mammalian brain. As many as 15-30 percent of neurons in 50-200 ms fire synchronously in the CA3-CA2-CA1, subicular complex and entorhinal cortex during SWP-R (as opposed to ~1 percent during active waking and REM). Neurons within SPW-R are sequentially organized and many of the fast sequences are related to the order of neuronal firing during the pre-sleep experience of the animal. For example, when the rat explores a maze, place cell sequences in the different arms of the maze are replayed either in a forward (as during the experience itself) or reverse order, but compressed in time several-fold. SPW-R are temporally linked to both sleep spindles and slow oscillations of the neocortex. Interfering with SPW-Rs or its coupling with neocortical slow oscillations results in memory impairment, which can be as severe as surgically damaging the hippocampus and/or associated structures. SPW-R is therefore the most prominent physiological biomarker of episodic (i.e., hippocampus-dependent) memory consolidation (Buzsaki 2015).\n\n\n===== Neural forebrain reverberation correlation =====\nResearchers used rats in order to investigate the effects of novel tactile objects on the long-term evolution of the major rodent forebrain loops essential in species-specific behaviours, including such structures as the hippocampus, putamen, neocortex  and the thalamus.  The rats were monitored but not bothered for 48\u201396 hours, allowing normal wake-sleep cycles to occur.  At some point four novel tactile objects were placed in the four corners of the rat's cage.  They were all very different from one another and they were there for a total of one hour.  The brain activity during this hour was used as a baseline or template to compare.  Data analysis implied that the neural assemblies during SWS correlated significantly more with templates than during waking hours or REM sleep. As well, these post-learning, post-SWS reverberations lasted 48 hours, much longer than the duration of novel object learning (one hour), indicating long term potentiation.  Further analysis on a neuron to neuron base showed no subset of neurons (brain structure) to be responsible for the reverberations or anti-reverberations (patterns of activity significantly more dissimilar than novel stimulation templates).  Another difference noticed was the highest correlation peaks in SWS corresponded with the lowest rate of neuron firing in the forebrain, opposite that of REM sleep and waking where rate of firing is the highest.  It is hypothesized that this is due to interference from other incoming stimuli during waking periods.  In SWS there is no incoming stimuli, so the novel experience can be replayed, without interruption.\n\n\n===== Neural hippocampal reverberation correlations =====\nA study by Peigneux et al., (2004) noted that the firing sequences in the hippocampal ensembles during spatial learning are also active during sleep, which shows that post training sleep has a role in processing spatial memories. This study was done to prove that the same hippocampal areas are activated in humans during route learning in a virtual town, and are reactivated during subsequent slow wave sleep (SWS). In order to monitor this activation, experimenters used PET scans and fMRI to use cerebral blood flow as a marker of synaptic activity. The finding noted that the amount of hippocampal activation during slow-wave sleep positively correlated to the improvement on the virtual tour task the following day, which indicates that hippocampal activity during sleep correlates with the improvement in memory performance. These findings prove that learning-dependent modulation in hippocampal activity while sleeping shows processing of the previously learned episodic and spatial memory traces. This modulation of the hippocampus leads to plastic changes in the brain and ultimately an improvement in performance. The results of this study showed that spatial memory traces are processed in humans while they are in NREM sleep. It showed a reaction of the hippocampal formation during SWS, after a declarative spatial memory task. Experimenters also found, that in humans, there is experience-dependent modulation of activity during NREM sleep in the hippocampal regions, but not during REM sleep after learning. The evidence from this study was substantial to its hypothesis that the information learned while awake is altered, and strengthened while humans are sleeping.Based on the active system consolidation hypothesis, repeated reactivations of newly encoded information in hippocampus during slow oscillations in NREM sleep mediate the stabilization and gradual integration of declarative memory with pre-existing knowledge networks on the cortical level. It assumes the hippocampus might hold information only temporarily and in fast-learning rate, whereas the neocortex is related to long-term storage and slow-learning rate. This dialogue between hippocampus and neocortex occurs in parallel with hippocampal sharp-wave ripples and thalamo-cortical spindles, synchrony that drives the formation of spindle-ripple event which seems to be a prerequisite for the formation of long-term memories.\n\n\n==== Decreases in acetylcholine ====\nIn this study, two groups of participants took part in a two-night counterbalanced study.  Two tasks were learned by all participants between 10:00-10:30pm.  The declarative task was a paired-associate word list of 40 German semantically related word pairs.  The non-declarative task was a mirror-tracing task.  At 11:00pm all participants were put on a two-hour infusion of either physostigmine or a placebo.  Physostigmine is an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor; it is a drug that inhibits the breakdown of the inhibitory neurotransmitter acetylcholine, thereby allowing it to remain active longer in the synapses.  The sleep group was put to bed while the other group stayed awake.  Testing of both tasks took place at 2:45am, 30 minutes after the sleep group had been woken up; a sleep which had been rich in slow-wave sleep (SWS).  Results showed that the increased ACh negatively affected recall memory (declarative task), in the sleep condition compared to participants given the placebo. Specifically, recall after sleep for the placebo group showed an increase of 5.2 \u00b1 0.8 words compared to an increase of only 2.1 \u00b1 0.6 words when participants were given the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor.  Conversely, neither speed nor accuracy declined in the non-declarative mirror task when participants were given physostigmine, and neither task performance was affected in the wake groups when physostigmine was administered.  This suggests that the purpose of ACh suppression during SWS allows for hippocampus-dependent  declarative memory consolidation; high levels of ACh during SWS blocks memory replay on a hippocampal level.\nNote:  There was no correlation between the amount of SWS and level of recall.  Memory consolidation can be disrupted, however, if large parts of SWS are missing.\n\n\n==== Increases in sleep spindles ====\n\nSleep spindles are short and intense bursts of neurons firing in sync, occurring in the thalamo-cortical networks. These peak late in the night and are defining characteristics of stage two sleep. Sleep spindles are thought to aid in information consolidation during sleep and have been shown to increase after training on a motor task.A study using 49 rats indicated the increase of sleep spindles during slow-wave sleep following learning. It gave evidence to the increase of spindle frequency during non-REM sleep following paired associate of motor-skill learning tasks. Using an EEG, sleep spindles were detected and shown to be present only during slow-wave sleep. Beginning with a preliminary study, rats underwent six hours of monitored sleep, after a period of learning. Results showed that during the first hour following learning, there was the most evident effect on learning-modulated sleep spindle density. However, this increase in spindle density was not dependent on the training condition. In other words, there was an increase in spindles regardless of how the rats were trained. EEG patterns showed a significant difference in the density of sleep spindles compared to the density of a control group of rats, who did not undergo any training before their sleep spindles were measured. This effect of increased spindle density only lasted for the first hour into sleep following training, and then disappeared within the second hour into sleep.\n\n\n=== Reward learning and memory ===\nIn a study by Fischer and Born, 2009, previous knowledge of monetary reward and post-training sleep are proven to be significant predictors of overall finger sequence tapping performance. Subjects were presented with two different finger sequence tasks that would have to be replicated at a later time. The subjects were told that there would be a reward offered for improvement upon a specific finger tapping sequence task. A control group was not given any knowledge of a reward. The subjects were separated further by allowing a sleep period between initial training and final testing for one group while another group faced a wake retention interval. It was concluded that the group that received both information about reward as well as being able to sleep displayed the highest increase in performance on both finger tapping sequences. Knowledge of reward without sleep and sleep without knowledge of reward were both significant contributors to improved performance. In all cases sleep was determined to have an advantageous effect on overall performance when compared to groups that underwent a twelve-hour wake retention period.\n\n\n== Non-declarative memory ==\nNon-declarative memory is memory gained from previous experiences that is unconsciously applied to everyday scenarios. Non-declarative memory is essential for the performance of learned skills and habits, for example, running or cooking a favourite meal. There are three types of non-declarative memories: implicit memory (unconscious memory, priming), instrumental memory (classical conditioning), and procedural memory (automatic skill memory).\n\n\n=== Sleep deprivation ===\n\n\n==== ERK phosphorylation ====\nExtracellular signal-related kinases, also known as classical MAP kinase, are a group of protein kinases located in neurons.  These proteins are activated or deactivated by phosphorylation (adding of a phosphate group using ATP), in response to neurotransmitters and growth factors.  This can result in subsequent protein to protein interactions and signal transductions (neurotransmitters or hormones transmit to cells), which ultimately controls all cellular processes including gene transcription and cell cycles (important in learning and memory).  A study tested four groups of rats in the Morris Water Maze, two groups in the spatial task (hidden platform) and two groups in the non-spatial task (visible platform.)  The effects of six hours of total sleep deprivation (TSD) were assessed for the experimental group (one spatial group, one non-spatial group) in both tasks. Six hours after the TSD period (or sleep period for controls), the groups of rats were trained on either task then tested 24 hours later.  In addition, the levels of  total ERK phosphorylation (ERK 1 and ERK 2), protein phosphate 1 (PP1), and MAPK phosphatase 2 (latter two both involved in dephosphorylation) were assessed by decapitating four other groups of mice, (two sleep deprived and two non-sleep deprived), and removing their hippocampuses after the six hours of TSD, or two hours after TSD (eight hours total).  Results showed that TSD did not impair learning of the spatial task, but it did impair memory.  With regards to the non-spatial task, learning again was no different in the TSD; however, memory in the TSD group was actually slightly better, although not quite significantly.  Analysis of the hippocampus showed that TSD significantly decreased the levels of total ERK phosphorylation by about 30%. TSD did not affect proteins in the cortex which indicates that the decreases in ERK levels were due to impaired signal transduction in the hippocampus.  In addition, neither PP1 or MAPK phosphatase 2 levels were increased suggesting that the decreases in ERK were not due to dephosphorylation but instead a result of TSD.  Therefore, it is proposed that TSD has aversive effects on the cellular processes (ERK: gene transcription etc.), underlying sleep-dependent memory plasticity.\n\n\n=== REM sleep ===\nREM sleep is known for its vivid creations and similarity to the bioelectric outputs of a waking person. This stage of sleep is characterized by muscle atonia, fast but low voltage EEG and, as the name suggests, rapid eye movement. It is difficult to attribute memory gains to a single stage of sleep when it may be the entire sleep cycle that is responsible for memory consolidation. Recent research conducted by Datta et al. used an avoidance task followed by a post-training REM sleep period to examine changes in P waves affecting reprocessing of recently acquired stimuli. It was found that not only were the P waves increased during post-training sleep but also the density of the waves. These findings may imply that P waves during REM sleep may help to activate critical forebrain and cortical structures dealing with memory consolidation. In a Hennevin et al. study, 1989, the mesencephalic reticular formation (MRF) was given light electrical stimulation, during REM sleep, which is known to have an advantageous effect for learning when applied after training. The rats in the experiment were trained to run a maze in search of a food reward. One group of rats was given non-awakening MRF electrical stimulations after each of their maze trials compared to a control group which did not receive any electrical stimulation. It was noticed that the stimulated rats performed significantly better in respect to error reduction. These findings imply that dynamic memory processes occur both during training as well as during post-training sleep. Another study by Hennevin et al. (1998) conditioned rats to fear a noise that is associated with a subsequent foot shock. The interesting part of the experiment is that fear responding to the noise (measured in the amygdala) was observed when the noise was presented during REM sleep. This was compared to a group of pseudo-conditioned rats who did not display the same amygdalar activation during post-training sleep. This would suggest that neural responding to previously salient stimuli is maintained even during REM sleep. There is no shortage of research conducted on the effects that REM sleep has on the working brain, but consistency in the findings is what plagues recent research. There is no guarantee as to what functions REM sleep may perform for our bodies and brains, but modern research is always expanding and assimilating new ideas to further our understanding of such processes.\n\n\n==== PGO waves ====\nIn animals, the appearance of ponto-geniculo-occipital waves (PGO waves) is related to that of the bioelectric outputs of rapid eye movements. These waves are most clearly seen during the transition from non-REM to REM sleep. Although these phasic waves are observed in many portions of the animal brain, they are most noticeable in the pons, lateral geniculate bodies, and the occipital cortex. Peigneux et al., 2006, reported that the lateral geniculate nucleus and occipital cortex display higher levels of activity during REM sleep than during wakefulness. This would add to the theory that activation in these areas is similar to PGO wave activation in animals. Pontine waves are commonly seen in animals as a mechanism to help facilitate learning and memory consolidation.  An improvement on task performance was seen to be a result of increased P waves between REM sleep sessions. In a study using post learning REM sleep deprivation the effects of stimulating the P wave generator (located in the pontine tegmentum) of a rat were observed. Two groups of rats underwent an avoidance learning task and then allowed a sleep period while another group of rats were deprived sleep. When comparing the two groups the sleep deprived rats showed a significant deficit in learning from having not undergone REM sleep. In another rat group, the P wave generator was stimulated using a carbachol injection and the rats then underwent a sleep deprivation stage. When these rats were again tested on their learning it was shown that activation of the P wave generator during sleep deprivation resulted in normal learning being achieved. This would point to the fact that the activation of P waves, even without REM sleep, was enough to enhance the memory processes that would not normally have happened.\n\n\n==== Implicit face memory ====\nFaces are an important part of one's social life.  To be able to recognize, respond and act towards a person requires unconscious memory encoding and retrieval processes. Facial stimuli are processed in the fusiform gyrus (occipito-temporal brain area) and this processing is an implicit function representing a typical form of implicit memory. REM sleep has been seen to be more beneficial to implicit visuospatial memory processes, rather than slow-wave sleep which is crucial for explicit memory consolidation. REM sleep is known for its visual experiences, which may often include detailed depictions of the human countenance.  A recognition task was used to gauge familiarity with a previously shown sequence of faces after a subsequent period of REM sleep. It was seen that the fusiform gyrus was active during training, the REM sleep period, and the recognition task as well. It is hypothesized that brain mechanisms during REM sleep, as well as pure repetition priming, can account for the implicit recognition of the previously shown faces.\n\n\n==== Macroscopic brain systems ====\nPrevious research has shown REM sleep to reactivate cortical neural assemblies post-training on a serial reaction time task (SRT), in other words REM sleep replays the processing that occurred while one learnt an implicit task in the previous waking hours. However, control subjects did not complete a SRT task, thus researchers could not assume the reactivation of certain networks to be a result of the implicitly learned sequence/grammar as it could simply be due to elementary visuomotor processing which was obtained in both groups.  To answer this question the experiment was redone and another group was added who also took part in the SRT task.  They experienced no sequence to the SRT task (random group),  whereas the experimental group did experience a sequence (probabilistic group), although without conscious awareness.  Results of PET scans indicate that bilateral cuneus were significantly more activated during SRT practice as well as post-training REM sleep in the Probabilistic group than the Random group.  In addition, this activation was significantly increased during REM sleep versus the SRT task.  This suggests that specific brain regions are specifically engaged in the post-processing of sequential information.  This is further supported by the fact that regional CBF (rCBF) during post-training REM sleep are modulated by the level of high-order, but not low-order learning obtained prior to sleep.  Therefore, brain regions that take part in a learning process are modulated by both the sequential structure of the learned material (increased activation in cuneus), and the amount of high-order learning (rCBF).\n\n\n==== REM sleep deprivation and neurotrophic factors ====\nThe effects of REM sleep deprivation (RSD) on neurotrophic  factors, specifically nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), were assessed in 2000 by Sie et al.  Neurotrophins are proteins found in the brain and periphery that aid in the survival, functioning and generation of neurons; this is an important element in the synaptic plasticity process, the underlying neurochemical foundation in forming memories. Sei et al., inserted electrodes into the skulls of seven pairs of rats to measure electroencephalogram (EEG), and inserted wires into the neck muscles of the rats to measure electromyogram (EMG), a technique used to measure the amount of muscle activity.   Half the rats experienced a six-hour REM sleep deprivation period, while the other half experienced a six-hour sleep period, containing all sleep cycles.  Results showed that the rats in the REM sleep deprivation group experienced decreased levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the cerebellum (coordination, motor learning) and brainstem (sensory and motor ascending pathway); conversely, the hippocampus (long-term memory, spatial navigation), showed decreases in nerve growth factor levels.  BDNF protein has been shown to be necessary for procedural learning (form of non-declarative memory).  Since procedural learning has also exhibited consolidation and enhancement under REM sleep, it is proposed that the impairment of procedural learning tasks is due to the lack of BDNF proteins in the cerebellum and brainstem during RSD.  In regards to NGF, the basal forebrain (production and distribution of AcH in the brain), more specifically the medial septal area, sends cholinergic (excitatory in hippocampus) and GABAergic (inhibitory) neurotransmitters through fibres to the hippocampus target cells.  These target cells then secrete NGF which plays a key role in the physiological state of the hippocampus and its functions.  It has been noted that REM sleep increases the secretion of NGF, therefore it has been proposed that during RSD cholinergic activity decreases leading to a decrease in NGF and impairment in procedural learning.\n\n\n=== Macroscopic brain system reorganization ===\nWalker and Stickgold hypothesized that after initial memory acquisition, sleep reorganizes memory representation at a macro-brain systems level. Their experiment consisted of two groups; the night-sleep group was taught a motor sequence block tapping task at night, put to sleep and then retested 12 hours later. The day-wake group was taught the same task in the morning and tested 12 hours later with no intervening sleep. FMRI was used to measure brain activity during retest. Results indicated significantly fewer errors/sequence in the night-sleep group compared to the day wake group. FMRI output for the night-sleep group indicated increased activation in the right primary motor cortex/M1/Prefrontal Gyrus (contra lateral to the hand they were block tapping with), right anterior medial prefrontal lobe, right hippocampus (long-term memory, spatial memory), right ventral striatum (olfactory tubercle, nucleus accumbens), as well as regions of the cerebellum (lobules V1, V11). In the day-wake group, fMRI showed \"decreased\" signal activation bilaterally in the parietal cortices (integrates multiple modalities), in addition to the left insular cortex (regulation of homeostasis), left temporal pole (most anterior of temporal cortex), and the left inferior fronto-polar cortex. Previous investigations have shown that signal increases indicate brain plasticity. The increased signal activity seen in M1 after sleep corresponds to increased activity in this area seen during practice; however, an individual must practice for longer periods than they would have to sleep in order to obtain the same level of M1 signal increases. Therefore, it is suggested that sleep enhances the cortical representation of motor tasks by brain system expansion, as seen by increased signal activity.\n\n\n=== Working memory ===\nConsidered to be a mental workspace enabling temporary storage and retrieval of information, working memory is crucial to problem-solving and analysis of different situations. Working memory capacity is a measure of the number of mental processing functions one is able to perform consecutively. Increases in one's working memory capacity can be accomplished with a strategy known as chunking. Aritake et al. conducted a finger sequence tapping experiment in which the subjects were shown coloured dots in sequence on a monitor corresponding to buttons on their keyboard. When a colour was shown, the subject had to react by pressing the right colour on the keyboard. The subjects were separated into three groups. Group one continually trained with no periods of sleep. Group two was trained and retested over ten hours of wakefulness followed by eight hours of sleep and final testing. The third group was trained at ten pm, followed by an eight-hour sleep. This group was then tested the following morning and again later in the same day. Results showed that wakefulness was an insignificant predictor of performance improvement, unless followed by a period of sleep. Groups that were allowed a post training sleep period, regardless of its time in reference to training, experienced improvements in learning the finger tapping sequences. The initial working memory capacity of the groups averaged three to four units. In groups two and three, the working memory capacity was increased to an average of 5\u20136 units. It was proposed that sleep-dependent improvements may contribute to overall improvement in working memory capacity, leading to improved fluid intelligence.\n\n\n==== Sleep deprivation ====\nSleep deprivation, whether it is total sleep deprivation or partial sleep deprivation, can impair working memory in measures of memory, speed of cognitive processing, attention and task switching. Casement et al. found that when subjects were asked to recognize digits displayed on a screen by typing them on a keypad, the working memory speed of subjects whose sleep was restricted to four hours a night (approximately 50% of their normal sleep amount) were 58% slower than control groups who were allowed their full eight hours of sleep.\n\n\n== Synaptic plasticity ==\nThe brain is an ever-changing, plastic, model of information sharing and processing. In order for the brain to incorporate new experiences into a refined schema, it has to undergo specific modifications to consolidate and assimilate all new information. Synaptic plasticity can be described as the changing in strength between two related neurons. Neuroplasticity is most clearly seen in the instances of REM sleep deprivation during brain maturation. Regional brain measurements in neonatal REM sleep deprived rats displayed a significant size reduction in areas such as the cerebral cortex and the brain stem. The rats were deprived during critical periods after birth, and subsequently anatomical size reduction is observed. Using a pursuit task (used to test visuomotor capabilities) in combination with an fMRI, Maquet et al., 2003, found that increases in activation were seen in the supplementary eye field and right dentate nucleus of subjects who were allowed to sleep as compared to sleep deprived individuals. The right superior temporal sulcus was also noticed to have higher activation levels. When functional connectivity was analyzed it was found that the dentate nucleus was more closely involved with the functions of the superior temporal sulcus. The results suggest that performance on the pursuit task relies on the subject's ability to comprehend appropriate movement patterns in order to recreate the optimal movements. Sleep deprivation was found to interrupt the slow processes that lead to learning of this procedural skill and alter connectivity changes that would have normally been seen after a night of rest. Neuroplasticity has been thoroughly researched over the past few decades and results have shown that significant changes that occur in our cortical processing areas have the power to modulate neuronal firing to both new and previously experienced stimuli.\n\n\n=== Neurotransmitter regulation ===\nThe changes in quantity of a certain neurotransmitter as well as how the post-synaptic terminal responds to this change are underlying mechanisms of brain plasticity. During sleep there are remarkable changes in modulatory neurotransmitters throughout the brain. Acetylcholine is an excitatory neurotransmitter that is seen to increase to near waking levels during REM sleep while compared to lower levels during slow-wave sleep. Evidence has shown that functioning of the hippocampus-dependent memory system (episodic memory and autobiographical memory) is directly affected by cholinergic changes throughout the wake-sleep cycle. High levels of ACh would promote information attained during wakefulness to be stored in the hippocampus. This is accomplished by suppressing previous excitatory connections while facilitating encoding without interference from previously stored information. During NREM sleep, and especially slow-wave sleep, low levels of Ach would cause the release of this suppression and allow for spontaneous recovery of hippocampal neurons resulting in the facilitation of memory consolidation.\n\n\n=== Gene expression ===\nRecently, approximately one hundred genes whose brain expression is increased during periods of sleep have been found. A similar number of genes were found to promote gene expression during wakefulness. These sets of genes are related to different functional groups which may promote different cellular processes. The genes expressed during wakefulness may perform numerous duties including energy allocation, synaptic excitatory neurotransmission, high transcriptional activity and synaptic potentiation in learning of new information. There was a sleep related increase in processes that involve the synthesis and maintenance of the synapse. Such processes include membrane trafficking, synaptic vesicle recycling, myelin structural protein formation, and cholesterol and protein synthesis. In a different study it was found that there was a sleep related increase in calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IV that has been specifically involved in synaptic depression and in the consolidation of long-term memory. These findings encourage an association between sleep and different aspects of neural plasticity.\n\n\n== Alternative sleep schedules ==\n\n\n=== Motor skills learning ===\nThe impact of daytime naps was looked at by Walker and Stickgold (2005).  The experimental group was given a 60-90 minute afternoon nap (one full cycle), after a motor skills task learned that morning, while the control group received no nap.  The nap group improved 16% when tested after their nap, while the no-nap group made no significant improvements.  However, it seemed to all even out after that same night's sleep; the no-nap group improved 24% and the nap group improved only 7% more for a total of 23%, virtually identical.  With regards to motor skills learning, naps seem to only speed up skill enhancement, not increase the amount of enhancement.\n\n\n=== Visuals skills learning ===\nMuch like motor skills learning, verbal skills learning increased after a daytime nap period.  Researchers Mednick and colleagues have shown that if a visual skills task (find task) is taught in the morning and repeatedly tested throughout the day, individuals will actually become worse at the task.  The individuals that were allowed a 30-60 minute nap seemed to gain stabilization of the skill, as no deterioration occurred.  If allowed a 60-90 minute nap (REM sleep and slow-wave sleep), individuals displayed enhancement.  Unlike the motor task, enhancement was not suppressed during the nocturnal sleep if the individual had napped earlier.  In the situation of visual skill learning, naps have been shown to prevent wakeful deterioration and even enhance learning above and beyond enhancement occurring in nocturnal sleep.\n\n\n=== Shift workers ===\nShift workers who work throughout the night have been known to have far more accidents as opposed to daytime workers. This can be attributed to several factors, including fewer staff and fatigue; however, part of the problem may be the workers' poor working memory and poor performance skills due to poor memory consolidation. Both implicitly learned tasks and explicitly learned tasks improve by roughly 20% after a full nights sleep. Without an adequate nights sleep between learning a new task and performance of that task, performance fails to improve. Shift workers who are not given an adequate amount of sleep, particularly in the NREM stage, between learning and performance of a task will not perform as well as workers who maintain a standard sleep routine.\n\n\n== Sleep and aging ==\nSleep often becomes deregulated in the elderly, a problem which can lead to or exacerbate pre-existing memory decline.\n\n\n=== Healthy older adults ===\nThe positive correlation between sleep and memory breaks down with aging.  In general, older adults suffer from decreased sleep efficiency. The amount of time and density of REM sleep and SWS decreases with age. Consequently, it is common that the elderly receive no increase in memory after a period of rest.To combat this, donepezil has been tested in healthy elderly patients where it was shown to increase time spent in REM sleep and improve next day memory recall.\n\n\n=== Alzheimer's disease ===\n\nPatients with Alzheimer's disease experience more sleep disruption than the healthy elderly.  Studies have shown that in patients with Alzheimer's disease, there is a decrease in fast spindles.  It has also been reported that spindle density the night before a memory test correlates positively with accuracy on an immediate recall task.  A positive correlation between time spent in SWS and next day autobiographical memory recall has also been reported in Alzheimer's patients.\n\n\n== See also ==\nEmotion and memory\nMemory and aging\nMemory and social interactions\nMemory improvement\nSleep study\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/EEG_record_of_brain_activity_and_wave_patterns_from_a_sleeping_boy.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/MorrisWaterMaze.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Psi2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Sleep_EEG_Stage_1.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Sleeping_while_studying.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Socrates.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Stage2sleep.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Vertebrate-brain-regions.png"], "summary": "The relationship between sleep and memory has been studied since at least the early 19th century. Memory, the cognitive process of storing and retrieving past experiences, learning and recognition, is a product of brain plasticity, the structural changes within synapses that create associations between stimuli. Stimuli are encoded within milliseconds; however, the long-term maintenance of memories can take additional minutes, days, or even years to fully consolidate and become a stable memory that is accessible (more resistant to change or interference). Therefore, the formation of a specific memory occurs rapidly, but the evolution of a memory is often an ongoing process.\nMemory processes have been shown to be stabilized and enhanced (sped up and/or integrated) and memories better consolidated by nocturnal sleep and daytime naps. Certain sleep stages have been demonstrated as improving an individual's memory, though this is task-specific. Generally, declarative memories are believed to be enhanced by slow-wave sleep, while non-declarative memories are enhanced by rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, although there are some inconsistencies among experimental results. The effect of sleep on memory, especially as it pertains to the human brain, is an active field of research in neurology, psychology, and related disciplines."}, "Neuroplasticity": {"links": ["Doi ", "Cognitive control", "Brain\u2013computer interface", "Promoter ", "Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring", "Artificial neural network", "Kinesiology", "Attention", "Amphibians", "Nutritional neuroscience", "Ventrolateral prefrontal cortex", "Affective neuroscience", "Neuroepidemiology", "Critical period", "Paul Bach-y-Rita", "Neuroplastic effects of pollution", "Basal ganglia", "Neuron pathways", "Amputation", "Projection areas", "Neuro-ophthalmology", "Brain", "Neuropsychiatry", "Computerized tomography", "Evolution", "Neurology", "Clinically significant", "Brain-reading", "Neuroregeneration", "Lateralization of brain function", "History of neuroscience", "Sheep", "Vanderbilt University", "Paleoneurobiology", "Species", "Mirror box", "Neurotransmission", "VOtwo max", "Rodents", "Wakefulness", "Neurotechnology", "Neuromorphology", "Neurophysics", "Gina Rippon", "Physical fitness", "Toward a theory of neuroplasticity", "Neurooncology", "Somatotopic arrangement", "Putamen", "Neuroinformatics", "Central sensitization", "Randy Nudo", "George M. 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Ramachandran", "Gene", "Sensory neuroscience", "Forelimb", "Bereitschaftspotential", "Sensory nervous system", "Pharmacotherapy", "Pthree hundred ", "Chronobiology", "Progesterone", "Frontal lobe", "Educational neuroscience", "Neuropsychology", "Reactive oxygen species", "Behavioral neuroscience", "Behavioural genetics", "Hdl ", "Functional electrical stimulation", "Richard Davidson", "Virtual reality therapy", "Neuropolitics", "Neuroimmune system", "Imaging genetics", "Posterior parietal cortex", "Superior occipital gyrus", "Systems neuroscience", "Aves", "Prefrontal cortex", "Environmental enrichment ", "Human development ", "Neuroendocrinology", "Edema", "Low back pain", "Amphetamine", "Diffusion tensor imaging", "Lumosity", "Insulin-like growth factor one", "Bufo japonicus", "The New England Journal of Medicine", "Neural development in humans", "Neurochip", "Activity-dependent plasticity", "Evoked potential", "Stroke", "Neurorobotics", "Human echolocation", "Neuropathology", "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise", "Behavioral neurology", "Complex regional pain syndrome", "Rhesus monkey", "Basic research", "Parietal cortex", "Postcentral gyrus", "DNA oxidation", "Somatosensory evoked potentials", "Neurodevelopmental disorder", "Neuroesthetics", "The Brain That Changes Itself", "Neurophenomenology", "Cochlear implant", "Behavioral epigenetics", "Immunoreactivity", "Binocular vision", "PMC ", "Neurovirology", "Neuromarketing", "Depression ", "Emergence", "Neurobioengineering", "Anger", "Neurochemistry", "PMID ", "Neuroplasticity ", "Neural backpropagation", "Estrous cycle", "Neural decoding", "Neurointensive care", "Neural engineering", "Sensory substitution", "Neurodegeneration", "Neuroepistemology", "Grey matter", "Neurocardiology", "Outline of neuroscience", "White matter", "Visual evoked potential", "Olfactory bulb", "Carpal tunnel syndrome", "Neuroscience", "StwoCID ", "Superior temporal gyrus", "Anterior cingulate cortex", "Neurotoxin", "Vascular endothelial growth factor"], "content": "Neuroplasticity, also known as neural plasticity, or brain plasticity, is the ability of neural networks in the brain to change through growth and reorganization. These changes range from individual neuron pathways making new connections, to systematic adjustments like cortical remapping. Examples of neuroplasticity include circuit and network changes that result from learning a new ability, environmental influences, practice, and psychological stress.Neuroplasticity was once thought by neuroscientists to manifest only during childhood, but research in the latter half of the 20th century showed that many aspects of the brain can be altered (or are \"plastic\") even through adulthood. However, the developing brain exhibits a higher degree of plasticity than the adult brain. Activity-dependent plasticity can have significant implications for healthy development, learning, memory, and recovery from brain damage.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Origin ===\nThe term \"plasticity\" was first applied to behavior in 1890 by William James in The Principles of Psychology. The first person to use the term neural plasticity appears to have been the Polish neuroscientist Jerzy Konorski.In 1793, Italian anatomist Michele Vicenzo Malacarne described experiments in which he paired animals, trained one of the pair extensively for years, and then dissected both. He discovered that the cerebellums of the trained animals were substantially larger. But these findings were eventually forgotten. The idea that the brain and its function are not fixed throughout adulthood was proposed in 1890 by William James in The Principles of Psychology, though the idea was largely neglected. Until around the 1970s, neuroscientists believed that the brain's structure and function was essentially fixed throughout adulthood.While the brain was commonly understood as a nonrenewable organ in the early 1900s, Santiago Ram\u00f3n y Cajal, father of neuroscience, used the term neuronal plasticity to describe nonpathological changes in the structure of adult brains. Based on his renowned Neuron doctrine, Cajal first described the neuron as the fundamental unit of the nervous system that later served as an essential foundation to develop the concept of neural plasticity. He used the term plasticity in reference to his work on findings of degeneration and regeneration in the central nervous system after a person had reached adulthood, specifically. Many neuroscientists used the term plasticity only to explain the regenerative capacity of the peripheral nervous system, which Cajal's conceptual transfer of the term gave rise to a controversial discussion.The term has since been broadly applied:\n\n Given the central importance of neuroplasticity, an outsider would be forgiven for assuming that it was well defined and that a basic and universal framework served to direct current and future hypotheses and experimentation. Sadly, however, this is not the case. While many neuroscientists use the word neuroplasticity as an umbrella term it means different things to different researchers in different subfields ... In brief, a mutually agreed upon framework does not appear to exist.\n\n\n=== Research and discovery ===\nIn 1923, Karl Lashley conducted experiments on rhesus monkeys that demonstrated changes in neuronal pathways, which he concluded were evidence of plasticity. Despite this, and other research that suggested plasticity took place, neuroscientists did not widely accept the idea of neuroplasticity.\nIn 1945, Justo Gonzalo concluded from his research on brain dynamics, that, contrary to the activity of the projection areas, the \"central\" cortical mass (more or less equidistant from the visual, tactile and auditive projection areas), would be a \"maneuvering mass\", rather unspecific or multisensory, with capacity to increase neural excitability and re-organize the activity by means of plasticity properties. He gives as a first example of adaptation, to see upright with reversing glasses in the Stratton experiment, and specially, several first-hand brain injuries cases in which he observed dynamic and adaptive properties in their disorders, in particular in the inverted perception disorder [e.g., see pp 260\u201362 Vol. I (1945), p 696 Vol. II (1950)]. He stated that a sensory signal in a projection area would be only an inverted and constricted outline that would be magnified due to the increase in recruited cerebral mass, and re-inverted due to some effect of brain plasticity, in more central areas, following a spiral growth.Marian Diamond of the University of California, Berkeley, produced the first scientific evidence of anatomical brain plasticity, publishing her research in 1964.Other significant evidence was produced in the 1960s and after, notably from scientists including Paul Bach-y-Rita, Michael Merzenich along with Jon Kaas, as well as several others.In the 1960s, Paul Bach-y-Rita invented a device that was tested on a small number of people, and involved a person sitting in a chair, in which were embedded nubs that were made to vibrate in ways that translated images received in a camera, allowing a form of vision via sensory substitution.Studies in people recovering from stroke also provided support for neuroplasticity, as regions of the brain that remained healthy could sometimes take over, at least in part, functions that had been destroyed; Shepherd Ivory Franz did work in this area.Eleanor Maguire documented changes in hippocampal structure associated with acquiring the knowledge of London's layout in local taxi drivers. A redistribution of grey matter was indicated in London Taxi Drivers compared to controls. This work on hippocampal plasticity not only interested scientists, but also engaged the public and media worldwide.\nMichael Merzenich is a neuroscientist who has been one of the pioneers of neuroplasticity for over three decades. He has made some of \"the most ambitious claims for the field \u2013 that brain exercises may be as useful as drugs to treat diseases as severe as schizophrenia \u2013 that plasticity exists from cradle to the grave, and that radical improvements in cognitive functioning \u2013 how we learn, think, perceive, and remember are possible even in the elderly.\" Merzenich's work was affected by a crucial discovery made by David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel in their work with kittens. The experiment involved sewing one eye shut and recording the cortical brain maps. Hubel and Wiesel saw that the portion of the kitten's brain associated with the shut eye was not idle, as expected. Instead, it processed visual information from the open eye. It was \"\u2026as though the brain didn't want to waste any 'cortical real estate' and had found a way to rewire itself.\"This implied neuroplasticity during the critical period. However, Merzenich argued that neuroplasticity could occur beyond the critical period. His first encounter with adult plasticity came when he was engaged in a postdoctoral study with Clinton Woosley. The experiment was based on observation of what occurred in the brain when one peripheral nerve was cut and subsequently regenerated. The two scientists micromapped the hand maps of monkey brains before and after cutting a peripheral nerve and sewing the ends together. Afterwards, the hand map in the brain that they expected to be jumbled was nearly normal. This was a substantial breakthrough. Merzenich asserted that, \"If the brain map could normalize its structure in response to abnormal input, the prevailing view that we are born with a hardwired system had to be wrong. The brain had to be plastic.\" Merzenich received the 2016 Kavli Prize in Neuroscience \"for the discovery of mechanisms that allow experience and neural activity to remodel brain function.\"\n\n\n== Neurobiology ==\nJT Wall and J Xu have traced the mechanisms underlying neuroplasticity. Re-organization is not cortically emergent, but occurs at every level in the processing hierarchy; this produces the map changes observed in the cerebral cortex.\n\n\n== Types ==\nChristopher Shaw and Jill McEachern (eds) in \"Toward a theory of Neuroplasticity\", state that there is no all-inclusive theory that overarches different frameworks and systems in the study of neuroplasticity. However, researchers often describe neuroplasticity as \u201cthe ability to make adaptive changes related to the structure and function of the nervous system.\" Correspondingly, two types of neuroplasticity are often discussed: structural neuroplasticity and functional neuroplasticity.\n\n\n=== Structural neuroplasticity ===\nStructural plasticity is often understood as the brain's ability to change its neuronal connections. New neurons are constantly produced and integrated into the central nervous system throughout the life span based on this type of neuroplasticity. Researchers nowadays use multiple cross-sectional imaging methods (i.e. magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computerized tomography (CT)) to study the structural alterations of the human brains. This type of neuroplasticity often studies the effect of various internal or external stimuli on the brain's anatomical reorganization. The changes of grey matter proportion or the synaptic strength in the brain are considered as examples of structural neuroplasticity. Structural neuroplasticity is currently investigated more within the field of neuroscience in current academia.\n\n\n=== Functional neuroplasticity ===\nFunctional plasticity refers to brain's ability to alter and adapt the functional properties of neurons. The changes can occur in response to previous activity (activity-dependent plasticity) to acquire memory or in response to malfunction or damage of neurons (reactive plasticity) to compensate a pathological event. In the latter case the functions from one part of the brain transfer to another part of the brain based on the demand to produce recovery of behavioral or physiological processes. Regarding physiological forms of activity-dependent plasticity, those involving synapses are referred to as synaptic plasticity. The strengthening or weakening of synapses that results in an increase or decrease of firing rate of the neurons are called long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), respectively, and they are considered as examples of synaptic plasticity that are associated with memory. The cerebellum is a typical structure with combinations of LTP/LTD and redundancy within the circuitry, allowing plasticity at several sites.  More recently it has become clearer that synaptic plasticity can be complemented by another form of activity-dependent plasticity involving the intrinsic excitability of neurons, which is referred to as intrinsic plasticity. This, as opposed to homeostatic plasticity does not necessarily maintain the overall activity of a neuron within a network but contributes to encoding memories.\n\n\n== Applications and examples ==\nThe adult brain is not entirely \"hard-wired\" with fixed neuronal circuits. There are many instances of cortical and subcortical rewiring of neuronal circuits in response to training as well as in response to injury. There is evidence that neurogenesis (birth of brain cells) occurs in the adult, mammalian brain\u2014and such changes can persist well into old age. The evidence for neurogenesis is mainly restricted to the hippocampus and olfactory bulb, but current research has revealed that other parts of the brain, including the cerebellum, may be involved as well. However, the degree of rewiring induced by the integration of new neurons in the established circuits is not known, and such rewiring may well be functionally redundant.There is now ample evidence for the active, experience-dependent re-organization of the synaptic networks of the brain involving multiple inter-related structures including the cerebral cortex. The specific details of how this process occurs at the molecular and ultrastructural levels are topics of active neuroscience research. The way experience can influence the synaptic organization of the brain is also the basis for a number of theories of brain function including the general theory of mind and Neural Darwinism. The concept of neuroplasticity is also central to theories of memory and learning that are associated with experience-driven alteration of synaptic structure and function in studies of classical conditioning in invertebrate animal models such as Aplysia.\n\n\n=== Treatment of brain damage ===\nA surprising consequence of neuroplasticity is that the brain activity associated with a given function can be transferred to a different location; this can result from normal experience and also occurs in the process of recovery from brain injury. Neuroplasticity is the fundamental issue that supports the scientific basis for treatment of acquired brain injury with goal-directed experiential therapeutic programs in the context of rehabilitation approaches to the functional consequences of the injury.\nNeuroplasticity is gaining popularity as a theory that, at least in part, explains improvements in functional outcomes with physical therapy post-stroke. Rehabilitation techniques that are supported by evidence which suggest cortical reorganization as the mechanism of change include constraint-induced movement therapy, functional electrical stimulation, treadmill training with body-weight support, and virtual reality therapy. Robot assisted therapy is an emerging technique, which is also hypothesized to work by way of neuroplasticity, though there is currently insufficient evidence to determine the exact mechanisms of change when using this method.One group has developed a treatment that includes increased levels of progesterone injections in brain-injured patients. \"Administration of progesterone after traumatic brain injury (TBI) and stroke reduces edema, inflammation, and neuronal cell death, and enhances spatial reference memory and sensory motor recovery.\" In a clinical trial, a group of severely injured patients had a 60% reduction in mortality after three days of progesterone injections. However, a study published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 2014 detailing the results of a multi-center NIH-funded phase III clinical trial of 882 patients found that treatment of acute traumatic brain injury with the hormone progesterone provides no significant benefit to patients when compared with placebo.\n\n\n=== Binocular vision ===\nFor decades, researchers assumed that humans had to acquire binocular vision, in particular stereopsis, in early childhood or they would never gain it. In recent years, however, successful improvements in persons with amblyopia, convergence insufficiency or other stereo vision anomalies have become prime examples of neuroplasticity; binocular vision improvements and stereopsis recovery are now active areas of scientific and clinical research.\n\n\n=== Phantom limbs ===\n\nIn the phenomenon of phantom limb sensation, a person continues to feel pain or sensation within a part of their body that has been amputated. This is strangely common, occurring in 60\u201380% of amputees. An explanation for this is based on the concept of neuroplasticity, as the cortical maps of the removed limbs are believed to have become engaged with the area around them in the postcentral gyrus. This results in activity within the surrounding area of the cortex being misinterpreted by the area of the cortex formerly responsible for the amputated limb.\nThe relationship between phantom limb sensation and neuroplasticity is a complex one. In the early 1990s V.S. Ramachandran theorized that phantom limbs were the result of cortical remapping. However, in 1995 Herta Flor and her colleagues demonstrated that cortical remapping occurs only in patients who have phantom pain. Her research showed that phantom limb pain (rather than referred sensations) was the perceptual correlate of cortical reorganization. This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as maladaptive plasticity.\nIn 2009, Lorimer Moseley and Peter Brugger carried out an experiment in which they encouraged arm amputee subjects to use visual imagery to contort their phantom limbs into impossible configurations. Four of the seven subjects succeeded in performing impossible movements of the phantom limb. This experiment suggests that the subjects had modified the neural representation of their phantom limbs and generated the motor commands needed to execute impossible movements in the absence of feedback from the body. The authors stated that: \"In fact, this finding extends our understanding of the brain's plasticity because it is evidence that profound changes in the mental representation of the body can be induced purely by internal brain mechanisms\u2014the brain truly does change itself.\"\n\n\n=== Chronic pain ===\n\nIndividuals who suffer from chronic pain experience prolonged pain at sites that may have been previously injured, yet are otherwise currently healthy. This phenomenon is related to neuroplasticity due to a maladaptive reorganization of the nervous system, both peripherally and centrally. During the period of tissue damage, noxious stimuli and inflammation cause an elevation of nociceptive input from the periphery to the central nervous system. Prolonged nociception from the periphery then elicits a neuroplastic response at the cortical level to change its somatotopic organization for the painful site, inducing central sensitization. For instance, individuals experiencing complex regional pain syndrome demonstrate a diminished cortical somatotopic representation of the hand contralaterally as well as a decreased spacing between the hand and the mouth. Additionally, chronic pain has been reported to significantly reduce the volume of grey matter in the brain globally, and more specifically at the prefrontal cortex and right thalamus. However, following treatment, these abnormalities in cortical reorganization and grey matter volume are resolved, as well as their symptoms. Similar results have been reported for phantom limb pain, chronic low back pain and carpal tunnel syndrome.\n\n\n=== Meditation ===\n\nA number of studies have linked meditation practice to differences in cortical thickness or density of gray matter. One of the most well-known studies to demonstrate this was led by Sara Lazar, from Harvard University, in 2000. Richard Davidson, a neuroscientist at the University of Wisconsin, has led experiments in collaboration with the Dalai Lama on effects of meditation on the brain. His results suggest that long-term or short-term practice of meditation can lead to different levels of activities in brain regions associated with effects such as attention, anxiety, depression, fear, anger, and compassion as well as the ability of the body to heal itself. These functional changes may be caused by changes in the physical structure of the brain.\n\n\n=== Fitness and exercise ===\n\nAerobic exercise promotes adult neurogenesis by increasing the production of neurotrophic factors (compounds that promote growth or survival of neurons), such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Exercise-induced neurogenesis in the hippocampus is associated with measurable improvements in spatial memory. Consistent aerobic exercise over a period of several months induces marked clinically significant improvements in executive function (i.e., the \"cognitive control\" of behavior) and increased gray matter volume in multiple brain regions, particularly those that give rise to cognitive control. The brain structures that show the greatest improvements in gray matter volume in response to aerobic exercise are the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus; moderate improvements are seen in the anterior cingulate cortex, parietal cortex, cerebellum, caudate nucleus, and nucleus accumbens. Higher physical fitness scores (measured by VO2 max) are associated with better executive function, faster processing speed, and greater volume of the hippocampus, caudate nucleus, and nucleus accumbens.\n\n\n=== Deafness and loss of hearing ===\nDue to hearing loss, the auditory cortex and other association areas of the brain in deaf and/or hard of hearing people undergo compensatory plasticity. The auditory cortex is usually reserved for processing auditory information in hearing people now is redirected to serve other functions, especially for vision and somatosensation.\nDeaf individuals have enhanced peripheral visual attention, better motion change but not color change detection ability in visual tasks, more effective visual search, and faster response time for visual targets compared to hearing individuals. Altered visual processing in deaf people is often found to be associated with the repurposing of other brain areas including primary auditory cortex, posterior parietal association cortex (PPAC), and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). A review by Bavelier et al. (2006) summarizes many aspects on the topic of visual ability comparison between deaf and hearing individuals.Brain areas that serve a function in auditory processing repurpose to process somatosensory information in congenitally deaf people. They have higher sensitivity in detecting frequency change in vibration above threshold and higher and more widespread activation in auditory cortex under somatosensory stimulation. However, speeded response for somatosensory stimuli is not found in deaf adults.\n\n\n==== Cochlear implant ====\nNeuroplasticity is involved in the development of sensory function. The brain is born immature and then adapts to sensory inputs after birth. In the auditory system, congenital hearing loss, a rather frequent inborn condition affecting 1 of 1000 newborns, has been shown to affect auditory development, and implantation of a sensory prostheses activating the auditory system has prevented the deficits and induced functional maturation of the auditory system. Due to a sensitive period for plasticity, there is also a sensitive period for such intervention within the first 2\u20134 years of life. Consequently, in prelingually deaf children, early cochlear implantation, as a rule, allows the children to learn the mother language and acquire acoustic communication.\n\n\n=== Blindness ===\nDue to vision loss, the visual cortex in blind people may undergo cross-modal plasticity, and therefore other senses may have enhanced abilities. Or the opposite could occur, with the lack of visual input weakening the development of other sensory systems. One study suggests that the right posterior middle temporal gyrus and superior occipital gyrus reveal more activation in the blind than in the sighted people during a sound-moving detection task. Several studies support the latter idea and found weakened ability in audio distance evaluation, proprioceptive reproduction, threshold for visual bisection, and judging minimum audible angle.\n\n\n==== Human echolocation ====\nHuman echolocation is a learned ability for humans to sense their environment from echoes. This ability is used by some blind people to navigate their environment and sense their surroundings in detail. Studies in 2010 and 2011 using functional magnetic resonance imaging techniques have shown that parts of the brain associated with visual processing are adapted for the new skill of echolocation. Studies with blind patients, for example, suggest that the click-echoes heard by these patients were processed by brain regions devoted to vision rather than audition.\n\n\n=== Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ===\nMRI studies of 1713 participants shows that both children and adults with Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have smaller volumes of the nucleus accumbens, amygdala, caudate, hippocampus, putamen, and overall cortical and intracranial volume; and have less surface area and cortical thickness, compared to people without ADHD.Reviews of MRI studies on individuals with ADHD suggest that the long-term treatment of ADHD with stimulants, such as amphetamine or methylphenidate, decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD, and improves function in several parts of the brain, such as the right caudate nucleus of the basal ganglia, left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), and superior temporal gyrus.\n\n\n=== In early child development ===\nNeuroplasticity is most active in childhood as a part of normal human development, and can also be seen as an especially important mechanism for children in terms of risk and resiliency. Trauma is considered a great risk as it negatively affects many areas of the brain and puts a strain on the sympathetic nervous system from constant activation. Trauma thus alters the brain's connections such that children who have experienced trauma may be hyper vigilant or overly aroused. However, a child's brain can cope with these adverse effects through the actions of neuroplasticity.There are many examples of neuroplasticity in human development. For example, Justine Ker and Stephen Nelson looked at the effects of musical training on neuroplasticity, and found that musical training can contribute to experience dependent structural plasticity. This is when changes in the brain occur based on experiences that are unique to an individual. Examples of this are learning multiple languages, playing a sport, doing theatre, etc. A study done by Hyde in 2009, showed that changes in the brain of children could be seen in as little as 15 months of musical training. Ker and Nelson suggest this degree of plasticity in the brains of children can \"help provide a form of intervention for children... with developmental disorders and neurological diseases.\"\n\n\n=== In animals ===\n\nIn a single lifespan, individuals of an animal species may encounter various changes in brain morphology. Many of these differences are caused by the release of hormones in the brain; others are the product of evolutionary factors or developmental stages. Some changes occur seasonally in species to enhance or generate response behaviors.\n\n\n==== Seasonal brain changes ====\nChanging brain behavior and morphology to suit other seasonal behaviors is relatively common in animals. These changes can improve the chances of mating during breeding season. Examples of seasonal brain morphology change can be found within many classes and species.\nWithin the class Aves, black-capped chickadees experience an increase in the volume of their hippocampus and strength of neural connections to the hippocampus during fall months. These morphological changes within the hippocampus which are related to spatial memory are not limited to birds, as they can also be observed in rodents and amphibians. In songbirds, many song control nuclei in the brain increase in size during mating season. Among birds, changes in brain morphology to influence song patterns, frequency, and volume are common. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) immunoreactivity, or the reception of the hormone, is lowered in European starlings exposed to longer periods of light during the day.The California sea hare, a gastropod, has more successful inhibition of egg-laying hormones outside of mating season due to increased effectiveness of inhibitors in the brain. Changes to the inhibitory nature of regions of the brain can also be found in humans and other mammals. In the amphibian Bufo japonicus, part of the amygdala is larger before breeding and during hibernation than it is after breeding.Seasonal brain variation occurs within many mammals. Part of the hypothalamus of the common ewe is more receptive to GnRH during breeding season than at other times of the year. Humans experience a change in the \"size of the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus and vasopressin-immunoreactive neurons within it\" during the fall, when these parts are larger. In the spring, both reduce in size.\n\n\n==== Traumatic brain injury research ====\nRandy Nudo's group found that if a small stroke (an infarction) is induced by obstruction of blood flow to a portion of a monkey's motor cortex, the part of the body that responds by movement moves when areas adjacent to the damaged brain area are stimulated. In one study, intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) mapping techniques were used in nine normal monkeys. Some underwent ischemic-infarction procedures and the others, ICMS procedures. The monkeys with ischemic infarctions retained more finger flexion during food retrieval and after several months this deficit returned to preoperative levels. With respect to the distal forelimb representation, \"postinfarction mapping procedures revealed that movement representations underwent reorganization throughout the adjacent, undamaged cortex.\" Understanding of interaction between the damaged and undamaged areas provides a basis for better treatment plans in stroke patients. Current research includes the tracking of changes that occur in the motor areas of the cerebral cortex as a result of a stroke. Thus, events that occur in the reorganization process of the brain can be ascertained. Nudo is also involved in studying the treatment plans that may enhance recovery from strokes, such as physiotherapy, pharmacotherapy, and electrical-stimulation therapy.\nJon Kaas, a professor at Vanderbilt University, has been able to show \"how somatosensory area 3b and ventroposterior (VP) nucleus of the thalamus are affected by longstanding unilateral dorsal-column lesions at cervical levels in macaque monkeys.\" Adult brains have the ability to change as a result of injury but the extent of the reorganization depends on the extent of the injury. His recent research focuses on the somatosensory system, which involves a sense of the body and its movements using many senses. Usually, damage of the somatosensory cortex results in impairment of the body perception. Kaas' research project is focused on how these systems (somatosensory, cognitive, motor systems) respond with plastic changes resulting from injury.One recent study of neuroplasticity involves work done by a team of doctors and researchers at Emory University, specifically Dr. Donald Stein and Dr. David Wright. This is the first treatment in 40 years that has significant results in treating traumatic brain injuries while also incurring no known side effects and being cheap to administer. Dr. Stein noticed that female mice seemed to recover from brain injuries better than male mice, and that at certain points in the estrus cycle, females recovered even better. This difference may be attributed to different levels of progesterone, with higher levels of progesterone leading to the faster recovery from brain injury in mice. However, clinical trials showed progesterone offers no significant benefit for traumatic brain injury in human patients.\n\n\n=== Aging ===\nTranscriptional profiling of the frontal cortex of persons ranging from 26 to 106 years of age defined a set of genes with reduced expression after age 40, and especially after age 70. Genes that play central roles in synaptic plasticity were the most significantly affected by age, generally showing reduced expression over time. There was also a marked increase in cortical DNA damage, likely oxidative DNA damage, in gene promoters with aging.Reactive oxygen species appear to have a significant role in the regulation of synaptic plasticity and cognitive function. However age-related increases in reactive oxygen species may also lead to impairments in these functions.\n\n\n=== Multilingualism ===\nThe beneficial effect of multilingualism on people's behavior and cognition is well-known nowadays. Numerous studies have shown that people who study more than one language have better cognitive functions and flexibilities than people who only speak one language. Bilinguals are found to have longer attention spans, stronger organization and analyzation skills, and a better theory of mind than monolinguals. Researchers have found that the effect of multilingualism on better cognition is due to neuroplasticity.\nIn one prominent study, neurolinguists used a voxel-based morphometry (VBM) method to visualize the structural plasticity of brains in healthy monolinguals and bilinguals. They first investigated the differences in density of grey and white matter between two groups and found the relationship between brain structure and age of language acquisition. The results showed that grey-matter density in the inferior parietal cortex for multilinguals were significantly greater than monolinguals. The researchers also found that early bilinguals had a greater density of grey matter relative to late bilinguals in the same region. The inferior parietal cortex is a brain region highly associated with the language learning, which corresponds to the VBM result of the study.Recent studies have also found that learning multiple languages not only re-structures the brain but also boosts brain's capacity for plasticity. A recent study found that multilingualism not only affects the grey matter but also white matter of the brain. White matter is made up of myelinated axons that is greatly associated with learning and communication. Neurolinguists used a diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) scanning method to determine the white matter intensity between monolinguals and bilinguals. Increased myelinations in white matter tracts were found in bilingual individuals who actively use the both languages in everyday life. The demand of handling more than one language requires more efficient connectivity within the brain, which resulted in greater white matter density for multilinguals.While it is still debated whether these changes in brain are result of genetic disposition or environmental demands, many evidences suggest that environmental, social experience in early multilinguals affect the structural and functional reorganization in the brain.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\nVideosRamachandran. Phantom Limb Syndrome. about consciousness, mirror neurons, and phantom limb syndromeOther readingsChorost M (2005). Rebuilt: how becoming part computer made me more human. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-37829-6.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nNeuroplasticity at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)\nNeuro Myths: Separating Fact and Fiction in Brain-Based Learning by Sara Bernard", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Gray739.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Mirror-box-comic.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"], "summary": "Neuroplasticity, also known as neural plasticity, or brain plasticity, is the ability of neural networks in the brain to change through growth and reorganization. These changes range from individual neuron pathways making new connections, to systematic adjustments like cortical remapping. Examples of neuroplasticity include circuit and network changes that result from learning a new ability, environmental influences, practice, and psychological stress.Neuroplasticity was once thought by neuroscientists to manifest only during childhood, but research in the latter half of the 20th century showed that many aspects of the brain can be altered (or are \"plastic\") even through adulthood. However, the developing brain exhibits a higher degree of plasticity than the adult brain. Activity-dependent plasticity can have significant implications for healthy development, learning, memory, and recovery from brain damage.\n\n"}, "Lateralization_of_brain_function": {"links": ["Aphasia", "Sergio Della Sala", "NPR", "Orthodox stance", "Doi ", "Jill Bolte Taylor", "Edinburgh Handedness Inventory", "Broca's area", "Hidden Brain", "Functional specialization ", "Cognitive process", "Sylvian fissure", "Visual cortex", "Wilder Penfield", "Handedness", "Southpaw stance", "Split-brain", "The Master and His Emissary", "Roger Wolcott Sperry", "LRRTMone", "Frontal lobe", "Laterality", "Sense of touch", "Situs inversus", "Wernicke's aphasia", "Neuroscience of sex differences", "Epilepsy", "JSTOR ", "Neurolinguistic programming", "Bicameralism ", "Brain asymmetry", "Handedness and sexual orientation", "Language", "PMID ", "Cerebellum", "Dextrocardia", "Capgras delusion", "Herbert Jasper", "Wernicke's area", "Wayback Machine", "Forebrain", "Corpus callosum", "Yale University Press", "Pierre Paul Broca", "Muscle", "Expressive aphasia", "Yakovlevian torque", "Dual brain theory", "Contralateral brain", "Human brain", "Face perception", "ISBN ", "Left brain interpreter", "Geschwind\u2013Galaburda hypothesis", "Michael Gazzaniga", "In vivo", "Ocular dominance", "List of musicians who play left-handed", "My Stroke of Insight", "Temporal lobe", "Anthropology", "Robert E. Ornstein", "John Cutting ", "Magnetic resonance imaging", "Right hemisphere brain damage", "Corpus callosotomy", "Ambidexterity", "Reduplicative paramnesia", "Cerebral hemisphere", "Karl Wernicke", "Neurologist", "Anatomical terms of location", "Psychoneuroimmunology", "Motor cortex", "Dual consciousness", "Iain McGilchrist", "Robert Louis Stevenson", "StwoCID ", "Optic nerve", "Emotional prosody", "Delusional misidentification syndrome", "Surgery", "Chirality", "Optic chiasm", "PMC ", "Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing", "Autopsy", "Lesion", "Cortical stimulation mapping", "Wada test", "Cortical homunculus", "Receptive aphasia", "CiteSeerX ", "Alien hand syndrome", "Situs solitus", "Behavior", "Auditory nerve", "Adverse effect ", "Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde", "Footedness", "Divided consciousness", "Bibcode ", "Medial longitudinal fissure", "Parallel computing", "Visual perception", "Terence Hines", "Handedness and mathematical ability", "Emotional lateralization", "Intonation ", "Gyrus", "Positron emission tomography", "Prosody ", "Value system", "Somatosensory cortex", "Accentuation", "Hearing", "Cross-dominance", "Situs ambiguus", "Levocardia", "Somatosensory system", "Semantics", "Hemispherectomy", "Auditory cortex"], "content": "The lateralization of brain function is the tendency for some neural functions or cognitive processes to be specialized to one side of the brain or the other. The medial longitudinal fissure separates the human brain into two distinct cerebral hemispheres, connected by the corpus callosum. Although the macrostructure of the two hemispheres appears to be almost identical, different composition of neuronal networks allows for specialized function that is different in each hemisphere.\nLateralization of brain structures is based on general trends expressed in healthy patients; however, there are numerous counterexamples to each generalization. Each human's brain develops differently, leading to unique lateralization in individuals. This is different from specialization, as lateralization refers only to the function of one structure divided between two hemispheres. Specialization is much easier to observe as a trend, since it has a stronger anthropological history.The best example of an established lateralization is that of Broca's and Wernicke's areas, where both are often found exclusively on the left hemisphere. Function lateralization, such as semantics, intonation, accentuation, and prosody, has since been called into question and largely been found to have a neuronal basis in both hemispheres. Another example is that each hemisphere in the brain tends to represent one side of the body. In the cerebellum, this is the same body side, but in the forebrain this is predominantly the contralateral side.\n\n\n== Lateralized functions ==\n\n\n=== Language ===\nLanguage functions such as grammar, vocabulary and literal meaning are typically lateralized to the left hemisphere, especially in right-handed individuals. While language production is left-lateralized in up to 90% of right-handers, it is more bilateral, or even right-lateralized, in approximately 50% of left-handers.Broca's area and Wernicke's area, associated with the production of speech and comprehension of speech, respectively, are located in the left cerebral hemisphere for about 95% of right-handers but about 70% of left-handers. Individuals who speak multiple languages demonstrate separate speech areas for each language.\n\n\n=== Sensory processing ===\nThe processing of basic sensory information is lateralized by being divided into left and right sides of the body or the space around the body.\nIn vision, about half the neurons of the optic nerve from each eye cross to project to the opposite hemisphere, and about half do not cross to project to the hemisphere on the same side. This means that the left side of the visual field is processed largely by the visual cortex of the right hemisphere and vice versa for the right side of the visual field.\nIn hearing, about 90% of the neurons of the auditory nerve from one ear cross to project to the auditory cortex of the opposite hemisphere.\nIn the sense of touch, most of the neurons from the skin cross to project to the somatosensory cortex of the opposite hemisphere.\nBecause of this functional division of the left and right sides of the body and of the space that surrounds it, the processing of information in the sensory cortices is essentially identical. That is, the processing of visual and auditory stimuli, spatial manipulation, facial perception, and artistic ability are represented bilaterally. Numerical estimation, comparison and online calculation depend on bilateral parietal regions while exact calculation and fact retrieval are associated with left parietal regions, perhaps due to their ties to linguistic processing.\n\n\n=== Value systems ===\nRather than just being a series of places where different brain modules occur, there are running similarities in the kind of function seen in each side, for instance how right-side impairment of drawing ability making patients draw the parts of the subject matter with wholly incoherent relationships, or where the kind of left-side damage seen in language impairment not damaging the patient's ability to catch the significance of intonation in speech. This has led British psychiatrist Iain McGilchrist to view the two hemispheres as having different value systems, where the left hemisphere tends to reduce complex matters such as ethics to rules and measures, and the right hemisphere is disposed to the holistic and metaphorical.\n\n\n== Clinical significance ==\nDepression is linked with a hyperactive right hemisphere, with evidence of selective involvement in \"processing negative emotions, pessimistic thoughts and unconstructive thinking styles\", as well as vigilance, arousal and self-reflection, and a relatively hypoactive left hemisphere, \"specifically involved in processing pleasurable experiences\" and \"relatively more involved in decision-making processes\". Additionally, \"left hemisphere lesions result in an omissive response bias or error pattern whereas right hemisphere lesions result in a commissive response bias or error pattern.\" The delusional misidentification syndromes, reduplicative paramnesia and Capgras delusion are also often the result of right hemisphere lesions.\n\n\n=== Hemisphere damage ===\nDamage to either the right or left hemisphere, and its resulting deficits provide insight into the function of the damaged area. Left hemisphere damage has many effects on language production and perception. Damage or lesions to the right hemisphere can result in a lack of emotional prosody or intonation when speaking. Right hemisphere damage also has grave effects on understanding discourse. People with damage to the right hemisphere have a reduced ability to generate inferences, comprehend and produce main concepts, and a reduced ability to manage alternative meanings. Furthermore, people with right hemisphere damage often exhibit discourse that is abrupt and perfunctory or verbose and excessive. They can also have pragmatic deficits in situations of turn taking, topic maintenance and shared knowledge.\nLateral brain damage can also affect visual perceptual spatial resolution. People with left hemisphere damage may have impaired perception of high resolution, or detailed, aspects of an image. People with right hemisphere damage may have impaired perception of low resolution, or big picture, aspects of an image.\n\n\n=== Plasticity ===\nIf a specific region of the brain, or even an entire hemisphere, is injured or destroyed, its functions can sometimes be assumed by a neighboring region in the same hemisphere or the corresponding region in the other hemisphere, depending upon the area damaged and the patient's age. When injury interferes with pathways from one area to another, alternative (indirect) connections may develop to communicate information with detached areas, despite the inefficiencies.\n\n\n=== Broca's aphasia ===\nBroca's aphasia is a specific type of expressive aphasia and is so named due to the aphasia that results from damage or lesions to the Broca's area of the brain, that exists most commonly in the left inferior frontal hemisphere. Thus, the aphasia that develops from the lack of functioning of the Broca's area is an expressive and non-fluent aphasia. It is called 'non-fluent' due to the issues that arise because Broca's area is critical for language pronunciation and production. The area controls some motor aspects of speech production and articulation of thoughts to words and as such lesions to the area result in specific non-fluent aphasia.\n\n\n=== Wernicke's aphasia ===\nWernicke's aphasia is the result of damage to the area of the brain that is commonly in the left hemisphere above the Sylvian fissure. Damage to this area causes primarily a deficit in language comprehension. While the ability to speak fluently with normal melodic intonation is spared, the language produced by a person with Wernicke's aphasia is riddled with semantic errors and may sound nonsensical to the listener. Wernicke's aphasia is characterized by phonemic paraphasias, neologism or jargon. Another characteristic of a person with Wernicke's aphasia is that they are unconcerned by the mistakes that they are making.\n\n\n== Society and culture ==\n\n\n=== Misapplication ===\n\nTerence Hines states that the research on brain lateralization is valid as a research program, though commercial promoters have applied it to promote subjects and products far outside the implications of the research. For example, the implications of the research have no bearing on psychological interventions such as eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) and neurolinguistic programming, brain-training equipment, or management training.\n\n\n=== Popular psychology ===\n\nSome popularizations oversimplify the science about lateralization, by presenting the functional differences between hemispheres as being more absolute than is actually the case. Interestingly, research shown quite opposite function of brain lateralisation, i.e. left hemisphere creatively and chaotically link between concepts and right hemisphere tend to adhere to specific date and time, although generally adhering to the pattern of left-brain as linguistic interpretation and right brain as spatio-temporal.   \n\n\n=== Sex differences ===\n\nIn the 19th century and to a lesser extent the 20th, it was thought that each side of the brain was associated with a specific gender: the left corresponding with masculinity and the right with femininity and each half could function independently. The right side of the brain was seen as the inferior and thought to be prominent in women, savages, children, criminals, and the insane. A prime example of this in fictional literature can be seen in Robert Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.\n\n\n== Evolutionary advantage ==\nThe widespread lateralization of many vertebrate animals suggests an evolutionary advantage associated with the specialization of each hemisphere.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Broca ===\nOne of the first indications of brain function lateralization resulted from the research of French physician Pierre Paul Broca, in 1861. His research involved the male patient nicknamed \"Tan\", who suffered a speech deficit (aphasia); \"tan\" was one of the few words he could articulate, hence his nickname. In Tan's autopsy, Broca determined he had a syphilitic lesion in the left cerebral hemisphere. This left frontal lobe brain area (Broca's area) is an important speech production region. The motor aspects of speech production deficits caused by damage to Broca's area are known as expressive aphasia. In clinical assessment of this type of aphasia, patients have difficulty producing speech.\n\n\n=== Wernicke ===\nGerman physician Karl Wernicke continued in the vein of Broca's research by studying language deficits unlike expressive aphasia. Wernicke noted that not every deficit was in speech production; some were linguistic. He found that damage to the left posterior, superior temporal gyrus (Wernicke's area) caused language comprehension deficits rather than speech production deficits, a syndrome known as receptive aphasia.\n\n\n=== Imaging ===\nThese seminal works on hemispheric specialization were done on patients or postmortem brains, raising questions about the potential impact of pathology on the research findings. New methods permit the in vivo comparison of the hemispheres in healthy subjects. Particularly, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) are important because of their high spatial resolution and ability to image subcortical brain structures.\n\n\n=== Movement and sensation ===\nIn the 1940s, neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield and his neurologist colleague Herbert Jasper developed a technique of brain mapping to help reduce side effects caused by surgery to treat epilepsy. They stimulated motor and somatosensory cortices of the brain with small electrical currents to activate discrete brain regions. They found that stimulation of one hemisphere's motor cortex produces muscle contraction on the opposite side of the body. Furthermore, the functional map of the motor and sensory cortices is fairly consistent from person to person; Penfield and Jasper's famous pictures of the motor and sensory homunculi were the result.\n\n\n=== Split-brain patients ===\n\nResearch by Michael Gazzaniga and Roger Wolcott Sperry in the 1960s on split-brain patients led to an even greater understanding of functional laterality. Split-brain patients are patients who have undergone corpus callosotomy (usually as a treatment for severe epilepsy), a severing of a large part of the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain and allows them to communicate. When these connections are cut, the two halves of the brain have a reduced capacity to communicate with each other. This led to many interesting behavioral phenomena that allowed Gazzaniga and Sperry to study the contributions of each hemisphere to various cognitive and perceptual processes. One of their main findings was that the right hemisphere was capable of rudimentary language processing, but often has no lexical or grammatical abilities. Eran Zaidel also studied such patients and found some evidence for the right hemisphere having at least some syntactic ability.Language is primarily localized in the left hemisphere. While the left hemisphere has proven to be more optimized for language, the right hemisphere has the capacity with emotions, such as sarcasm, that can express prosody in sentences when speaking. According to Sheppard and Hillis, \"The right hemisphere is critical for perceiving sarcasm (Davis et al., 2016), integrating context required for understanding metaphor, inference, and humour, as well as recognizing and expressing affective or emotional prosody\u2014changes in pitch, rhythm, rate, and loudness that convey emotions\".  One of the experiments carried out by Gazzaniga involved a split-brain male patient sitting in front of a computer screen while having words and images presented on either side of the screen, and the visual stimuli would go to either the right or left visual field, and thus the left or right brain, respectively. It was observed that if the patient was presented with an image to his left visual field (right brain), he would report not seeing anything. If he was able to feel around for certain objects, he could accurately pick out the correct object, despite not having the ability to verbalize what he saw.\n\n\n== Additional images ==\n\n\t\t\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nLeft Brain, Right Brain? Wrong\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\n\n\n== Further resources ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Brain_Lateralization.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Cerebral_lobes.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/RightBrainDominant.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Slide2GRE.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Slide3GRE.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg"], "summary": "The lateralization of brain function is the tendency for some neural functions or cognitive processes to be specialized to one side of the brain or the other. The medial longitudinal fissure separates the human brain into two distinct cerebral hemispheres, connected by the corpus callosum. Although the macrostructure of the two hemispheres appears to be almost identical, different composition of neuronal networks allows for specialized function that is different in each hemisphere.\nLateralization of brain structures is based on general trends expressed in healthy patients; however, there are numerous counterexamples to each generalization. Each human's brain develops differently, leading to unique lateralization in individuals. This is different from specialization, as lateralization refers only to the function of one structure divided between two hemispheres. Specialization is much easier to observe as a trend, since it has a stronger anthropological history.The best example of an established lateralization is that of Broca's and Wernicke's areas, where both are often found exclusively on the left hemisphere. Function lateralization, such as semantics, intonation, accentuation, and prosody, has since been called into question and largely been found to have a neuronal basis in both hemispheres. Another example is that each hemisphere in the brain tends to represent one side of the body. 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Lejeune", "Gene Kelly", "Mickey's Mellerdrammer", "Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals", "Neal Gabler", "New World Pictures", "List of former Disneyland attractions", "Snopes"], "content": "Walter Elias Disney (; December 5, 1901 \u2013 December 15, 1966) was an American entrepreneur, animator, writer, voice actor, and film producer. A pioneer of the American animation industry, he introduced several developments in the production of cartoons. As a film producer, he holds the record for most Academy Awards earned by an individual, having won 22 Oscars from 59 nominations. He was presented with two Golden Globe Special Achievement Awards and an Emmy Award, among other honors. Several of his films are included in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress.\nBorn in Chicago in 1901, Disney developed an early interest in drawing. He took art classes as a boy and got a job as a commercial illustrator at the age of 18. He moved to California in the early 1920s and set up the Disney Brothers Studio with his brother Roy. With Ub Iwerks, he developed the character Mickey Mouse in 1928, his first highly popular success; he also provided the voice for his creation in the early years. As the studio grew, he became more adventurous, introducing synchronized sound, full-color three-strip Technicolor, feature-length cartoons and technical developments in cameras. The results, seen in features such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), Pinocchio, Fantasia (both 1940), Dumbo (1941), and Bambi (1942), furthered the development of animated film. New animated and live-action films followed after World War II, including the critically successful Cinderella (1950) and Mary Poppins (1964), the latter of which received five Academy Awards.\nIn the 1950s, Disney expanded into the amusement park industry, and in July 1955 he opened Disneyland in Anaheim, California. To fund the project he diversified into television programs, such as Walt Disney's Disneyland and The Mickey Mouse Club. He was also involved in planning the 1959 Moscow Fair, the 1960 Winter Olympics, and the 1964 New York World's Fair. In 1965, he began development of another theme park, Disney World, the heart of which was to be a new type of city, the \"Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow\" (EPCOT). Disney was a heavy smoker throughout his life and died of lung cancer in December 1966 before either the park or the EPCOT project were completed.\nDisney was a shy, self-deprecating and insecure man in private but adopted a warm and outgoing public persona. He had high standards and high expectations of those with whom he worked. Although there have been accusations that he was racist or anti-Semitic, they have been contradicted by many who knew him. His reputation changed in the years after his death, from a purveyor of homely patriotic values to a representative of American imperialism. He nevertheless remains an important figure in the history of animation and in the cultural history of the United States, where he is considered a national cultural icon. His film work continues to be shown and adapted; his namesake studio and company maintain high standards in their production of popular entertainment, and the Disney theme parks have grown in size and number to attract visitors in several countries.\n\n\n== Biography ==\n\n\n=== Early life: 1901\u20131920 ===\nDisney was born on December 5, 1901, at 1249 Tripp Avenue, in Chicago's Hermosa neighborhood. He was the fourth son of Elias Disney\u200d\u2014\u200cborn in the Province of Canada, to Irish parents\u200d\u2014\u200cand Flora (n\u00e9e Call), an American of German and English descent. Aside from Walt, Elias and Flora's sons were Herbert, Raymond and Roy; and the couple had a fifth child, Ruth, in December 1903. In 1906, when Disney was four, the family moved to a farm in Marceline, Missouri, where his uncle Robert had just purchased land. In Marceline, Disney developed his interest in drawing when he was paid to draw the horse of a retired neighborhood doctor. Elias was a subscriber to the Appeal to Reason newspaper, and Disney practiced drawing by copying the front-page cartoons of Ryan Walker. He also began to develop an ability to work with watercolors and crayons. He lived near the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway line and became enamored with trains. He and his younger sister Ruth started school at the same time at the Park School in Marceline in late 1909.In 1911, the Disneys moved to Kansas City, Missouri. There, Disney attended the Benton Grammar School, where he met fellow-student Walter Pfeiffer, who came from a family of theatre fans and introduced him to the world of vaudeville and motion pictures. Before long, Disney was spending more time at the Pfeiffers' house than at home. Elias had purchased a newspaper delivery route for The Kansas City Star and Kansas City Times. Disney and his brother Roy woke up at 4:30 every morning to deliver the Times before school and repeated the round for the evening Star after school. The schedule was exhausting, and Disney often received poor grades after falling asleep in class, but he continued his paper route for more than six years. He attended Saturday courses at the Kansas City Art Institute and also took a correspondence course in cartooning.In 1917, Elias bought stock in a Chicago jelly producer, the O-Zell Company, and moved back to the city with his family. Disney enrolled at McKinley High School and became the cartoonist of the school newspaper, drawing patriotic pictures about World War I; he also took night courses at the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. In mid-1918, he attempted to join the United States Army to fight the Germans, but he was rejected as too young. After forging the date of birth on his birth certificate, he joined the Red Cross in September 1918 as an ambulance driver. He was shipped to France but arrived in November, after the armistice. He drew cartoons on the side of his ambulance for decoration and had some of his work published in the army newspaper Stars and Stripes. He returned to Kansas City in October 1919, where he worked as an apprentice artist at the Pesmen-Rubin Commercial Art Studio, where he drew commercial illustrations for advertising, theater programs and catalogs, and befriended fellow artist Ub Iwerks.\n\n\n=== Early career: 1920\u20131928 ===\n\nIn January 1920, as Pesmen-Rubin's revenue declined after Christmas, Disney, aged 18, and Iwerks were laid off. They started their own business, the short-lived Iwerks-Disney Commercial Artists. Failing to attract many customers, Disney and Iwerks agreed that Disney should leave temporarily to earn money at the Kansas City Film Ad Company, run by A. V. Cauger; the following month Iwerks, who was not able to run their business alone, also joined. The company produced commercials using the cutout animation technique. Disney became interested in animation, although he preferred drawn cartoons such as Mutt and Jeff and Koko the Clown. With the assistance of a borrowed book on animation and a camera, he began experimenting at home. He came to the conclusion that cel animation was more promising than the cutout method. Unable to persuade Cauger to try cel animation at the company, Disney opened a new business with a co-worker from the Film Ad Co, Fred Harman. Their main client was the local Newman Theater, and the short cartoons they produced were sold as \"Newman's Laugh-O-Grams\". Disney studied Paul Terry's Aesop's Fables as a model, and the first six \"Laugh-O-Grams\" were modernized fairy tales.\n\nIn May 1921, the success of the \"Laugh-O-Grams\" led to the establishment of Laugh-O-Gram Studio, for which he hired more animators, including Fred Harman's brother Hugh, Rudolf Ising and Iwerks. The Laugh-O-Grams cartoons did not provide enough income to keep the company solvent, so Disney started production of Alice's Wonderland\u200d\u2014\u200cbased on Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\u200d\u2014\u200cwhich combined live action with animation; he cast Virginia Davis in the title role. The result, a 12-and-a-half-minute, one-reel film, was completed too late to save Laugh-O-Gram Studio, which went into bankruptcy in 1923.Disney moved to Hollywood in July 1923 at 21 years old. Although New York was the center of the cartoon industry, he was attracted to Los Angeles because his brother Roy was convalescing from tuberculosis there, and he hoped to become a live-action film director. Disney's efforts to sell Alice's Wonderland were in vain until he heard from New York film distributor Margaret J. Winkler. She was losing the rights to both the Out of the Inkwell and Felix the Cat cartoons, and needed a new series. In October, they signed a contract for six Alice comedies, with an option for two further series of six episodes each. Disney and his brother Roy formed the Disney Brothers Studio\u200d\u2014\u200cwhich later became The Walt Disney Company\u200d\u2014\u200cto produce the films; they persuaded Davis and her family to relocate to Hollywood to continue production, with Davis on contract at $100 a month. In July 1924, Disney also hired Iwerks, persuading him to relocate to Hollywood from Kansas City.Early in 1925, Disney hired an ink artist, Lillian Bounds. They married in July of that year, at her brother's house in her hometown of Lewiston, Idaho. The marriage was generally happy, according to Lillian, although according to Disney's biographer Neal Gabler she did not \"accept Walt's decisions meekly or his status unquestionably, and she admitted that he was always telling people 'how henpecked he is'.\" Lillian had little interest in films or the Hollywood social scene and she was, in the words of the historian Steven Watts, \"content with household management and providing support for her husband\". Their marriage produced two daughters, Diane (born December 1933) and Sharon (adopted in December 1936, born six weeks previously). Within the family, neither Disney nor his wife hid the fact Sharon had been adopted, although they became annoyed if people outside the family raised the point. The Disneys were careful to keep their daughters out of the public eye as much as possible, particularly in the light of the Lindbergh kidnapping; Disney took steps to ensure his daughters were not photographed by the press.\n\nBy 1926, Winkler's role in the distribution of the Alice series had been handed over to her husband, the film producer Charles Mintz, although the relationship between him and Disney was sometimes strained. The series ran until July 1927, by which time Disney had begun to tire of it and wanted to move away from the mixed format to all animation. After Mintz requested new material to distribute through Universal Pictures, Disney and Iwerks created Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, a character Disney wanted to be \"peppy, alert, saucy and venturesome, keeping him also neat and trim\".In February 1928, Disney hoped to negotiate a larger fee for producing the Oswald series, but found Mintz wanting to reduce the payments. Mintz had also persuaded many of the artists involved to work directly for him, including Harman, Ising, Carman Maxwell and Friz Freleng. Disney also found out that Universal owned the intellectual property rights to Oswald. Mintz threatened to start his own studio and produce the series himself if Disney refused to accept the reductions. Disney declined Mintz's ultimatum and lost most of his animation staff, except Iwerks, who chose to remain with him.\n\n\n=== Creation of Mickey Mouse to the first Academy Awards: 1928\u20131933 ===\nTo replace Oswald, Disney and Iwerks developed Mickey Mouse, possibly inspired by a pet mouse that Disney had adopted while working in his Laugh-O-Gram studio, although the origins of the character are unclear. Disney's original choice of name was Mortimer Mouse, but Lillian thought it too pompous, and suggested Mickey instead. Iwerks revised Disney's provisional sketches to make the character easier to animate. Disney, who had begun to distance himself from the animation process, provided Mickey's voice until 1947. In the words of one Disney employee, \"Ub designed Mickey's physical appearance, but Walt gave him his soul.\"\n\nMickey Mouse first appeared in May 1928 as a single test screening of the short Plane Crazy, but it, and the second feature, The Gallopin' Gaucho, failed to find a distributor. Following the 1927 sensation The Jazz Singer, Disney used synchronized sound on the third short, Steamboat Willie, to create the first post-produced sound cartoon. After the animation was complete, Disney signed a contract with the former executive of Universal Pictures, Pat Powers, to use the \"Powers Cinephone\" recording system; Cinephone became the new distributor for Disney's early sound cartoons, which soon became popular.To improve the quality of the music, Disney hired the professional composer and arranger Carl Stalling, on whose suggestion the Silly Symphony series was developed, providing stories through the use of music; the first in the series, The Skeleton Dance (1929), was drawn and animated entirely by Iwerks. Also hired at this time were several local artists, some of whom stayed with the company as core animators; the group later became known as the Nine Old Men. Both the Mickey Mouse and Silly Symphonies series were successful, but Disney and his brother felt they were not receiving their rightful share of profits from Powers. In 1930, Disney tried to trim costs from the process by urging Iwerks to abandon the practice of animating every separate cel in favor of the more efficient technique of drawing key poses and letting lower-paid assistants sketch the inbetween poses. Disney asked Powers for an increase in payments for the cartoons. Powers refused and signed Iwerks to work for him; Stalling resigned shortly afterwards, thinking that without Iwerks, the Disney Studio would close. Disney had a nervous breakdown in October 1931\u200d\u2014\u200cwhich he blamed on the machinations of Powers and his own overwork\u200d\u2014\u200cso he and Lillian took an extended holiday to Cuba and a cruise to Panama to recover.\n\nWith the loss of Powers as distributor, Disney studios signed a contract with Columbia Pictures to distribute the Mickey Mouse cartoons, which became increasingly popular, including internationally. Disney, always keen to embrace new technology, filmed Flowers and Trees (1932) in full-color three-strip Technicolor; he was also able to negotiate a deal giving him the sole right to use the three-strip process until August 31, 1935. All subsequent Silly Symphony cartoons were in color. Flowers and Trees was popular with audiences and won the Academy Award for best Short Subject (Cartoon) at the 1932 ceremony. Disney had been nominated for another film in that category, Mickey's Orphans, and received an Honorary Award \"for the creation of Mickey Mouse\".In 1933, Disney produced The Three Little Pigs, a film described by the media historian Adrian Danks as \"the most successful short animation of all time\". The film won Disney another Academy Award in the Short Subject (Cartoon) category. The film's success led to a further increase in the studio's staff, which numbered nearly 200 by the end of the year. Disney realized the importance of telling emotionally gripping stories that would interest the audience, and he invested in a \"story department\" separate from the animators, with storyboard artists who would detail the plots of Disney's films.\n\n\n=== Golden age of animation: 1934\u20131941 ===\n\nBy 1934, Disney had become dissatisfied with producing formulaic cartoon shorts, and believed a feature-length cartoon would be more profitable. The studio began the four-year production of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, based on the fairy tale. When news leaked out about the project, many in the film industry predicted it would bankrupt the company; industry insiders nicknamed it \"Disney's Folly\". The film, which was the first animated feature made in full color and sound, cost $1.5 million to produce\u200d\u2014\u200cthree times over budget. To ensure the animation was as realistic as possible, Disney sent his animators on courses at the Chouinard Art Institute; he brought animals into the studio and hired actors so that the animators could study realistic movement. To portray the changing perspective of the background as a camera moved through a scene, Disney's animators developed a multiplane camera which allowed drawings on pieces of glass to be set at various distances from the camera, creating an illusion of depth. The glass could be moved to create the impression of a camera passing through the scene. The first work created on the camera\u200d\u2014\u200ca Silly Symphony called The Old Mill (1937)\u200d\u2014\u200cwon the Academy Award for Animated Short Film because of its impressive visual power. Although Snow White had been largely finished by the time the multiplane camera had been completed, Disney ordered some scenes be re-drawn to use the new effects.Snow White premiered in December 1937 to high praise from critics and audiences. The film became the most successful motion picture of 1938 and by May 1939 its total gross of $6.5 million made it the most successful sound film made to that date. Disney won another Honorary Academy Award, which consisted of one full-sized and seven miniature Oscar statuettes. The success of Snow White heralded one of the most productive eras for the studio; the Walt Disney Family Museum calls the following years \"the 'Golden Age of Animation'\u202f\". With work on Snow White finished, the studio began producing Pinocchio in early 1938 and Fantasia in November of the same year. Both films were released in 1940, and neither performed well at the box office\u200d\u2014\u200cpartly because revenues from Europe had dropped following the start of World War II in 1939. The studio made a loss on both pictures and was deeply in debt by the end of February 1941.In response to the financial crisis, Disney and his brother Roy started the company's first public stock offering in 1940, and implemented heavy salary cuts. The latter measure, and Disney's sometimes high-handed and insensitive manner of dealing with staff, led to a 1941 animators' strike which lasted five weeks. While a federal mediator from the National Labor Relations Board negotiated with the two sides, Disney accepted an offer from the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs to make a goodwill trip to South America, ensuring he was absent during a resolution he knew would be unfavorable to the studio. As a result of the strike\u200d\u2014\u200cand the financial state of the company\u200d\u2014\u200cseveral animators left the studio, and Disney's relationship with other members of staff was permanently strained as a result. The strike temporarily interrupted the studio's next production, Dumbo (1941), which Disney produced in a simple and inexpensive manner; the film received a positive reaction from audiences and critics alike.\n\n\n=== World War II and beyond: 1941\u20131950 ===\n\nShortly after the release of Dumbo in October 1941, the U.S. entered World War II. Disney formed the Walt Disney Training Films Unit within the company to produce instruction films for the military such as Four Methods of Flush Riveting and Aircraft Production Methods. Disney also met with Henry Morgenthau Jr., the Secretary of the Treasury, and agreed to produce short Donald Duck cartoons to promote war bonds. Disney also produced several propaganda productions, including shorts such as Der Fuehrer's Face\u200d\u2014\u200cwhich won an Academy Award\u200d\u2014\u200cand the 1943 feature film Victory Through Air Power.The military films generated only enough revenue to cover costs, and the feature film Bambi\u200d\u2014\u200cwhich had been in production since 1937\u200d\u2014\u200cunderperformed on its release in April 1942, and lost $200,000 at the box office. On top of the low earnings from Pinocchio and Fantasia, the company had debts of $4 million with the Bank of America in 1944. At a meeting with Bank of America executives to discuss the future of the company, the bank's chairman and founder, Amadeo Giannini, told his executives, \"I've been watching the Disneys' pictures quite closely because I knew we were lending them money far above the financial risk. ... They're good this year, they're good next year, and they're good the year after. ... You have to relax and give them time to market their product.\" Disney's production of short films decreased in the late 1940s, coinciding with increasing competition in the animation market from Warner Bros. and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Roy Disney, for financial reasons, suggested more combined animation and live-action productions. In 1948, Disney initiated a series of popular live-action nature films, titled True-Life Adventures, with Seal Island the first; the film won the Academy Award in the Best Short Subject (Two-Reel) category.Disney grew more politically conservative as he got older. A Democratic Party supporter until the 1940 presidential election, when he switched allegiance to the Republican Party, he became a generous donor to Thomas E. Dewey's 1944 bid for the presidency. In 1946, he was a founding member of the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals, an organization who stated they \"believ[ed] in, and like, the American Way of Life ... we find ourselves in sharp revolt against a rising tide of Communism, Fascism and kindred beliefs, that seek by subversive means to undermine and change this way of life\". In 1947, during the Second Red Scare, Disney testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), where he branded Herbert Sorrell, David Hilberman and William Pomerance, former animators and labor union organizers, as communist agitators; Disney stated that the 1941 strike led by them was part of an organized communist effort to gain influence in Hollywood.  It was alleged by The New York Times in 1993 that Disney had been passing secret information to the FBI from 1940 until his death in 1966. In return for this information, J. Edgar Hoover allowed Disney to film in FBI headquarters in Washington. Disney was made a \"full Special Agent in Charge Contact\" in 1954.\n\nIn 1949, Disney and his family moved to a new home in the Holmby Hills district of Los Angeles. With the help of his friends Ward and Betty Kimball, who already had their own backyard railroad, Disney developed blueprints and immediately set to work on creating a miniature live steam railroad for his backyard. The name of the railroad, Carolwood Pacific Railroad, came from his home's location on Carolwood Drive. The miniature working steam locomotive was built by Disney Studios engineer Roger E. Broggie, and Disney named it Lilly Belle after his wife; after three years Disney ordered it into storage due to a series of accidents involving his guests.\n\n\n=== Theme parks, television and other interests: 1950\u20131966 ===\nIn early 1950, Disney produced Cinderella, his studio's first animated feature in eight years. It was popular with critics and theater audiences. Costing $2.2 million to produce, it earned nearly $8 million in its first year. Disney was less involved than he had been with previous pictures because of his involvement in his first entirely live-action feature, Treasure Island (1950), which was shot in Britain, as was The Story of Robin Hood and His Merrie Men (1952). Other all-live-action features followed, many of which had patriotic themes. He continued to produce full-length animated features too, including Alice in Wonderland (1951) and Peter Pan (1953). From the early to mid-1950s, Disney began to devote less attention to the animation department, entrusting most of its operations to his key animators, the Nine Old Men, although he was always present at story meetings. Instead, he started concentrating on other ventures.\n\nFor several years Disney had been considering building a theme park. When he visited Griffith Park in Los Angeles with his daughters, he wanted to be in a clean, unspoiled park, where both children and their parents could have fun. He visited the Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen, Denmark, and was heavily influenced by the cleanliness and layout of the park. In March 1952 he received zoning permission to build a theme park in Burbank, near the Disney studios. This site proved too small, and a larger plot in Anaheim, 35 miles (56 km) south of the studio, was purchased. To distance the project from the studio\u200d\u2014\u200cwhich might attract the criticism of shareholders\u200d\u2014\u200cDisney formed WED Enterprises (now Walt Disney Imagineering) and used his own money to fund a group of designers and animators to work on the plans; those involved became known as \"Imagineers\". After obtaining bank funding he invited other stockholders, American Broadcasting-Paramount Theatres\u200d\u2014\u200cpart of American Broadcasting Company (ABC)\u200d\u2014\u200cand Western Printing and Lithographing Company. In mid-1954, Disney sent his Imagineers to every amusement park in the U.S. to analyze what worked and what pitfalls or problems there were in the various locations and incorporated their findings into his design. Construction work started in July 1954, and Disneyland opened in July 1955; the opening ceremony was broadcast on ABC, which reached 70 million viewers. The park was designed as a series of themed lands, linked by the central Main Street, U.S.A.\u200d\u2014\u200ca replica of the main street in his hometown of Marceline. The connected themed areas were Adventureland, Frontierland, Fantasyland and Tomorrowland. The park also contained the narrow gauge Disneyland Railroad that linked the lands; around the outside of the park was a high berm to separate the park from the outside world. An editorial in The New York Times considered that Disney had \"tastefully combined some of the pleasant things of yesterday with fantasy and dreams of tomorrow\". Although there were early minor problems with the park, it was a success, and after a month's operation, Disneyland was receiving over 20,000 visitors a day; by the end of its first year, it attracted 3.6 million guests.The money from ABC was contingent on Disney television programs. The studio had been involved in a successful television special on Christmas Day 1950 about the making of Alice in Wonderland. Roy believed the program added millions to the box office takings. In a March 1951 letter to shareholders, he wrote that \"television can be a most powerful selling aid for us, as well as a source of revenue. It will probably be on this premise that we enter television when we do\". In 1954, after the Disneyland funding had been agreed, ABC broadcast Walt Disney's Disneyland, an anthology consisting of animated cartoons, live-action features and other material from the studio's library. The show was successful in terms of ratings and profits, earning an audience share of over 50%. In April 1955, Newsweek called the series an \"American institution\". ABC was pleased with the ratings, leading to Disney's first daily television program, The Mickey Mouse Club, a variety show catering specifically to children. The program was accompanied by merchandising through various companies (Western Printing, for example, had been producing coloring books and comics for over 20 years, and produced several items connected to the show). One of the segments of Disneyland consisted of the five-part miniseries Davy Crockett which, according to Gabler, \"became an overnight sensation\". The show's theme song, \"The Ballad of Davy Crockett\", became internationally popular, and ten million records were sold. As a result, Disney formed his own record production and distribution entity, Disneyland Records.As well as the construction of Disneyland, Disney worked on other projects away from the studio. He was consultant to the 1959 American National Exhibition in Moscow; Disney Studios' contribution was America the Beautiful, a 19-minute film in the 360-degree Circarama theater that was one of the most popular attractions. The following year he acted as the chairman of the Pageantry Committee for the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley, California, where he designed the opening, closing and medal ceremonies.\n\nDespite the demands wrought by non-studio projects, Disney continued to work on film and television projects. In 1955, he was involved in \"Man in Space\", an episode of the Disneyland series, which was made in collaboration with NASA rocket designer Wernher von Braun. Disney also oversaw aspects of the full-length features Lady and the Tramp (the first animated film in CinemaScope) in 1955, Sleeping Beauty (the first animated film in Technirama 70 mm film) in 1959, One Hundred and One Dalmatians (the first animated feature film to use Xerox cels) in 1961, and The Sword in the Stone in 1963.In 1964, Disney produced Mary Poppins, based on the book series by P. L. Travers; he had been trying to acquire the rights to the story since the 1940s. It became the most successful Disney film of the 1960s, although Travers disliked the film intensely and regretted having sold the rights. The same year he also became involved in plans to expand the California Institute of the Arts (colloquially called CalArts), and had an architect draw up blueprints for a new building.Disney provided four exhibits for the 1964 New York World's Fair, for which he obtained funding from selected corporate sponsors. For PepsiCo, who planned a tribute to UNICEF, Disney developed It's a Small World, a boat ride with audio-animatronic dolls depicting children of the world; Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln contained an animatronic Abraham Lincoln giving excerpts from his speeches; Carousel of Progress promoted the importance of electricity; and Ford's Magic Skyway portrayed the progress of mankind. Elements of all four exhibits\u200d\u2014\u200cprincipally concepts and technology\u200d\u2014\u200cwere re-installed in Disneyland, although It's a Small World is the ride that most closely resembles the original.During the early to mid-1960s, Disney developed plans for a ski resort in Mineral King, a glacial valley in California's Sierra Nevada. He hired experts such as the renowned Olympic ski coach and ski-area designer Willy Schaeffler. With income from Disneyland accounting for an increasing proportion of the studio's income, Disney continued to look for venues for other attractions. In late 1965, he announced plans to develop another theme park to be called \"Disney World\" (now Walt Disney World), a few miles southwest of Orlando, Florida. Disney World was to include the \"Magic Kingdom\"\u200d\u2014\u200ca larger and more elaborate version of Disneyland\u200d\u2014\u200cplus golf courses and resort hotels. The heart of Disney World was to be the \"Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow\" (EPCOT), which he described as:\n\nan experimental prototype community of tomorrow that will take its cue from the new ideas and new technologies that are now emerging from the creative centers of American industry. It will be a community of tomorrow that will never be completed, but will always be introducing and testing and demonstrating new materials and systems. And EPCOT will always be a showcase to the world for the ingenuity and imagination of American free enterprise.\nDuring 1966, Disney cultivated businesses willing to sponsor EPCOT. He increased his involvement in the studio's films, and was heavily involved in the story development of The Jungle Book, the live-action musical feature The Happiest Millionaire (both 1967) and the animated short Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day (1968).\n\n\n=== Illness, death and aftermath ===\n\nDisney had been a heavy smoker since World War I. He did not use cigarettes with filters and had smoked a pipe as a young man. In early November 1966, he was diagnosed with lung cancer and was treated with cobalt therapy. On November 30, he felt unwell and was taken by ambulance from his home to St. Joseph Hospital where, on December 15, 1966 ten days after his 65th birthday, he died of circulatory collapse caused by the cancer. His remains were cremated two days later and his ashes interred at the Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.The release of The Jungle Book and The Happiest Millionaire in 1967 raised the total number of feature films that Disney had been involved in to 81. When Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day was released in 1968, it earned Disney an Academy Award in the Short Subject (Cartoon) category, awarded posthumously. After Disney's death, his studios continued to produce live-action films prolifically but largely abandoned animation until the late 1980s, after which there was what The New York Times describes as the \"Disney Renaissance\" that began with The Little Mermaid (1989). Disney's companies continue to produce successful film, television and stage entertainment.\n\nDisney's plans for the futuristic city of EPCOT did not come to fruition. After Disney's death, his brother Roy deferred his retirement to take full control of the Disney companies. He changed the focus of the project from a town to an attraction. At the inauguration in 1971, Roy dedicated Walt Disney World to his brother. Walt Disney World expanded with the opening of Epcot Center in 1982; Walt Disney's vision of a functional city was replaced by a park more akin to a permanent world's fair. In 2009, the Walt Disney Family Museum, designed by Disney's daughter Diane and her son Walter E. D. Miller, opened in the Presidio of San Francisco. Thousands of artifacts from Disney's life and career are on display, including numerous awards that he received. In 2014, the Disney theme parks around the world hosted approximately 134 million visitors.Disney has been portrayed numerous times in fictional works. H. G. Wells references Disney in his 1938 novel The Holy Terror, in which World Dictator Rud fears that Donald Duck is meant to lampoon the dictator. Disney was portrayed by Len Cariou in the 1995 made-for-TV film A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes: The Annette Funicello Story, and by Tom Hanks in the 2013 film Saving Mr. Banks. In 2001, the German author Peter Stephan Jungk published Der K\u00f6nig von Amerika (trans: The King of America), a fictional work of Disney's later years that re-imagines him as a power-hungry racist. The composer Philip Glass later adapted the book into the opera The Perfect American (2013).\n\n\n== Honors ==\n\nDisney received 59 Academy Award nominations, including 22 awards: both totals are records. He was nominated for three Golden Globe Awards, but did not win, but he was presented with two Special Achievement Awards\u200d\u2014\u200cfor Bambi (1942) and The Living Desert (1953)\u200d\u2014\u200cand the Cecil B. DeMille Award. He also received four Emmy Award nominations, winning once, for Best Producer for the Disneyland television series. Several of his films are included in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\": Steamboat Willie, The Three Little Pigs, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Fantasia, Pinocchio, Bambi, Dumbo and Mary Poppins. In 1998, the American Film Institute published a list of the 100 greatest American films, according to industry experts; the list included Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (at number 49), and Fantasia (at 58).In February 1960, Disney was inducted to the Hollywood Walk of Fame with two stars, one for motion pictures and the other for his television work; Mickey Mouse was given his own star for motion pictures in 1978. Disney was also inducted into the Television Hall of Fame in 1986, the California Hall of Fame in December 2006, and was the inaugural recipient of a star on the Anaheim walk of stars in 2014.The Walt Disney Family Museum records that he \"along with members of his staff, received more than 950 honors and citations from throughout the world\". He was made a Chevalier in the French L\u00e9gion d'honneur in 1935, and in 1952 he was awarded the country's highest artistic decoration, the Officer d'Academie. Other national awards include Thailand's Order of the Crown (1960); Germany's Order of Merit (1956), Brazil's Order of the Southern Cross (1941) and Mexico's Order of the Aztec Eagle (1943). In the United States, he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom on September 14, 1964, and on May 24, 1968, he was posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal. He received the Showman of the World Award from the National Association of Theatre Owners, and in 1955, the National Audubon Society awarded Disney its highest honor, the Audubon Medal, for promoting the \"appreciation and understanding of nature\" through his True-Life Adventures nature films. A minor planet discovered in 1980 by astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina, was named 4017 Disneya, and he was also awarded honorary degrees from Harvard, Yale, the University of Southern California and the University of California, Los Angeles.\n\n\n== Personality and reputation ==\n\nDisney's public persona was very different from his actual personality. Playwright Robert E. Sherwood described him as \"almost painfully shy ... diffident\" and self-deprecating. According to his biographer Richard Schickel, Disney hid his shy and insecure personality behind his public identity. Kimball argues that Disney \"played the role of a bashful tycoon who was embarrassed in public\" and knew that he was doing so. Disney acknowledged the fa\u00e7ade and told a friend that \"I'm not Walt Disney. I do a lot of things Walt Disney would not do. Walt Disney does not smoke. I smoke. Walt Disney does not drink. I drink.\" Critic Otis Ferguson, in The New Republic, called the private Disney: \"common and everyday, not inaccessible, not in a foreign language, not suppressed or sponsored or anything. Just Disney.\" Many of those with whom Disney worked commented that he gave his staff little encouragement due to his exceptionally high expectations. Norman recalls that when Disney said \"That'll work\", it was an indication of high praise. Instead of direct approval, Disney gave high-performing staff financial bonuses, or recommended certain individuals to others, expecting that his praise would be passed on.Views of Disney and his work have changed over the decades, and there have been polarized opinions. Mark Langer, in the American Dictionary of National Biography, writes that \"Earlier evaluations of Disney hailed him as a patriot, folk artist, and popularizer of culture. More recently, Disney has been regarded as a paradigm of American imperialism and intolerance, as well as a debaser of culture.\" Steven Watts wrote that some denounce Disney \"as a cynical manipulator of cultural and commercial formulas\", while PBS records that critics have censured his work because of its \"smooth fa\u00e7ade of sentimentality and stubborn optimism, its feel-good re-write of American history\". Although Disney's films have been highly praised, very popular and commercially successful over time, there were criticisms by reviewers. Caroline Lejeune comments in The Observer that Snow White (1937) \"has more faults than any earlier Disney cartoon. It is vulnerable again and again to the barbed criticisms of the experts. Sometimes it is, frankly, badly drawn.\" Robin Allen, writing for The Times, notes that Fantasia (1940) was \"condemned for its vulgarity and lurches into bathos\", while Lejeune, reviewing Alice in Wonderland (1951), feels the film \"may drive lovers of Lewis Carroll to frenzy\". Peter Pan (1953) was criticized in The Times as \"a children's classic vulgarized\" with \"Tinker Bell ... a peroxided American cutie\". The reviewer opined that Disney \"has slaughtered good Barrie and has only second-rate Disney to put in its place\".Disney has been accused of anti-Semitism for having given Nazi propagandist Leni Reifenstahl a tour of his studio a month after Kristallnacht, although none of his employees\u2014including the animator Art Babbitt, who disliked Disney intensely\u2014ever accused him of making anti-Semitic slurs or taunts. The Walt Disney Family Museum acknowledges that ethnic stereotypes common to films of the 1930s were included in some early cartoons. Disney donated regularly to Jewish charities, he was named \"1955 Man of the Year\" by the B'nai B'rith chapter in Beverly Hills, and his studio employed a number of Jews, some of whom were in influential positions. Gabler, the first writer to gain unrestricted access to the Disney archives, concludes that the available evidence does not support accusations of anti-Semitism and that Disney was \"not [anti-Semitic] in the conventional sense that we think of someone as being an anti-Semite\". Gabler concludes that \"though Walt himself, in my estimation, was not anti-Semitic, nevertheless, he willingly allied himself with people who were anti-Semitic [meaning some members of the MPAPAI], and that reputation stuck. He was never really able to expunge it throughout his life\". Disney distanced himself from the Motion Picture Alliance in the 1950s.Disney has also been accused of other forms of racism because some of his productions released between the 1930s and 1950s contain racially insensitive material. The feature film Song of the South was criticized by contemporary film critics, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, and others for its perpetuation of black stereotypes, but Disney later campaigned successfully for an Honorary Academy Award for its star, James Baskett, the first black actor so honored. Gabler argues that \"Walt Disney was no racist. He never, either publicly or privately, made disparaging remarks about blacks or asserted white superiority. Like most white Americans of his generation, however, he was racially insensitive.\" Floyd Norman, the studio's first black animator who worked closely with Disney during the 1950s and 1960s, said, \"Not once did I observe a hint of the racist behavior Walt Disney was often accused of after his death. His treatment of people\u200d\u2014\u200cand by this I mean all people\u200d\u2014\u200ccan only be called exemplary.\"Watts argues that many of Disney's post-World War II films \"legislated a kind of cultural Marshall Plan. They nourished a genial cultural imperialism that magically overran the rest of the globe with the values, expectations, and goods of a prosperous middle-class United States.\" Film historian Jay P. Telotte acknowledges that many see Disney's studio as an \"agent of manipulation and repression\", although he observes that it has \"labored throughout its history to link its name with notions of fun, family, and fantasy\". John Tomlinson, in his study Cultural Imperialism, examines the work of Ariel Dorfman and Armand Mattelart, whose 1971 book Para leer al Pato Donald (trans: How to Read Donald Duck) identifies that there are \"imperialist ... values 'concealed' behind the innocent, wholesome fa\u00e7ade of the world of Walt Disney\"; this, they argue, is a powerful tool as \"it presents itself as harmless fun for consumption by children.\" Tomlinson views their argument as flawed, as \"they simply assume that reading American comics, seeing adverts, watching pictures of the affluent ... ['Yankee'] lifestyle has a direct pedagogic effect\".Several commentators have described Disney as a cultural icon. On Disney's death, journalism professor Ralph S. Izard comments that the values in Disney's films are those \"considered valuable in American Christian society\", which include \"individualism, decency, ... love for our fellow man, fair play and toleration\". Disney's obituary in The Times calls the films \"wholesome, warm-hearted and entertaining ... of incomparable artistry and of touching beauty\". Journalist Bosley Crowther argues that Disney's \"achievement as a creator of entertainment for an almost unlimited public and as a highly ingenious merchandiser of his wares can rightly be compared to the most successful industrialists in history.\" Correspondent Alistair Cooke calls Disney a \"folk-hero ... the Pied Piper of Hollywood\", while Gabler considers Disney \"reshaped the culture and the American consciousness\". In the American Dictionary of National Biography, Langer writes:\n\nDisney remains the central figure in the history of animation. Through technological innovations and alliances with governments and corporations, he transformed a minor studio in a marginal form of communication into a multinational leisure industry giant. Despite his critics, his vision of a modern, corporate utopia as an extension of traditional American values has possibly gained greater currency in the years after his death.\n\n\n== Notes and references ==\n\n\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n=== References ===\n\n\n=== Sources ===\n\n\n== External links ==\nWalt Disney at IMDb\nWalt Disney at the TCM Movie Database \nWorks by or about Walt Disney in libraries (WorldCat catalog)\nThe Walt Disney Family Museum\nThe Walt Disney Birthplace\nTalking About Walt Disney at The Interviews: An Oral History of Television\nFBI Records: The  Vault \u2013 Walter Elias Disney at vault.fbi.gov", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Animation_disc.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Blank_television_set.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Disney1968.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/DisneySchiphol1951.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Disney_Display_Case.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Disney_drawing_goofy.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Disneyland_Resort_logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Flag_of_Los_Angeles_County%2C_California.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Magic_Kingdom_castle.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Newman_Laugh-O-Gram_%281921%29.webm", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Roy_O._Disney_with_Company_at_Press_Conference.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Trolley_Troubles_poster.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/WaltDisneyplansDisneylandDec1954.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Walt_Disney_1935.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Walt_Disney_1942_signature.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Walt_Disney_1946.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Walt_Disney_Grave.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Walt_Disney_Snow_white_1937_trailer_screenshot_%2813%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Walt_Disney_envelope_ca._1921.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Walt_disney_portrait_right.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8c/Extended-protection-shackle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/P_vip.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4e/Steamboat-willie.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e7/Video-x-generic.svg"], "summary": "Walter Elias Disney (; December 5, 1901 \u2013 December 15, 1966) was an American entrepreneur, animator, writer, voice actor, and film producer. A pioneer of the American animation industry, he introduced several developments in the production of cartoons. As a film producer, he holds the record for most Academy Awards earned by an individual, having won 22 Oscars from 59 nominations. He was presented with two Golden Globe Special Achievement Awards and an Emmy Award, among other honors. Several of his films are included in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress.\nBorn in Chicago in 1901, Disney developed an early interest in drawing. He took art classes as a boy and got a job as a commercial illustrator at the age of 18. He moved to California in the early 1920s and set up the Disney Brothers Studio with his brother Roy. With Ub Iwerks, he developed the character Mickey Mouse in 1928, his first highly popular success; he also provided the voice for his creation in the early years. As the studio grew, he became more adventurous, introducing synchronized sound, full-color three-strip Technicolor, feature-length cartoons and technical developments in cameras. The results, seen in features such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), Pinocchio, Fantasia (both 1940), Dumbo (1941), and Bambi (1942), furthered the development of animated film. New animated and live-action films followed after World War II, including the critically successful Cinderella (1950) and Mary Poppins (1964), the latter of which received five Academy Awards.\nIn the 1950s, Disney expanded into the amusement park industry, and in July 1955 he opened Disneyland in Anaheim, California. To fund the project he diversified into television programs, such as Walt Disney's Disneyland and The Mickey Mouse Club. He was also involved in planning the 1959 Moscow Fair, the 1960 Winter Olympics, and the 1964 New York World's Fair. In 1965, he began development of another theme park, Disney World, the heart of which was to be a new type of city, the \"Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow\" (EPCOT). Disney was a heavy smoker throughout his life and died of lung cancer in December 1966 before either the park or the EPCOT project were completed.\nDisney was a shy, self-deprecating and insecure man in private but adopted a warm and outgoing public persona. He had high standards and high expectations of those with whom he worked. Although there have been accusations that he was racist or anti-Semitic, they have been contradicted by many who knew him. His reputation changed in the years after his death, from a purveyor of homely patriotic values to a representative of American imperialism. He nevertheless remains an important figure in the history of animation and in the cultural history of the United States, where he is considered a national cultural icon. His film work continues to be shown and adapted; his namesake studio and company maintain high standards in their production of popular entertainment, and the Disney theme parks have grown in size and number to attract visitors in several countries."}, "Lucille_Ball": {"links": ["Babe Didrikson Zaharias", "Alvin Ailey", "Helen Murray Free", "Susan Sarandon", "Karen DeCrow", "Bernadette Peters", "Elizabeth Dole", "Lorraine Hansberry", "Cedars-Sinai Medical Center", "Edith Wharton", "Charlotte Bunch", "The Lucy Show", "Gertrude Lawrence", "Barbara McClintock", "Michelle Pfeiffer", "Virgil Thomson", "Museum of Broadcast Communications", "Rodgers and Hart", "Women's Movement in the United States ", "Bette Midler", "Eunice Kennedy Shriver", "The Lucy\u2013Desi Comedy Hour", "Betty Bumpers", "Julia Child", "Kinescope", "Sid Caesar", "Ella Baker", "Alwin Nikolais", "Bachelor Mother", "Too Many Girls ", "Octavia Spencer", "Sophia Loren", "Chap ", "Communist Party USA", "Barbara Stanwyck", "Laurence Olivier", "Florence R. 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Holm", "Audrey Hepburn", "Blanche Scott", "Lucy Stone", "Republican Party ", "Statue of Lucille Ball", "Janet Reno", "Gene Kelly", "Massachusetts Bay Colony", "Kennedy Center Honors", "Arthur Freed", "VIAF ", "NBC", "Carol Lawrence", "Pacific Daylight Time", "Jack L. Warner", "Top Hat", "Barbara Eden", "Glenn Close", "Sacagawea", "Wilhelmina Holladay", "Lake Chautauqua", "Hasty Pudding Theatricals", "Count Basie", "Hasty Pudding Woman of the Year", "Sally Ride", "America Ferrera", "Sandra Day O'Connor", "Mary Harriman Rumsey", "Carol Kane", "Desilu Productions", "Imogene Coca", "Turner Classic Movies", "Dionne Warwick", "Women in Film Crystal + Lucy Awards", "Kate Stoneman", "Helen Keller", "I Love Lucy", "Lucretia Mott", "Primetime Emmy Award", "Susan B. Anthony", "Robin Williams", "Walt Disney", "Jamestown, New York", "Sally Field", "Frederick Loewe", "Donna Shalala", "Abigail Adams", "Carole Cook", "Sojourner Truth", "Supporting role", "Florence B. 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Latimer", "Roberta ", "Barbara Iglewski", "Dolores Huerta", "Frances Wright", "Lucie Arnaz", "Mission: Impossible ", "Impresario", "List of actors with Hollywood Walk of Fame motion picture stars", "Oprah Winfrey", "Mervyn LeRoy", "Seamus Dever", "TV Guide", "Bob Newhart", "Wyandotte, Michigan", "Orson Welles", "My Favorite Husband", "Amelia Earhart", "Tango ", "Harrison Ford", "Commemorative postage stamp", "Lux Radio Theatre", "Mamie Eisenhower", "Patty Duke", "Patricia Roberts Harris", "Brandeis-Bardin Institute", "Ruth Bader Ginsburg", "Dwight Eisenhower", "Lauren Bacall", "Frances Willard", "Fred Rogers", "Helen Hunt", "Ruth Patrick", "Walter Cronkite", "Felice Schwartz", "Jack Lemmon", "George Abbott", "Faye Glenn Abdellah", "Hedda Hopper", "Mary Lyon", "Barbara Holdridge", "Grace Hopper", "Nanette Fabray", "Jack Haley", "Katherine Siva Saubel", "Broadway theatre", "Film clips", "Keith Andes", "Cecil B. DeMille", "Desert Palm Achievement Award", "Nicole Malachowski", "Gertrude Ederle", "Denzel Washington", "Google Doodle", "Jane Fonda", "Harriet Williams Russell Strong", "Arthur Miller", "Ethel Merman", "Harriet Beecher Stowe", "Faye Wattleton", "Frances Xavier Cabrini", "Anne Hathaway", "Edie Falco", "Bertha Holt", "Ella Grasso"], "content": "Lucille D\u00e9sir\u00e9e Ball (August 6, 1911 \u2013 April 26, 1989) was an American actress, comedian, model, studio executive, and producer. She was the star and producer of sitcoms I Love Lucy, The Lucy Show, and Here's Lucy, as well as comedy television specials aired under the title The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour. She was also the first female head of a major Hollywood studio, Desilu Productions, which she also owned.\nBall's career began in 1929 when she landed work as a model. Shortly thereafter, she began her performing career on Broadway using the stage name Diane (or Dianne) Belmont. She later appeared in several minor film roles in the 1930s and 1940s as a contract player for RKO Radio Pictures, being cast as a chorus girl or in similar roles. During this time, she met Cuban bandleader Desi Arnaz, and the two eloped in November 1940. In the 1950s, Ball ventured into television. In 1951,  Arnaz and she created the sitcom I Love Lucy. The same year, Ball gave birth to their first child, Lucie Arnaz, followed by Desi Arnaz Jr. in 1953. Ball and Arnaz divorced in May 1960, and she married comedian Gary Morton in 1961.Following the end of I Love Lucy, Ball produced and starred in the Broadway musical Wildcat from 1960 to 1961. The show received lukewarm reviews and had to be closed when Ball became ill for several weeks. After Wildcat, Ball reunited with I Love Lucy co-star Vivian Vance for The Lucy Show, which Vance left in 1965. The show continued, with Ball's longtime friend and series regular Gale Gordon, until 1968. Ball immediately began appearing in a new series, Here's Lucy, with Gordon, frequent show guest Mary Jane Croft, and Lucie and Desi Jr.; this program ran until 1974.\nIn 1962, Ball became the first woman to run a major television studio, Desilu Productions, which produced many popular television series, including Mission: Impossible and Star Trek. Ball did not retire from acting completely, and in 1985, she took on a dramatic role in the television film Stone Pillow. The next year, she starred in Life with Lucy, which was, unlike her other sitcoms, not well-received; the show was cancelled after three months. She appeared in film and television roles for the rest of her career until her death in April 1989 from an abdominal aortic aneurysm at the age of 77.Ball was nominated for 13 Primetime Emmy Awards, winning four times. In 1960, she received two stars for her work in film and television on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 1977, Ball was among the first recipients of the Women in Film Crystal Award. She was also the recipient of the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award in 1979, was inducted into the Television Hall of Fame in 1984,  received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Kennedy Center Honors in 1986, and the Governors Award from the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences in 1989.\n\n\n== Early life ==\nBorn at 69 Stewart Avenue, Jamestown, New York, Lucille D\u00e9sir\u00e9e Ball was the daughter of Henry Durrell Ball (1887\u20131915), a lineman for Bell Telephone, and D\u00e9sir\u00e9e \"DeDe\" Evelyn Ball (n\u00e9e Hunt; 1892\u20131977). Her family belonged to the Baptist church. Her ancestors were mostly English, but a few were Scottish, French, and Irish. Some were among the earliest settlers in the Thirteen Colonies, including Elder John Crandall of Westerly, Rhode Island, and Edmund Rice, an early emigrant from England to the Massachusetts Bay Colony.As part of her father's work for Bell Telephone, he was frequently transferred and the family moved often during her childhood. The family had moved from Jamestown to Anaconda, Montana, and later to Trenton, New Jersey. In February 1915, while living in Wyandotte, Michigan, her father died from typhoid fever at 27 years old, when Ball was three. At the time of Henry's death, DeDe Ball was pregnant with her second child, Fred Henry Ball (1915\u20132007). Ball recalled little from the day her father died, except a bird getting trapped in the house, which caused her lifelong ornithophobia.Ball's mother returned to New York, where maternal grandparents helped raise her brother Fred and her in Celoron, a summer resort village on Lake Chautauqua, 2.5 miles (4 km) west of downtown Jamestown. Ball loved Celoron Park, a popular amusement area in the United States at that time. Its boardwalk had a ramp to the lake that served as a children's slide, the Pier Ballroom, a roller-coaster, a bandstand, and a stage where vaudeville concerts and regular theatrical shows were presented.Four years after Henry Ball's death, DeDe Ball married Edward Peterson. While her mother and stepfather looked for work in another city, Peterson's parents cared for her brother and her. Ball's step-grandparents were a puritanical Swedish couple who banished all mirrors from the house except one over the bathroom sink. When the young Ball was caught admiring herself in it, she was severely chastised for being vain. This period of time affected Ball so deeply that, in later life, she said that it lasted seven or eight years.When Ball was 12, her stepfather encouraged her to audition for his Shriner's organization that was in need of entertainers for the chorus line of their next show. While Ball was onstage, she realized performing was a great way to gain praise, and her appetite for recognition was awakened. During this time in 1927, her family was forced to relocate into a small apartment in Jamestown after they suffered a misfortune when their house and furnishings were sold to settle a financial legal judgment. A neighborhood boy was accidentally shot and paralyzed by someone target shooting in their yard under the supervision of Ball's grandfather.\n\n\n== Career ==\n\n\n=== Early career ===\nIn 1925, Ball, then only 14, started dating Johnny DeVita, a 21-year-old local hoodlum. Her mother was unhappy with the relationship, and hoped the romance she was unable to influence would burn out. After about a year, her mother tried to separate them by exploiting Ball's desire to be in show business. Despite the family's meager finances, in 1926, she enrolled Ball in the John Murray Anderson School for the Dramatic Arts, in New York City, where Bette Davis was a fellow student. Ball later said about that time in her life, \"All I learned in drama school was how to be frightened.\" Ball's instructors felt she would not be successful in the entertainment business, and were unafraid to directly state this to her.\nIn the face of this harsh criticism, Ball was determined to prove her teachers wrong and returned to New York City in 1928. That same year, she began working for Hattie Carnegie as an in-house model. Carnegie ordered Ball to dye her brown hair blond, and she complied. Of this time in her life, Ball said, \"Hattie taught me how to slouch properly in a $1,000 hand-sewn sequin dress and how to wear a $40,000 sable coat as casually as rabbit.\"Her acting forays were still at an early stage when she became ill with rheumatic fever and was unable to work for two years.In 1932, she moved back to New York City to resume her pursuit of an acting career, where she supported herself by again working for Carnegie and as the Chesterfield cigarette girl. Using the name Diane (sometimes spelled Dianne) Belmont, she started getting chorus work on Broadway, but it was not lasting. Ball was hired \u2013 but then quickly fired \u2013 by theatre impresario Earl Carroll from his Vanities, and by Florenz Ziegfeld, from a touring company of Rio Rita.\n\n\n=== Hollywood ===\n\nAfter an uncredited stint as a Goldwyn Girl in Roman Scandals (1933), starring Eddie Cantor and Gloria Stuart, Ball moved permanently to Hollywood to appear in films. She had many small movie roles in the 1930s as a contract player for RKO Radio Pictures, including a two-reel comedy short with the Three Stooges (Three Little Pigskins, 1934) and a movie with the Marx Brothers (Room Service, 1938). Her first credited role came in Chatterbox in 1936. She also appeared in several Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers RKO musicals - as one of the featured models in Roberta (1935), as the flower girl in Top Hat (1935), and in a brief supporting role at the beginning of Follow the Fleet (1936). Ball and Ginger Rogers, who were distant maternal cousins, played aspiring actresses in the film Stage Door (1937) alongside Katharine Hepburn.In 1936, she landed the role she hoped would lead her to Broadway, in the Bartlett Cormack play Hey Diddle Diddle, a comedy set in a duplex apartment in Hollywood. The play premiered in Princeton, New Jersey, on January 21, 1937, with Ball playing the part of Julie Tucker, \"one of three roommates coping with neurotic directors, confused executives, and grasping stars, who interfere with the girls' ability to get ahead\". The play received good reviews, but problems existed with star Conway Tearle, who was in poor health. Cormack wanted to replace him, but producer Anne Nichols said the fault lay with the character and insisted the part needed to be rewritten. Unable to agree on a solution, the play closed after one week in Washington, DC, when Tearle became gravely ill.Ball later auditioned for the role of Scarlett O'Hara for Gone with the Wind (1939), but Vivien Leigh got the part, winning an Academy Award for Best Actress for her role. In 1940, Lucy appeared as the lead in the musical Too Many Girls when she met and fell in love with Desi Arnaz, who played one of her character's four bodyguards in the movie.\nBall signed with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in the 1940s, but never achieved major stardom there. She was known in Hollywood circles as \"Queen of the Bs\" \u2013 a title previously held by Fay Wray and later more closely associated with Ida Lupino and Marie Windsor \u2013 starring in a number of B-movies like Five Came Back (1939).\nLike many budding actresses, Ball picked up radio work to supplement her income and gain exposure. In 1937, she appeared regularly on The Phil Baker Show. When its run ended in 1938, Ball joined the cast of The Wonder Show starring Jack Haley. There began her 50-year professional relationship with the show's announcer, Gale Gordon. The Wonder Show lasted one season, with the final episode airing on April 7, 1939.MGM producer Arthur Freed purchased the Broadway hit musical play DuBarry Was a Lady (1943) especially for Ann Sothern, but when she turned down the part, that role went to Ball, Sothern's real-life best friend. In 1943, Ball portrayed herself in Best Foot Forward. In 1946, Ball starred in Lover Come Back. In 1947, she appeared in the murder mystery Lured as Sandra Carpenter, a taxi dancer in London.\n\n\n=== I Love Lucy and Desi ===\n\nIn 1948, Ball was cast as Liz Cooper, a wacky wife in My Favorite Husband, a radio comedy for CBS Radio. (At first, the character's name was Liz Cugat; this was changed because of confusion with real-life bandleader Xavier Cugat, who sued.)\nThe show was successful, and CBS asked her to develop it for television. She agreed, but insisted on working with her real-life husband, Cuban bandleader Desi Arnaz. CBS executives were reluctant, thinking the public would not accept an Anglo-American redhead and a Cuban as a couple. CBS was initially unimpressed with the pilot episode, produced by the couple's Desilu Productions company. The pair went on the road with a vaudeville act, in which Lucy played the zany housewife, wanting to get into Arnaz's show. Given the great success of the tour, CBS put I Love Lucy into their lineup.I Love Lucy was not only a star vehicle for Lucille Ball, but also a potential means for her to salvage her marriage to Arnaz. Their relationship had become badly strained, in part because of their hectic performing schedules, which often kept them apart, but mostly due to Desi's attraction to other women.Along the way, Ball created a television dynasty and achieved several firsts. She was the first woman to head a TV production company, Desilu, which she had formed with Arnaz. After their divorce in 1960, she bought out his share and became a very actively engaged studio head. Desilu and I Love Lucy pioneered a number of methods still in use in TV production today, such as filming before a live studio audience with more than one camera, and distinct sets, adjacent to each other. During this time, Ball taught a 32-week comedy workshop at the Brandeis-Bardin Institute. She was quoted as saying, \"You cannot teach someone comedy; either they have it or they don't.\"During the run of I Love Lucy, Ball and Arnaz wanted to remain in their Los Angeles home, but time-zone logistics made that difficult. Since prime time in Los Angeles was too late to air a major network series live on the East Coast, filming in California would have meant giving most of the TV audience an inferior kinescope picture, delayed by at least a day.Sponsor Philip Morris pressured the couple into relocating, not wanting day-old kinescopes airing in major East Coast markets, nor did they want to pay the extra cost that filming, processing, and editing would require. Instead, the couple offered to take a pay cut to finance filming, which Arnaz did on better-quality 35 mm film and on the condition that Desilu would retain the rights of each episode once it aired. CBS agreed to relinquish the post-first-broadcast rights to Desilu, not realizing they were giving up a valuable and enduring asset. In 1957, CBS bought back the rights for $1,000,000 ($9.21 million in today's terms), giving Ball and Arnaz's down payment for the purchase of the former RKO Pictures studios, which they turned into Desilu Studios.I Love Lucy dominated U.S. ratings for most of its run. An attempt was made to adapt the show for radio using the \"Breaking the Lease\" episode (in which the Ricardos and Mertzes argue, and the Ricardos threaten to move, but find themselves stuck in a firm lease) as the pilot. The resulting radio audition disc has survived, but never aired.\nA scene in which Lucy and Ricky practice the tango, in the episode \"Lucy Does The Tango\", evoked the longest recorded studio audience laugh in the history of the show \u2013 so long that the sound editor had to cut that section of the soundtrack in half. During the show's production breaks, Lucy and Desi starred together in two feature films: The Long, Long Trailer (1954) and Forever, Darling (1956). After I Love Lucy ended its run in 1957, the main cast continued to appear in occasional hour-long specials under the title The Lucy\u2013Desi Comedy Hour until 1960.Desilu produced several other popular shows, such as The Untouchables, Star Trek, and Mission: Impossible. The studio was eventually sold in 1967 for $17,000,000 ($132 million in today's terms) and merged into Paramount Pictures, which was just next door to the Desilu lot.\n\n\n=== Activities 1960\u20131979 ===\nThe 1960 Broadway musical Wildcat ended its run early when producer and star Ball could not recover from a virus and continue the show after several weeks of returned ticket sales. The show was the source of the song she made famous, \"Hey, Look Me Over\", which she performed with Paula Stewart on The Ed Sullivan Show. Ball hosted a CBS Radio talk show entitled Let's Talk to Lucy in 1964\u201365. She also made a few more movies including Yours, Mine, and Ours (1968), and the musical Mame (1974), and two more successful long-running sitcoms for CBS: The Lucy Show (1962\u201368), which costarred Vivian Vance and Gale Gordon, and Here's Lucy (1968\u201374), which also featured Gordon, as well as Lucy's real-life children, Lucie Arnaz and Desi Arnaz, Jr. She appeared on the Dick Cavett show in 1974 and spoke of her history and life with Arnaz.Ball's close friends in the business included perennial co-star Vivian Vance and film stars Judy Garland, Ann Sothern, and Ginger Rogers, and comedic television performers Jack Benny, Barbara Pepper, Mary Wickes, and Mary Jane Croft; all except Garland appeared at least once on her various series. Former Broadway co-stars Keith Andes and Paula Stewart also appeared at least once on her later sitcoms, as did Joan Blondell, Rich Little, and Ann-Margret. Ball mentored actress and singer Carole Cook, and befriended Barbara Eden, when Eden appeared on an episode of I Love Lucy.In 1959, Ball became a friend and mentor to Carol Burnett. She guested on Burnett's highly successful CBS-TV special Carol + 2 and the younger performer reciprocated by appearing on The Lucy Show.  Ball was rumored to have offered Burnett a chance to star on her own sitcom, but in truth, Burnett was offered (and declined) Here's Agnes by CBS executives. She instead chose to create her own variety show due to a stipulation that was on an existing contract she had with CBS. The two women remained close friends until Ball's death in 1989. Ball sent flowers every year on Burnett's birthday.Ball was originally considered by Frank Sinatra for the role of Mrs. Iselin in the Cold War thriller The Manchurian Candidate. Director/producer John Frankenheimer, however, had worked with Angela Lansbury in a mother role in All Fall Down, and insisted on having her for the part.Ball was the lead actress in a number of comedy television specials to about 1980, including Lucy Calls the President, which featured Vivian Vance, Gale Gordon, and Mary Jane Croft, and Lucy Moves to NBC, a special depicting a fictionalization of her move to the NBC television network.\nAside from her acting career, she became an assistant professor at California State University, Northridge in 1979.\n\n\n=== 1980s ===\nDuring the 1980s, Ball attempted to resurrect her television career. In 1982, she hosted a two-part Three's Company retrospective, showing clips from the show's first five seasons, summarizing memorable plotlines, and commenting on her love of the show.A 1985 dramatic made-for-TV film about an elderly homeless woman, Stone Pillow, received mixed reviews, but had strong viewership. Her 1986 sitcom comeback Life with Lucy, costarring her longtime foil Gale Gordon and co-produced by Ball, Gary Morton, and prolific producer Aaron Spelling, was cancelled less than two months into its run by ABC. In February 1988, Ball was named the Hasty Pudding Woman of the Year.In May 1988, Ball was hospitalized after suffering a mild heart attack. Her last public appearance, just one month before her death, was at the 1989 Oscars telecast, in which  fellow presenter Bob Hope and she were given a standing ovation.\n\n\n== HUAC Testimony ==\nWhen Ball registered to vote in 1936, she listed her party affiliation as Communist, along with her brother and mother.\nTo sponsor the Communist Party's 1936 candidate for the California State Assembly's 57th District, Ball signed a certificate stating, \"I am registered as affiliated with the Communist Party.\" The same year, the Communist Party of California appointed her to the state's Central Committee, according to records of the California Secretary of State. In 1937, Hollywood writer Rena Vale, a self-identified Communist, attended a  class at an address identified to her as Ball's home according to her testimony given before the US House of Representatives' Special House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), on July 22, 1940. Two years later, Vale affirmed this testimony in a sworn deposition:\"[...]within a few days after my third application to join the Communist Party was made, I received a notice to attend a meeting on North Ogden Drive, Hollywood; although it was a typed, unsigned note, merely requesting my presence at the address at 8 o'clock in the evening on a given day, I knew it was the long-awaited notice to attend Communist Party new members' classes ... on arrival at this address I found several others present; an elderly man informed us that we were the guests of the screen actress, Lucille Ball, and showed us various pictures, books, and other objects to establish that fact, and stated she was glad to loan her home for a Communist Party new members' class;\"\nIn a 1944 British Path\u00e9 newsreel, titled \"Fund Raising for Roosevelt\", Ball was featured prominently among several stage and film stars at events in support of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's fundraising campaign for the March of Dimes. She stated that in the 1952 US Presidential Election, she voted for Republican Dwight Eisenhower.\n\nOn September 4, 1953, Ball met voluntarily with HUAC investigator William A. Wheeler in Hollywood and gave him sealed testimony. She stated that she had registered to vote as a Communist \"or intended to vote the Communist Party ticket\" in 1936 at her socialist grandfather's insistence. She stated she \"at no time intended to vote as a Communist\". Her testimony was forwarded to J. Edgar Hoover in an FBI memorandum:Ball stated she has never been a member of the Communist Party \"to her knowledge\" ... [She] did not know whether or not any meetings were ever held at her home at 1344 North Ogden Drive; stated... [that if she had been appointed] as a delegate to the State Central Committee of the Communist Party of California in 1936 it was done without her knowledge or consent; [and stated that she] did not recall signing the document sponsoring EMIL FREED for the Communist Party nomination to the office of member of the assembly for the 57th District ... A review of the subject's file reflects no activity that would warrant her inclusion on the Security Index.\nImmediately before the filming of episode 68 (\"The Girls Go Into Business\") of I Love Lucy, Desi Arnaz, instead of his usual audience warm-up, told the audience about Lucy and her grandfather. Reusing the line he had first given to Hedda Hopper in an interview, he quipped:\"The only thing red about Lucy is her hair, and even that is not legitimate.\"\n\n\n== Personal life ==\nIn 1940, Ball met Cuban-born bandleader Desi Arnaz while filming the Rodgers and Hart stage hit Too Many Girls. When they met again on the second day, the two connected immediately and eloped the same year. Although Arnaz was drafted into the Army in 1942, he ended up being classified for limited service due to a knee injury. As a result, Arnaz stayed in Los Angeles, organizing and performing USO shows for wounded GIs being brought back from the Pacific.\nBall filed for divorce in 1944, obtaining an interlocutory decree; however, Arnaz and she reconciled, which precluded the entry of a final decree.\n\nOn July 17, 1951, one month before her 40th birthday, Ball gave birth to daughter Lucie D\u00e9sir\u00e9e Arnaz. A year and a half later, Ball gave birth to her second child, Desiderio Alberto Arnaz IV, known as Desi Arnaz, Jr. Before he was born, I Love Lucy was a solid ratings hit, and Ball and Arnaz wrote the pregnancy into the show. (Ball's necessary and planned caesarean section in real life was scheduled for the same date that her television character gave birth.)Several demands were made by CBS, insisting that a pregnant woman could not be shown on television, nor could the word \"pregnant\" be spoken on-air. After approval from several religious figures the network allowed the pregnancy storyline, but insisted that the word \"expecting\" be used instead of \"pregnant\". (Arnaz garnered laughs when he deliberately mispronounced it as \"'spectin'\".) The episode's official title was \"Lucy Is Enceinte\", borrowing the French word for pregnant; however, episode titles never appeared on the show.\nThe episode aired on the evening of January 19, 1953, with 44 million viewers watching Lucy Ricardo welcome little Ricky, while in real life Ball delivered her second child, Desi Jr., that same day in Los Angeles.  The birth made the cover of the first issue of TV Guide for the week of April 3\u20139, 1953.In October 1956, Ball, Arnaz, Vance, and William Frawley all appeared on a Bob Hope special on NBC, including a spoof of I Love Lucy, the only time all four stars were together on a color telecast. By the end of the 1950s, Desilu had become a large company, causing a good deal of stress for both Ball and Arnaz.On March 3, 1960, a day after Desi's 43rd birthday (and one day after the filming the final episode of The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour), Ball filed papers in Santa Monica Superior Court, claiming married life with Desi was \"a nightmare\" and nothing at all as it appeared on I Love Lucy. On May 4, 1960, the couple divorced; however, until his death in 1986, Arnaz and Ball remained friends and often spoke very fondly of each other. Her real-life divorce indirectly found its way into her later television series, as she was always cast as an unmarried woman.The following year, Ball starred in the Broadway musical Wildcat, which co-starred Keith Andes and Paula Stewart. It marked the beginning of a 30-year friendship with Stewart, who introduced Ball to second husband Gary Morton, a Borscht Belt comic who was 13 years her junior. According to Ball, Morton claimed he had never seen an episode of I Love Lucy due to his hectic work schedule. She immediately installed Morton in her production company, teaching him the television business and eventually promoting him to producer; he also played occasional bit parts on her various series.Ball was outspokenly against the relationship her son had with actress Patty Duke. Later, commenting on when her son dated Liza Minnelli, she was quoted as saying, \"I miss Liza, but you cannot domesticate Liza.\"\n\n\n== Illness and death ==\nOn April 18, 1989, Ball complained of chest pain at her home in Beverly Hills, and was taken to Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, where she was diagnosed with a dissecting aortic aneurysm and underwent surgery to repair her aorta and a successful seven-hour aortic valve replacement.Shortly after dawn on April 26, Ball awoke with severe back pain then lost consciousness;\nshe died at 5:47 am PDT at the age of 77. Doctors determined that Ball had succumbed to a ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm not directly related to her surgery.In accordance with Ball's wishes, her body was cremated and the ashes were initially interred in Forest Lawn \u2013 Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles. In 2002, her children moved her remains to the Hunt family plot at Lake View Cemetery in Jamestown, New York, where her parents and grandparents are buried. Her brother's remains were also interred there in 2007.\n\n\n== Recognition and legacy ==\n\nBall was the recipient of tributes, honors, and many prestigious awards throughout her career and posthumously. On February 8, 1960, she was given two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame: one at 6436 Hollywood Boulevard for contributions to motion pictures, and one at 6100 Hollywood Boulevard for her contribution to the arts and sciences of television.In 1976, CBS paid tribute to Ball with the two-hour special CBS Salutes Lucy: The First 25 Years.On December 7, 1986, Ball received recognition as a Kennedy Center Honors recipient. The portion of the honors event focused on Ball was particularly poignant, as Desi Arnaz, who was scheduled to introduce Lucy at the event, had died from cancer just five days earlier. Friend and former Desilu star Robert Stack delivered the emotional introduction in the place of Arnaz.Posthumously, Ball received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President George H. W. Bush on July 6, 1989, and The Women's International Center's 'Living Legacy Award'.\n\nThe Lucille Ball Desi Arnaz Museum & Center for Comedy is in Ball's hometown of Jamestown, New York. The Little Theatre was renamed the Lucille Ball Little Theatre in her honor.  The street she was born on was renamed \"Lucy Street.\" Ball was among Time magazine's \"100 Most Important People of the Century\".On June 7, 1990, Universal Studios Florida opened a walk-through attraction dedicated to Ball, Lucy \u2013 A Tribute, which featured clips of shows, and various pieces of trivia about her, along with items owned by or associated with Lucille, and an interactive quiz for guests. The attraction was permanently closed on August 17, 2015.On August 6, 2001, the United States Postal Service honored what would have been her 90th birthday with a commemorative postage stamp as part of its Legends of Hollywood series.Ball appeared on 39 covers of TV Guide, more than any other person, including its first cover in 1953 with her baby son, Desi Arnaz Jr. TV Guide voted Lucille Ball as the 'Greatest TV Star of All Time' and it later commemorated the 50th anniversary of I Love Lucy with eight collector covers celebrating memorable scenes from the show. In 2008, it named I Love Lucy the second-best television program in American history, after Seinfeld.For her contributions to the Women's Movement, Ball was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in 2001.The Friars Club named a room in its New York clubhouse for Lucille Ball (the Lucille Ball Room). She was posthumously awarded the 'Legacy of Laughter' award at the fifth Annual TV Land Awards in 2007. In November 2007, Lucille Ball was chosen as number two on a list of the '50 Greatest TV Icons', however, a public poll, chose her as number one.On August 6, 2011, Google's homepage displayed an interactive doodle of six classic moments from I Love Lucy to commemorate what would have been Ball's 100th birthday. On the same day, a total of 915 Ball look-alikes converged on Jamestown to celebrate the birthday and set a new world record for such a gathering.Since 2009, a statue of Ball has been on display in Celoron, New York, that residents deemed \"scary\" and not accurate, earning it the nickname \"Scary Lucy\".  On August 1, 2016, it was announced that a new statue of Ball would replace it on August 6. However, the old statue had become a local tourist attraction after receiving media attention, and it was placed 75 yards (69 m) from its original location so visitors could view both statues.In 2015, it was announced that Ball would be played by Cate Blanchett in an untitled biographical film, to be written and directed by Aaron Sorkin, and in January 2021, Nicole Kidman was in talks to portray Ball instead of Blanchett.A 2017 episode of Will & Grace paid homage to Ball by replicating the 1963 shower scene from the episode \u201cLucy and Viv Put in a Shower\" from The Lucy Show. Three years later, an entire episode was dedicated to her by recreating four scenes from I Love Lucy.Ball's character Lucy Ricardo was portrayed by Gillian Anderson in the American Gods episode \"The Secret of Spoons\" (2017).Ball was portrayed by Sarah Drew in the play I Love Lucy: A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Sitcom, a comedy about how Ball and her husband battled to get their sitcom on the air. It premiered in Los Angeles on July 12, 2018, co-starring Oscar Nu\u00f1ez as Desi Arnaz, and Seamus Dever as I Love Lucy producer-head writer Jess Oppenheimer. The play was written by Oppenheimer's son, Gregg Oppenheimer.Ball was a well-known gay-rights supporter, stating in a 1980 interview with People: \"It's perfectly all right with me. Some of the most gifted people I've ever met or read about are homosexual. How can you knock it?\"\n\n\n== Filmography and television work ==\n\n\n== Radio appearances ==\n\n\n== Awards and nominations ==\nBall's awards and nominations references:\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Citations \u2013 books ===\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nKarol, Michael (2003). Lucy in Print; ISBN 0-595-29321-2\nKarol, Michael (2005). The Comic DNA of Lucille Ball: Interpreting the Icon; ISBN 0-595-37951-6\nMcClay, Michael (1995). I Love Lucy: The Complete Picture History of the Most Popular TV Show Ever; ISBN 0-446-51750-X (hardcover)\nMeeks, Eric G. (2011). P.S. I Love Lucy: The Story of Lucille Ball in Palm Springs. Horotio Limburger Oglethorpe. p. 45. ISBN 978-1468098549.\nPugh Davis, Madelyn; with Carroll Jr., Bob (2005). Laughing With Lucy: My Life With America's Leading Lady of Comedy; ISBN 978-1-57860-247-6\nSheridan, James & Barry Monush (2011). Lucille Ball FAQ: Everything Left to Know About America's Favorite Redhead; ISBN 978-1-61774-082-4\nYoung, Jordan R. (1999). The Laugh Crafters: Comedy Writing in Radio & TV's Golden Age. Beverly Hills: Past Times Publishing; ISBN 0-940410-37-0\n\n\n== External links ==\nLucille Ball at the Internet Broadway Database \nLucille Ball at IMDb\nLucille Ball at the TCM Movie Database\nLucille Ball at TV Guide\nLucille Ball at the Museum of Broadcast Communications\nLucille Ball and Desi Arnaz Papers, 1915-1990 at the Library of Congress\nLucille Ball at Find a Grave\nFBI Records: The Vault \u2013 Lucille Ball at vault.fbi.gov\n\"Celebrating Lucille Ball at 100: Unpublished Photos\". LIFE (Sideshow). Archived from the original on January 15, 2012. Retrieved August 6, 2011.\nNorwood, Arlisha. \"Lucille Ball\", National Women's History Museum. 2017.\n\"Orson Welles Radio Almanac\". Internet Archive. Recordings. 1944. Lucille Ball and several other actors participate\n\"Wanda Clark\". Interview. Oral history project. Voices of Oklahoma. August 5, 2015. About her long-time, 25 years, employer Lucille Ball", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Blank_television_set.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/I_Love_Lucy_Cast.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Jamestown%2C_New_York_%284303088285%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/LDBALL1950s.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Lucille_Ball_%283831372291%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Lucille_Ball_John_Wayne_1955.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Lucille_Ball_and_Desi_Arnaz_1955.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Lucille_Ball_and_Joe_Penner_1938.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Lucy_in_scotland_1956.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Lucy_signature_cropped.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Nuvola_apps_package_graphics.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/One_of_the_last_photographs_of_Lucille_Ball_%28210262351%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/SMirC-laugh.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/P_vip.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e7/Video-x-generic.svg"], "summary": "Lucille D\u00e9sir\u00e9e Ball (August 6, 1911 \u2013 April 26, 1989) was an American actress, comedian, model, studio executive, and producer. She was the star and producer of sitcoms I Love Lucy, The Lucy Show, and Here's Lucy, as well as comedy television specials aired under the title The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour. She was also the first female head of a major Hollywood studio, Desilu Productions, which she also owned.\nBall's career began in 1929 when she landed work as a model. Shortly thereafter, she began her performing career on Broadway using the stage name Diane (or Dianne) Belmont. She later appeared in several minor film roles in the 1930s and 1940s as a contract player for RKO Radio Pictures, being cast as a chorus girl or in similar roles. During this time, she met Cuban bandleader Desi Arnaz, and the two eloped in November 1940. In the 1950s, Ball ventured into television. In 1951,  Arnaz and she created the sitcom I Love Lucy. The same year, Ball gave birth to their first child, Lucie Arnaz, followed by Desi Arnaz Jr. in 1953. Ball and Arnaz divorced in May 1960, and she married comedian Gary Morton in 1961.Following the end of I Love Lucy, Ball produced and starred in the Broadway musical Wildcat from 1960 to 1961. The show received lukewarm reviews and had to be closed when Ball became ill for several weeks. After Wildcat, Ball reunited with I Love Lucy co-star Vivian Vance for The Lucy Show, which Vance left in 1965. The show continued, with Ball's longtime friend and series regular Gale Gordon, until 1968. Ball immediately began appearing in a new series, Here's Lucy, with Gordon, frequent show guest Mary Jane Croft, and Lucie and Desi Jr.; this program ran until 1974.\nIn 1962, Ball became the first woman to run a major television studio, Desilu Productions, which produced many popular television series, including Mission: Impossible and Star Trek. Ball did not retire from acting completely, and in 1985, she took on a dramatic role in the television film Stone Pillow. The next year, she starred in Life with Lucy, which was, unlike her other sitcoms, not well-received; the show was cancelled after three months. She appeared in film and television roles for the rest of her career until her death in April 1989 from an abdominal aortic aneurysm at the age of 77.Ball was nominated for 13 Primetime Emmy Awards, winning four times. In 1960, she received two stars for her work in film and television on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 1977, Ball was among the first recipients of the Women in Film Crystal Award. She was also the recipient of the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award in 1979, was inducted into the Television Hall of Fame in 1984,  received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Kennedy Center Honors in 1986, and the Governors Award from the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences in 1989."}, "I_Love_Lucy": {"links": ["Four Color", "Lucy Goes to the Hospital", "1954\u2013fifty-five United States network television schedule", "Veep", "nineteen eighty\u201381 United States network television schedule", "Weigel Broadcasting", "eleventh Primetime Emmy Awards", "M*A*S*H ", "Gulf+Western", "Eliot Daniel", "Spanish language", "seventy-onest Primetime Emmy Awards", "Digital subchannel", "Will & Grace", "James B. 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The show starred Lucille Ball, her then real-life husband Desi Arnaz, Vivian Vance, and William Frawley. It followed the life of Lucy Ricardo (Ball), a young middle-class housewife in New York City, who often concocted plans with her best friends Ethel and Fred Mertz (Vance and Frawley) to appear alongside her bandleader husband Ricky Ricardo (Arnaz) in his nightclub, trying numerous schemes to mingle with, or be a part of show business. After the series ended in 1957, a modified version continued for three more seasons with 13 one-hour specials; it ran from 1957 to 1960. It was first known as The Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Show and later in reruns as The Lucy\u2013Desi Comedy Hour.\nI Love Lucy became the most-watched show in the United States in four of its six seasons, and it was the first to end its run at the top of the Nielsen ratings. As of 2011, episodes of the show have been syndicated in dozens of languages across the world and remain popular with an American audience of 40 million each year. A colorized version of its Christmas episode attracted more than 8 million viewers when CBS aired it in prime time in 2013, 62 years after the show premiered; CBS has aired two to three colorized episodes each year since then, once at Christmas and again in the spring.The show, which was the first scripted television program to be shot on 35mm film in front of a studio audience, by cinematographer Karl Freund, won five Emmy Awards and received numerous nominations and honors. It was the first show to feature an ensemble cast. It is often regarded as one of the greatest and most influential sitcoms in history. In 2012, it was voted the 'Best TV Show of All Time' in a survey conducted by ABC News and People magazine.\n\n\n== Premise ==\nOriginally set in an apartment building in New York City, I Love Lucy centers on Lucy Ricardo (Lucille Ball) and her singer/bandleader husband Ricky Ricardo (Desi Arnaz), along with their best friends and landlords Fred Mertz (William Frawley) and Ethel Mertz (Vivian Vance). During the second season, Lucy and Ricky have a son named Ricky Ricardo Jr. (\"Little Ricky\"), whose birth was timed to coincide with Ball's real-life birth of her son Desi Arnaz Jr.Lucy is na\u00efve and ambitious, with an undeserved zeal for stardom and a knack for getting herself and her husband into trouble whenever she yearns to make it in show business. The Ricardos' best friends, Fred and Ethel, are former vaudevillians. The Mertz's history in entertainment only strengthens Lucy's resolve to prove herself as a performer. She sometimes feels left out granted her limited industry involvement relative to Ricky, Fred, and Ethel. Unfortunately, she has few marketable performance skills. She does not seem to be able to carry a tune or play anything other than off-key renditions of songs such as \"Glow Worm\" on the saxophone, and many of her performances devolve into disaster. However, to say she is completely without talent would be untrue, as on occasion, she is shown to be a good dancer and a competent singer. She is also at least twice offered contracts by television or film companies\u2014first in \"The Audition\" when she replaces an injured clown in Ricky's act, and later in \"Lucy and the Dummy\" when she dances in Hollywood for a studio benefit using a rubber Ricky dummy as her dancing partner.\nThe show provided Ball ample opportunity to display her considerable skill at clowning and physical comedy. Character development was not a major focus of early sitcoms, so little was offered about her life before the show. A few episodes mentioned that she was born in Jamestown, New York (Lucille Ball's real-life home town), later corrected to West Jamestown, that she graduated from Jamestown High School, that her maiden name was \"McGillicuddy\" (indicating a Scottish or Irish ethnicity at least on her father's side, though she once mentioned her grandmother was Swedish; there are sizable Irish and Swedish communities in Jamestown), and that she met Ricky on a boat cruise with her friend from an agency she once worked for. Her family was absent, other than occasional appearances by her scatter-brained mother (Kathryn Card), who could never get Ricky's name right. Lucy also exhibited many traits that were standard for female comedians at the time, including being secretive about her age and true hair color, and being careless with money, along with being somewhat materialistic, insisting on buying new dresses and hats for every occasion and telling old friends that she and Ricky were wealthy. She was also depicted as a devoted housewife, adept cook, and attentive mother. As part of Lucy's role was to care for her husband, she stayed at home and took care of the household chores while her husband Ricky went to work. During the post war era Lucy took jobs outside of the home but in these jobs she was portrayed as being inept outside of her usual domestic duties.\n\nLucy's husband, Ricky Ricardo, is an up-and-coming Cuban American singer and bandleader with an excitable personality. His patience is frequently tested by his wife's antics trying to get into showbiz, and exorbitant spending on clothes or furniture. When exasperated, he often reverts to speaking rapidly in Spanish. As with Lucy, not much is revealed about his past or family. Ricky's mother (played by actress Mary Emery) appears in two episodes; in another Lucy mentions that he has five brothers. Ricky also mentions that he had been \"practically raised\" by his uncle Alberto (who was seen during a family visit to Cuba), and that he had attended the University of Havana.\nAn extended flashback segment in the 1957 episode \"Lucy Takes a Cruise to Havana\" of The Lucille Ball\u2013Desi Arnaz Show filled in numerous details of how Lucy and Ricky met and how Ricky came to the United States. The story, at least insofar as related to newspaper columnist Hedda Hopper, is that the couple met in Havana when Lucy and the Mertzes vacationed there in 1940. Despite his being a university graduate, proficient in English, Ricky is portrayed as a driver of a horse-drawn cab who waits for fares at a pier where tourists arrive by ship. Ricky is hired to serve as one of Lucy's tour guides and the two fall in love. Having coincidentally also met popular singer Rudy Vall\u00e9e on the cruise ship, Lucy arranges an audition for Ricky who is hired to be in Vall\u00e9e's orchestra, thus allowing him to emigrate to the United States on the very ship on which Lucy and the Mertzes were returning. Lucy later states that Ricky played for Vall\u00e9e only one night before being traded to Xavier Cugat's orchestra.\nNote that the extended flashback segment \"Lucy Takes a Cruise to Havana\" and the story of how Lucy and Ricky met is inconsistent with Season 4, Episode 18 titled, \"Don Juan and the Starlets\" (1955). In that episode, Lucy mistakenly believes that Ricky stayed out all night after his publicity agent, Ross Elliott, sent him to a movie premiere accompanied by young starlets who were appearing in his movie. As a comeback in the ensuing argument, Lucy bemoans that she made a mistake fifteen years before when Marion Strong asked her if she would like to go on a blind date with a Cuban drummer and she said \"yes\".\nLucy is usually found with her best friend Ethel. A former model from Albuquerque, New Mexico, Ethel tries to relive her glory days in vaudeville. Ricky is more inclined to include Ethel in performances at his nightclub because, unlike Lucy, she can actually sing and dance rather well.\nEthel's husband Fred served in World War I, and lived through the Great Depression. He is very stingy with money and is an irascible, no-nonsense type. However, he also shows that he can be a soft touch, especially when it comes to Little Ricky, to whom Fred is both godfather and honorary \"uncle\". Fred can also sing and dance and often performs duets with Ethel.\nThe Manhattan building they all lived in before their move to Westport, Connecticut, was addressed at a fictional 623 East 68th Street, at first in apartment 4A, then moving to the larger apartment 3B (subsequently re-designated 3D; the Mertzes\u2019 apartment is then numbered 3B), on the Upper East Side of Manhattan. In actuality, the addresses go up only to the 500s before the street terminates at the East River.\n\n\n== Cast ==\n\nLucille Ball as Lucille Esmeralda \"Lucy\" McGillicuddy Ricardo\nDesi Arnaz as Enrique Alberto Fernando y de Acha \"Ricky\" Ricardo III\nVivian Vance as Ethel Mae Potter Mertz (alternately \"Ethel Louise\" and \"Ethel Roberta\")\nWilliam Frawley as Frederick \"Fred\" Hobart Mertz\nRichard Keith as Enrique Alberto Ricardo IV (\"Ricky Ricardo Jr.\")\nTwins Mike Mayer and Joe Mayer both played \"Little Ricky\" as a toddler\nKathryn Card as Lucy's mother Mrs. McGillicuddy (also Minnie Finch in the earlier episode \"Fan Magazine Interview\")\nMary Jane Croft as Betty Ramsey and various characters\nFrank Nelson as Freddie Fillmore, Ralph Ramsey, and various characters\nJerry Hausner as Ricky's agent Jerry (also Joe in \"Lucy Does a TV Commercial\")\nDoris Singleton as Carolyn Appleby (she was originally named Lillian Appleby; but after Singleton's first appearance on the show, the producers felt that the names Lillian and Lucy sounded too similar, so her name was changed to Carolyn)\nShirley Mitchell as Marion Strong, a role originated by Margie Liszt\nElizabeth Patterson as Mrs. Matilda Trumbull (also Mrs. Willoughby in the earlier episode \"The Marriage License\")\nBob Jellison as Bobby the Bellboy in the Hollywood episodes (also Milkman in the earlier episode \"The Gossip\")Gale Gordon and Bea Benaderet, supporting cast members on My Favorite Husband, were originally approached for the roles of Fred and Ethel, but neither could accept owing to previous commitments. Gordon did appear as a guest star in three episodes, playing Ricky's boss, Mr. Littlefield, in two episodes, and later in an hour-long episode as a civil court judge. Gordon was a veteran from the classic radio days in which he perfected the role of the exasperated character, as in Fibber McGee and Molly and Our Miss Brooks. He would go on to co-star with Ball in all of her post\u2013I Love Lucy series (The Lucy Show, Here's Lucy and Life with Lucy). Benaderet was a guest star in one episode as elderly Miss Lewis, a neighbor of the Ricardos.\nBarbara Pepper (later featured as Doris Ziffel in the series Green Acres) was also considered to play Ethel, but Pepper had been drinking very heavily after the death of her husband, Craig W. Reynolds. Her friendship with Ball dated back to the film Roman Scandals, in which both appeared as Goldwyn Girls. She did, however, turn up in at least nine episodes of I Love Lucy in bit parts.Many of the characters' names were after Lucille Ball's family members or close friends; for example, Marion Strong was one of her best friends and roommate for a time in New York, and also set Lucy and Desi up on their first date. Lillian Appleby was a teacher of Lucy's when she was in an amateur production on the stage. Pauline Lopus was a childhood friend, Fred was also her brother and grandfather's name. Lucy and Desi had a business manager by the name of Mr. Andrew Hickox, and in the first episode of season 4, called \"The Business Manager\" Lucy and Ricky hire a man named Mr. Hickox.\n\n\n=== Primary production team ===\nDirectors: Marc Daniels (33 episodes, 1951\u201353); William Asher (101 episodes, 1952\u201357); James V. Kern (39 episodes, 1955\u201357)\nProducers: Jess Oppenheimer (153 episodes, 1951\u201356); Desi Arnaz (exec. producer\u2014124 episodes, 1952\u201356; producer\u201426 episodes, 1956\u201357)\nWriters: Jess Oppenheimer (head writer, seasons 1\u20135), Madelyn Pugh Davis and Bob Carroll Jr. (All Seasons including Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour), Bob Schiller and Bob Weiskopf (Seasons 5\u20136 and Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour)\nOriginal Music: Wilbur Hatch (33 episodes, 1951\u201354); Eliot Daniel (135 episodes, 1952\u201357); Marco Rizo (1951\u20131957)\nCinematography: Karl Freund (149 episodes, 1951\u201356)\nCostume design: Elois Jenssen (57 episodes, 1953\u201355), Edward Stevenson (66 episodes, 1955\u201360)\nEditors: Dann Cahn, Bud Molin\n\n\n== Background and development ==\nLucille Ball had come to Hollywood after a successful stint as a New York model. She was chosen by Samuel Goldwyn to be one of sixteen Goldwyn Girls to co-star in the picture Roman Scandals (1933) with film star Eddie Cantor. Enthusiastic and hard-working, Ball had been able to secure film work briefly at the Samuel Goldwyn Studio and Columbia Pictures and then eventually at RKO Radio Pictures. It was at RKO that Ball received steady film work, first as an extra and bit player and eventually working her way up to co-starring roles in feature films and starring roles in second rate B pictures, collectively earning her the nickname \"Queen of the B's\". During her run at RKO, Ball gained the reputation for doing physical comedy and stunts that most other actresses avoided, keeping her steadily employed. In 1940, Lucy met Desi Arnaz, a Cuban bandleader who had just come off a successful run in the 1939\u201340 Broadway show Too Many Girls. RKO had bought the film rights to the show and cast Ball as Arnaz's love interest in the picture. The duo began a whirlwind courtship leading to their elopement to Connecticut in November 1940. Despite their marriage, however, their careers kept them separated, with Lucy's film work keeping her anchored in Hollywood, while Desi's nightclub engagements with his orchestra kept him on the road.\nDespite steadily working in pictures, Lucy's movie career never advanced to the level of a headlining feature-film actress; nevertheless she remained popular with movie audiences. Ball came to the attention of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer after receiving critical acclaim for her starring role in the 1942 Damon Runyon film The Big Street, which bought out her contract. It was at MGM that Ball, who had been a blonde, dyed her hair red to complement the Technicolor features that MGM had planned to use her in. MGM used Ball in a variety of films, but it was her work with fellow comedian Red Skelton in the 1943 film DuBarry Was a Lady that brought Ball's physical comedy into the forefront, earning her the reputation as \"that crazy redhead\", as Ricky would later call her. Nonetheless, Ball's striking beauty was in sharp contrast to physical antics she did in her films; thus, MGM tried to use her in multiple different film genres that did little to highlight her skills. Given their difficulties in casting her, MGM chose not to renew her contract when it expired in 1946.Ball began working as a free-lancer in films and also began to explore other venues. Before and during World War II, Lucy had made several notable and successful guest appearances on several radio programs, among them Jack Haley's radio show and bandleader Kay Kyser's radio program. These appearances brought Lucy to the attention of CBS, which in 1948 enlisted Ball to star in one of two new half-hour situation comedies in development, Our Miss Brooks and My Favorite Husband. Choosing the latter, Lucy portrayed Liz Cugat (later anglicized to Cooper), the frustrated and scheming housewife of a Minneapolis banker, played originally by actor Lee Bowman in the series pilot, and later by actor Richard Denning. Based on the novel Mr. and Mrs. Cugat by Isabel Scott Rorick, My Favorite Husband was produced by Jess Oppenheimer, and written by Oppenheimer, plus scribes Madelyn Pugh and Bob Carroll Jr. Premiering on July 23, 1948, and sponsored by General Foods, Husband became a hit for CBS. During the run of the radio program Lucy appeared in two feature films with Bob Hope, Sorrowful Jones in 1949, and Fancy Pants in 1950. Both films were box office and critical successes, further cementing Ball's reputation as a top notch first-rate comedian. They also showed her continuing popularity with audiences, enticing CBS to further use her skills.\nIn 1950, CBS asked Ball to take My Favorite Husband to television with co-star Richard Denning. She, however, saw a television show as a great opportunity to work with Desi, so Lucy insisted that Desi play her husband, much to the dismay of CBS, which was reluctant because Arnaz was Cuban. CBS executives believed that audiences would not believe the marriage between an all-American girl and a Latin man. To prove CBS wrong, the couple developed a vaudeville act, written by Carroll and Pugh, that they performed at Newburgh NY's historic Ritz Theater with Arnaz's orchestra. The act was a hit and convinced CBS executive Harry Ackerman that a Ball-Arnaz pairing would be a worthwhile venture. At the same time, rival networks NBC, ABC, and DuMont were showing interest in a Ball-Arnaz series, which Ackerman used to convince CBS to sign the duo.\nA pilot was ordered and kinescoped in Hollywood in March 1951, which coincided with Lucy's first pregnancy, and the ending of Husband, which aired its last radio show on March 31, 1951. Ball and Arnaz used the same radio team of Oppenheimer, Pugh, and Carroll to create the television series that was named I Love Lucy. The couple's agent, Don Sharpe, brought the pilot to several advertising agencies with little luck but finally succeeded with the Milton H. Biow agency. Biow's agency presented the pilot to its clients and was able to convince cigarette giant Philip Morris to sponsor the show.\n\n\n=== Production ===\nDuring the spring and summer of 1951, I Love Lucy moved into production. Oppenheimer, Pugh, and Carroll began fine-tuning the premise of the show and writing the series' first scripts. The trio chose to adapt many storylines for television using the backlog of episodes of My Favorite Husband. In addition, the series' ensemble cast and crew were assembled. Arnaz retained his orchestra, which was used in the series musical numbers and to score the show's background and transitional music. Arnaz's childhood friend Marco Rizo arranged the music and played the piano for the show, while Wilbur Hatch was used to conduct the orchestra.\n\nTwo problems arose after Philip Morris signed on to sponsor the show, that would ultimately change the fate of I Love Lucy. Ball and Arnaz had originally decided that the series would air on a biweekly basis, much like The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show. Philip Morris, however, was insistent that the show air weekly, thus diminishing the possibility of Ball continuing her film career alongside a television show. Another problem lay in the fact that Philip Morris wanted the series to originate from New York rather than Hollywood. At the time, most television shows were produced from New York with live broadcasts of the show airing for eastern and Midwest audiences. West Coast viewers were able to view live programs only through low-quality kinescopes, which derived their images by using a 35 mm or 16 mm film camera to record the show from a television monitor.Although the pilot had been made as a kinescope, for the series itself, the process was rejected. Owing to the impending birth of their first child, both Ball and Arnaz insisted on staying in Hollywood and producing the show on film, something a few Hollywood-based series had begun to do. Both CBS and Philip Morris initially balked at the idea, because of the higher cost that filming the show would incur, yet acquiesced only after the couple offered to take a $1,000 a week pay cut in order to cover the additional expense. In exchange, Ball and Arnaz demanded, and were given, 80% ownership in the I Love Lucy films (the other 20% went to Oppenheimer who then gave 5% to Pugh and 5% to Carroll). Shooting the show on film, however, would require that Ball and Arnaz become responsible for producing the series themselves. Union agreements at the time stipulated that any production filmed in a studio use film studio employees. CBS staff were television and radio employees and thus fell under different union agreements. Thus, Arnaz reorganized the company he created to manage his orchestra bookings and used it as the corporation that would produce the I Love Lucy shows. The company was named Desilu, from the combination of both their first names \"Desi\" and \"Lucille\".Though some television series were already being filmed in Hollywood, most used the single-camera format familiar from movies, with a laugh track added to comedies to simulate audience response. Ball wanted to work in front of a live audience to create the kind of comic energy she had displayed on radio. The idea of a film studio that could accommodate an audience was a new one for the time, as fire safety regulations made it difficult to allow an audience in a studio. Arnaz and Oppenheimer found the financially struggling General Service Studios located on Las Palmas Avenue in Hollywood. Studio owner Jimmy Nasser was eager to accommodate the Desilu company and allowed them, with financial backing of CBS, to renovate two of his studios so that they could accommodate an audience and be in compliance with local fire laws.\n\nAnother component to filming the show came when it was decided to use three 35 mm film cameras to simultaneously film the show. The idea had been pioneered by Jerry Fairbanks, and had been used on the live anthology series The Silver Theater, and on the game show Truth or Consequences, as well as subsequently Amos 'n' Andy as a way to save money, though Amos n' Andy did not use an audience. Edwards's assistant Al Simon was hired by Desilu to help perfect the new technique for the series. The process lent itself to the Lucy production as it eliminated the problem of requiring an audience to view and react to a scene three or four times in order for all necessary shots to be filmed. Multiple cameras would also allow scenes to be performed in sequence, as a play would be, which was unusual at the time for filmed series. Retakes were rare and dialogue mistakes were often played off for the sake of continuity.Ball and Arnaz enlisted the services of Karl Freund, a cinematographer who had worked on such films as Metropolis (1927), Dracula (1931), The Good Earth (1937) and DuBarry Was a Lady (1943) (which also starred Ball), as well as directing The Mummy (1932), to be the series cinematographer. Although at first Freund did not want anything to do with television, it was the personal plea of the couple that convinced him to take the job.Freund was instrumental in developing a way to uniformly light the set so that each of the three cameras would pick up the same quality of image. Freund noted that a typical episode (20\u201322 min.) was shot in about 60 minutes, with one constant concern being the shades-of-gray contrast in the final print, as each stage of transmission and broadcast would exaggerate the contrast. Among other non-standard techniques used in filming the show, cans of paint (in shades ranging from white to medium-gray) were kept on set to \"paint out\" inappropriate shadows and disguise lighting flaws. Freund also pioneered \"flat lighting,\" in which everything is brightly lit to eliminate shadows and the need for endless relighting.Audience reactions were live, thus creating a far more authentic laugh than the canned laughter used on most filmed sitcoms of the time. Regular audience members were sometimes heard from episode to episode, and Arnaz's distinctive laugh could be heard in the background during scenes in which he did not perform, as well as Ball's mother, DeDe, whose distinctive \"uh oh\" could be heard in many of the episodes. In later years, CBS would devise a laugh track from several I Love Lucy audiences and use them for canned laughter on shows done without a live audience.I Love Lucy's pioneering use of three cameras led to it becoming the standard technique for the production of most sitcoms filmed in front of an audience. Single-camera setups remained the technique of choice for sitcoms that did not use audiences. This led to an unexpected benefit for Desilu during the series second season when it was discovered that Ball was pregnant. Not being able to fulfill the show's 39-episode commitment, both Desi and Oppenheimer decided to rebroadcast popular episodes of the series first season to help give Ball the necessary rest she needed after she gave birth, effectively allowing fewer episodes to be filmed that season. Unexpectedly the rebroadcasts proved to be ratings winners, effectively giving birth to the rerun, which would later lead to the profitable development of the rerun syndication market.The show's original opening and commercial bumpers were animated caricatures of Ball and Arnaz. They were designed and animated by MGM character designer and future \"Flintstones\" cartoonist, Gene Hazelton (1917\u20132005) and were produced under a contract producer William Hanna had secured privately. The program sponsor, Philip Morris cigarettes was incorporated into many of these sequences, so when I Love Lucy went into repeats, they were replaced by the now familiar heart logo. However Hazelton's original animation survives, and can be seen in the DVD boxed set as originally presented.Desilu Productions, jointly owned by Ball and Arnaz, would gradually expand to produce and lease studio space for many other shows. For seasons 1 and 2 (1951\u20131953), Desilu rented space and filmed I Love Lucy at General Service Studios, which eventually became known as Hollywood Center Studios. In 1953, it leased the Motion Picture Center at 846 Cahuenga Blvd. in Hollywood, renaming it Desilu Studios, to shoot seasons 3\u20136 (1953\u20131957) of I Love Lucy. After 1956, it became known as Desilu-Cahuenga Studios to avoid confusion with other acquired Desilu locations. In an effort to keep up with the studio's growth, and need for additional sound stages, Arnaz and Ball purchased RKO Radio Pictures from General Tire in 1957 for over $6 million, effectively owning the studio where they had started as contract players. Desilu acquired RKO's two studio complexes located on Gower Street in Hollywood, and in Culver City (now part of the Paramount lot and Culver Studios respectively), along with the Culver City back lot nicknamed \"Forty Acres\". The sale was achieved by the duo selling their ownership of the once-thought-worthless I Love Lucy films back to CBS for over four million dollars.In 1962, two years after their marriage dissolved, Ball bought out Arnaz's shares of Desilu, becoming the studio's sole owner. She eventually sold off Desilu in 1967 to Gulf+Western, owners of Paramount Pictures. After the sale, Desilu-Cahuenga became a private production company and was known as Ren-Mar Studios till 2010, when it was acquired by the Red Digital Cinema Camera Company and renamed Red Studios \u2013 Hollywood.\n\n\n=== The Mertzes ===\nAs with My Favorite Husband, Lucy writers decided that the Ricardos needed an older couple to play off of. While performing in Husband, veteran character actors Gale Gordon and Bea Benaderet had played Rudolph and Iris Atterbury, an older, more financially stable couple as Mr. Atterbury had been George Cooper's boss. Ball had initially wanted both actors to reprise their roles on television; however, both were unavailable at the time the show went into production as Benaderet was already playing Blanche Morton on The Burns and Allen Show, and Gordon was under contract by CBS to play Mr. Conklin on both the radio and television versions of Our Miss Brooks.\n\nCasting the Mertzes, as they were now called (the surname taken from a doctor that Lucy scriptwriter Madelyn Pugh knew as a child in Indianapolis), proved to be a challenge. Ball had initially wanted character actor James Gleason, with whom she appeared in the Columbia Pictures film Miss Grant Takes Richmond (1949), to play Fred Mertz. However, Gleason wanted nearly $3,500 per episode to play the role, a price that was far too high to sustain.Sixty-four-year-old William Frawley, a seasoned vaudevillian and movie character actor with nearly 100 film credits to his name, was a long shot to play Fred Mertz and only came into consideration after he telephoned Ball personally to ask if there was a role for him on her new show. Ball, who had only briefly known Frawley from her days at RKO, suggested him to both Arnaz and CBS. The network objected to the idea of casting Frawley, fearing that his excessive drinking\u2014which was well known in Hollywood\u2014would interfere with a commitment to a live show. Arnaz nonetheless liked Frawley and lobbied hard for him to have the role, even to the point of having Lucy scribes re-tailor the role of Fred Mertz to be a less financially successful and more curmudgeonly (in contrast to Gordon's Mr. Atterbury) character to fit Frawley's persona. CBS relented only after Arnaz contractually bound Frawley to complete sobriety during the production of the show, and reportedly told the veteran actor that if he ever appeared on-set more than once in an intoxicated state he would be fired. Not once during Lucy's nine seasons did Frawley's drinking ever interfere with his performance, and over time Arnaz became one of Frawley's few close friends.\n\nThe Ethel Mertz character also took quite some time to pin down an actress suitable for the role. Since Lucy's Husband co-star Bea Benaderet was not available, Mary Wickes, a longtime friend was offered the role, but declined because she did not want to strain her friendship with Lucy. Actress Barbara Pepper, who was a close friend of Ball, was also considered for the role. The two had a long history together, as Pepper had been one of the Goldwyn Girls who came to Hollywood with Lucy in 1933. Pepper was ruled out by Lucy and Desi because she too had a drinking problem like Frawley.Vivian Vance became a consideration on the recommendation of Lucy director Marc Daniels. Daniels had worked with Vance in New York on Broadway in the early 1940s. Vance had already been a successful stage star performing on Broadway for nearly 20 years in a variety of plays, and in addition, after relocating to Hollywood in the late 1940s, had two film roles to her credit. Nonetheless, by 1951, she was still a relatively unknown actress in Hollywood. Vance was performing in a revival of the play The Voice of the Turtle in La Jolla, California. Arnaz and Jess Oppenheimer went to see her in the play and hired her on the spot. Vance was reluctant about giving up her film and stage work for a television show, yet was convinced by Daniels that it would be a big break in her career. Ball, however, had many misgivings about hiring Vance, who was younger and far more attractive than the concept of Ethel as an older, somewhat homely woman (Vance was just 2 years older than Ball). Ball was also a believer in the Hollywood adage at the time that there should be only one pretty woman on the set and Ball, being the star of the show, was it. Arnaz, however, was impressed by Vance's work and hired her. The decision was then made to dress Vance in frumpier clothing to tone down her attractiveness. Ball and Vance's relationship during the series' early beginnings was lukewarm at best. Eventually realizing that Vance was no threat and was very professional, Ball began to warm to her. In 1954, Vance became the first actress to win an Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress. Vance and Ball developed a close, lifelong friendship. Ball went on to ask Vance to co-star in Ball's new series The Lucy Show after the end of I Love Lucy.Vance and Frawley's off-screen relationship was less successful. In spite of this, they were always professional and exhibited exceptional chemistry while performing on the show. Frawley derisively described Vance's appearance as \"a sack of doorknobs.\" It was reported that Vance, who was 22 years younger than Frawley, was not really keen on the idea that her character Ethel was married to a man that was old enough to be her father. Vance also complained that Frawley's song-and-dance skills were not what they once were. Frawley and Vance had an adversarial relationship during the entire run of the show.\n\nIn 1957, I Love Lucy was re-tailored into an hour-long show originally titled The Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Show that was to be part of an anthology series called the Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse. The hour-long Lucy-Desi show was to alternate on a monthly basis with other hour long Playhouse shows. The new series put a much heavier emphasis on big name guest stars as being part of the plot and although the Mertz characters continued into the new series, their roles became somewhat diminished. Although a lighter workload was welcomed by Frawley, Vance came to somewhat resent the change. Arnaz, in an effort to please Vance, for whom he had much respect, proposed doing a spin-off from I Love Lucy called The Mertzes. Seeing a lucrative opportunity and the chance to star in his own show, Frawley was enthused. Vance, however, declined for a number of reasons, the biggest factor being that she felt she and Frawley could barely work together on the ensemble show they were doing at the time, so it would be much less likely the two could work together on their own series. Vance also felt that the Mertz characters would not be as successful without the Ricardos to play off of, and despite being her biggest success, she was becoming interested in playing more glamorous roles rather than Ethel. In fact, during the thirteen-episode run of the Lucy-Desi hour-long shows, Vance was given a lot more latitude to look more attractive as Ethel Mertz, something she was denied during the run of the I Love Lucy episodes. Frawley's resentment of Vance intensified after she declined to do the spin-off show and the two rarely talked to each other outside of their characters' dialogue with one another.\n\n\n=== Pregnancy and Little Ricky ===\nJust before filming the show, Lucy and Desi learned that Lucy was once again pregnant (after multiple miscarriages earlier in their marriage) with their first child, Lucie Arnaz. They filmed the original pilot while Lucy was \"showing\", but did not include any references to the pregnancy in the episode. This was because CBS thought that talk of pregnancy might be in bad taste and because an ad agency told Desi not to show a pregnant woman.Later, during the second season, Lucy was pregnant again with second child Desi Arnaz Jr., and this time the pregnancy was incorporated into the series' storyline. (Contrary to popular belief, Lucy's pregnancy was not television's first on-screen pregnancy, a distinction belonging to Mary Kay Stearns on the late 1940s sitcom Mary Kay and Johnny.)\n\nCBS would not allow I Love Lucy to use the word \"pregnant\", so \"expecting\" was used instead. In addition, sponsor Philip Morris made the request that Lucy not be seen smoking during the pregnancy episodes. The episode \"Lucy Is Enceinte\" first aired on December 8, 1952 (\"enceinte\" being French for \"expecting\" or \"pregnant\"). One week later, on December 15, 1952, the episode titled \"Pregnant Women Are Unpredictable\" was aired (although the show never displayed episode titles on the air). The episode in which Lucy gives birth, \"Lucy Goes to the Hospital\", first aired on January 19, 1953, which was the day before the inauguration of Dwight Eisenhower as President of the United States. To increase the publicity of this episode, the original air date was chosen to coincide with Lucille Ball's real-life delivery of Desi Jr. by Caesarean section. \"Lucy Goes to the Hospital\" was watched by more people than any other television program up to that time, with 71.7% of all American television sets tuned in, topping the 67.7 rating for the inauguration coverage the following morning.\nUnlike some programs that advance the age of a newborn over a short period, I Love Lucy at first allowed the Little Ricky character to grow up in real time. America saw Little Ricky as an infant in the 1952\u201353 season and a toddler from 1953 to 1956. However, for the 1956\u201357 season, Little Ricky suddenly aged by two years, becoming a young school-age boy from 1956 to 1960. Five actors played the role, two sets of twins and later Keith Thibodeaux, whose stage name when playing Ricky Ricardo Jr. was Richard Keith. (In the Superman episode, Little Ricky is mentioned as being five years old but it had been less than four years since the birth-of-Little-Ricky episode.)\nJess Oppenheimer stated in his memoir, Laughs, Luck...and Lucy: How I Came to Create the Most Popular Sitcom of All Time, that the initial plan was to match the sex of the Ricardo baby with Lucille Ball's real baby, inserting one of two alternate endings into the broadcast print at the last minute. When logistical difficulties convinced Oppenheimer to abandon this plan, he advised Desi that as head writer, he would have Lucy Ricardo give birth to a boy. Desi agreed, telling Oppenheimer that Lucy had already given him one girl, and might give him another\u2014this might be his only chance to get a son. When the baby boy was born, Desi immediately called Oppenheimer and told him, \"Lucy followed your script. Ain't she something?\", to which Oppenheimer replied \"Terrific! That makes me the greatest writer in the world!\"\n\n\n=== Opening ===\n\nThe opening familiar to most viewers, featuring the credits superimposed over a \"heart on satin\" image, was created specifically for the 1959\u201367 CBS daytime network rebroadcasts, and subsequent syndication. As originally broadcast, the episodes opened with animated matchstick figures of Arnaz and Ball making reference to whoever the particular episode's sponsor was. These sequences were created by the animation team of William Hanna and Joseph Barbera, who declined screen credit because they were technically under exclusive contract to MGM at the time.\nThe original sponsor was cigarette maker Philip Morris, so the program opened with a cartoon of Lucy and Ricky climbing down a pack of Philip Morris cigarettes. In the early episodes, Lucy and Ricky, as well as Ethel and Fred on occasion, were shown smoking Philip Morris cigarettes. Lucy even went so far as to parody Johnny Roventini's image as the Philip Morris \"bellhop\" in the May 5, 1952, episode, \"Lucy Does a TV Commercial\". Since the original sponsor references were no longer appropriate when the shows went into syndication, a new opening was needed, which resulted in the classic \"heart on satin\" opening. Other sponsors, whose products appeared during the original openings, were Procter & Gamble for Cheer and Lilt Home Permanent (1954\u201357), General Foods for Sanka (1955\u201357), and Ford Motor Company (1956\u201357). The later Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Show was sponsored by Ford Motor Company (1957\u201358) and Westinghouse Electric Corporation (1958\u201360), as part of the Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse.\nThe original openings, with the sponsor names edited out, were revived on TV Land showings, with a TV Land logo superimposed to obscure the original sponsor's logo. However, this has led some people to believe that the restored introduction was created specifically for TV Land as an example of kitsch.\nThe animated openings, along with the middle commercial introductory animations, are included, fully restored, in the DVDs. However, the openings are listed as special features within the disks with the \"heart on satin\" image opening the actual episodes.\nThe complete original broadcast versions of Seasons 1 and 2, as seen in 1951\u20131953 with intros, closings, and all commercials, are included on their respective Ultimate Season Blu-ray editions.\n\n\n=== Theme song ===\nThe I Love Lucy theme song was written by two-time Oscar-nominee Eliot Daniel. Lyrics were later written by five-time Oscar-nominee Harold Adamson, for Desi Arnaz to sing in the 1953 episode \"Lucy's Last Birthday\":\n\nI love Lucy and she loves me.We're as happy as two can be.Sometimes we quarrel but thenHow we love making up again.Lucy kisses like no one can.She's my missus and I'm her man,And life is heaven you see, 'Cause I love Lucy, Yes I love Lucy, and Lucy loves me!\n\n\"I Love Lucy,\" sung by Desi Arnaz with Paul Weston and the Norman Luboff Choir, was released as the B-side of \"There's A Brand New Baby (At Our House)\" by Columbia Records (catalog number 39937) in 1953. The song was covered by Michael Franks on the album Dragonfly Summer (1993). In 1977, the Wilton Place Street Band had a Top 40 hit with a disco version of the theme, \"Disco Lucy\".\n\n\n== Episodes ==\n\n\n=== Broadcast history ===\nI Love Lucy aired Mondays from 9:00 to 9:30 PM ET on CBS for its entire first run. Each year during its summer hiatus its timeslot was occupied by various summer replacement series. Beginning in April 1955 CBS added reruns from the show's early years to its early evening weekend schedule. This would be the first of several occasions when I Love Lucy reruns would become part of CBS's evening, prime time, and (later on) daytime schedules.In fall 1967, CBS began offering the series in off-network syndication; As of August 2017, the reruns air on the Hallmark Channel and MeTV networks, and scores of television stations in the U.S. and around the world, including Fox's KTTV/KCOP in Los Angeles until December 31, 2018. It is currently on Hulu.\nIn addition, CBS has run numerous specials, including a succession of annual specials which feature episodes which have been newly colorized.\n\n\n=== Nielsen ratings ===\nThe episode \"Lucy Goes to the Hospital\", which first aired on Monday, January 19, 1953, garnered a record 15.105 million homes reached, equivalent to 44 million viewers resulting from 71.7% share of all households with television sets at the time having been tuned in to view the program. That record is surpassed only by Elvis Presley's first of three appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show, which aired on September 9, 1956 (82.6% share, 60.710 million viewers and a 57.1 rating ). The overall rating of 67.3 for the entire 1952 season of I Love Lucy continues to be the highest average rating for any single season of a TV show.\n\n\n== Primetime Emmy Awards and nominations ==\n1952Best Comedy Show\u2014Nominated (Winner: The Red Skelton Hour)1953Best Situation Comedy\u2014Won\nBest Comedienne: Lucille Ball\u2014Won1954Best Female Star of a Regular Series: Lucille Ball\u2014Nominated (Winner: Eve Arden for Our Miss Brooks)\nBest Series Supporting Actor: William Frawley\u2014Nominated (Winner: Art Carney for The Jackie Gleason Show)\nBest Series Supporting Actress: Vivian Vance\u2014Won\nBest Situation Comedy\u2014Won1955Best Actress Starring in a Regular Series: Lucille Ball\u2014Nominated (Winner: Loretta Young for The Loretta Young Show)\nBest Situation Comedy Series\u2014Nominated (Winner: The Danny Thomas Show)\nBest Supporting Actor in a Regular Series: William Frawley\u2014Nominated (Winner: Art Carney for The Jackie Gleason Show)\nBest Supporting Actress in a Regular Series: Vivian Vance\u2014Nominated (Winner: Audrey Meadows for The Jackie Gleason Show)\nBest Written Comedy Material: Jess Oppenheimer, Bob Carroll Jr. and Madelyn Davis\u2014Nominated (Winners: James B. Allardice, Jack Douglas, Hal Kanter and Harry Winkler for The George Gobel Show)1956Best Actor in a Supporting Role: William Frawley\u2014Nominated (Winner: Art Carney for The Honeymooners)\nBest Actress\u2014Continuing Performance: Lucille Ball\u2014Won\nBest Comedy Writing: Jess Oppenheimer, Madelyn Davis, Bob Carroll Jr., Bob Schiller and Bob Weiskopf for \"L.A. at Last\"\u2014Nominated (Winners: Nat Hiken, Barry E. Blitzer, Arnold M. Auerbach, Harvey Orkin, Vin Bogert, Arnie Rosen, Coleman Jacoby, Tony Webster and Terry Ryan for The Phil Silvers Show: \"You'll Never Get Rich\")1957Best Continuing Performance by a Comedienne in a Series: Lucille Ball\u2014Nominated (Winner: Nanette Fabray for Caesar's Hour)\nBest Supporting Performance by an Actor: William Frawley\u2014Nominated (Winner: Carl Reiner for Caesar's Hour)\nBest Supporting Performance by an Actress: Vivian Vance\u2014Nominated (Winner: Pat Carroll for Caesar's Hour)1958Best Continuing Performance (Female) in a Series by a Comedienne, Singer, Hostess, Dancer, M.C., Announcer, Narrator, Panelist, or any Person who Essentially Plays Herself: Lucille Ball\u2014Nominated (Winner: Dinah Shore for The Dinah Shore Show)\nBest Continuing Supporting Performance by an Actor in a Dramatic or Comedy Series: William Frawley\u2014Nominated (Winner: Carl Reiner for Caesar's Hour)\nBest Continuing Supporting Performance by an Actress in a Dramatic or Comedy Series: Vivian Vance\u2014Nominated (Winner: Ann B. Davis for The Bob Cummings Show)\n\n\n== In other media ==\n\n\n=== Radio ===\nThere was some thought about creating an I Love Lucy radio show to run in conjunction with the television series as was being done at the time with the CBS hit show Our Miss Brooks. On February 27, 1952, a sample I Love Lucy radio show was produced, but it never aired. This was a pilot episode, created by editing the soundtrack of the television episode \"Breaking the Lease\", with added Arnaz narration (in character as Ricky Ricardo). It included commercials for Philip Morris, which sponsored the television series. While it never aired on radio at the time in the 1950s (Philip Morris eventually sponsored a radio edition of My Little Margie instead), copies of this radio pilot episode have been circulating among \"old time radio\" collectors for years, and this radio pilot episode has aired in more recent decades on numerous local radio stations that air some \"old time radio\" programming.\n\n\n=== Merchandise ===\nBall and Arnaz authorized various types of I Love Lucy merchandise. Beginning in November 1952, I Love Lucy dolls, manufactured by the American Character Doll Company, were sold. Adult-size I Love Lucy pajamas and a bedroom set were also produced; all of these items appeared on the show.\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n=== Comic book and comic strip ===\nDell Comics published 35 issues of an I Love Lucy comic book between 1954 and 1962 including two try-out Four Color issues (#535 and #559). King Features syndicated a comic strip (written by Lawrence Nadel and drawn by Bob Oksner, jointly credited as \"Bob Lawrence\") from 1952 to 1955. Eternity Comics in the early 1990s issued comic books that reprinted the strip and Dell comic book series.\n\n\n== After I Love Lucy ==\n\n\n=== Hour-long format ===\n\nAfter the conclusion of the sixth season of I Love Lucy, the Arnazes decided to cut down on the number of episodes that were filmed. Instead, they extended I Love Lucy to 60 minutes, with a guest star each episode. They renamed the show The Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Show, also known as The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour. Thirteen hour-long episodes aired from 1957 to 1960. The main cast, Lucille Ball, Desi Arnaz, Vivian Vance, William Frawley and Little Ricky/Richard Keith (birth name Keith Thibodeaux) were all in the show. The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour is available on DVD, released as I Love Lucy: The Final Seasons 7, 8, & 9. On March 2, 1960, Arnaz's birthday, the day after the last hour-long episode was filmed, Ball filed for divorce from Arnaz. It made their kiss at the end of the final episode, \"Lucy Meets the Moustache\", which aired April 1, all the more significant, as the world already knew that their marriage was over, and also lent extra meaning to the use of the song \"That's All\" (performed by guest star Edie Adams) in the episode.\n\n\n=== Vivian Vance and William Frawley ===\nAs previously mentioned, Vance and Frawley were offered a chance to take their characters to their own spin-off series. Frawley was willing, but Vance refused to ever work with Frawley again since the two did not get along. Frawley did appear once more with Lucille Ball \u2014 in an episode of The Lucy Show in 1965, which did not include Vance (who by then had ceased to be a regular on that show). However, this was his last screen appearance with his longtime friend. He died in Hollywood on March 3, 1966, of a heart attack at age 79.\n\n\n=== Lucille Ball's subsequent network shows ===\nIn 1962, Ball began a six-year run with The Lucy Show, followed immediately in 1968 by six more years on a third sitcom, Here's Lucy, ending her regular appearances on CBS in 1974. Both The Lucy Show and Here's Lucy included Vance as recurring characters named Viv (Vivian Bagley Bunson on The Lucy Show and Vivian Jones on Here's Lucy), so named because she was tired of being recognized on the street and addressed as \"Ethel\". Vance was a regular during the first three seasons of The Lucy Show but continued to make guest appearances through the years on The Lucy Show, and on Here's Lucy. In 1977, Vance and Ball were reunited one last time in the CBS special, Lucy Calls the President, which co-starred Gale Gordon (whom Ball had known for very many years by 1977 and who had appeared as a regular on her television shows since 1963; becoming even more prominent once Vance left The Lucy Show in 1965.)\nIn 1986, Ball tried another sitcom, Life with Lucy. The series debuted on ABC to solid ratings, landing in Nielsen's Top 25 for the week. Its ratings quickly declined, however, and resulted in a cancellation after eight episodes.\n\n\n=== Longevity, critical acclaim and other honors ===\nIn 1989, the never-seen pilot episode was discovered and revealed in a CBS television special, hosted by Lucie Arnaz, becoming the highest rated program of the season.\n\nIn 2012, Emily VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club wrote retrospectively:I Love Lucy [\u2026] is one of the two foundational texts of American TV comedy, along with The Honeymooners. The series is legitimately the most influential in TV history, pioneering so many innovations and normalizing so many others that it would be easy to write an appreciation of simply, say, the show\u2019s accidental invention of the TV rerun.\nI Love Lucy continues to be held in high esteem by television critics, and remains perennially popular. For instance, it was one of the first American programs seen on British television \u2014 which became more open to commerce with the September 1955 launch of ITV, a commercial network that aired the series; in 1982, the launch of a second terrestrial TV station devoted to advertising funded broadcasting (Channel 4) saw the show introduced to a new generation of fans in the UK, with the Channel 4 network repeating the program several times between 1983 and 1994. As of January 2015, meanwhile, it remains the longest-running program to air continuously in the Los Angeles area, almost 60 years after production ended. However, the series is currently aired on KTTV on weekends and now KCOP on weekdays because both stations are a duopoly. Ironically, KTTV was the original CBS affiliated station in Los Angeles until 1951, just before \"I Love Lucy\" premiered on KNXT Channel 2 (now KCBS-TV) when CBS bought that station the same year. In the US, reruns have aired nationally on TBS (1980s\u20131990s), Nick at Nite (1994\u20132001) and TV Land (2001\u20132008) in addition to local channels. TV Land ended its run of the series by giving viewers the opportunity to vote on the show's top 25 greatest episodes on December 31, 2008 through the network's website. This is particularly notable because, unlike some shows to which a cable channel is given exclusive rights to maximize ratings, Lucy has been consistently \u2014 and successfully \u2014 broadcast on multiple channels simultaneously. Hallmark Channel is now the home for I Love Lucy in the United States, with the show having moved to the network on January 2, 2009, while the national version of Weigel Broadcasting's MeTV digital subchannel network has carried the program since its debut in December 15, 2010, depending on the market (in markets where another station holds the rights, The Lucy Show is substituted). The show is seen on Fox Classics in Australia.\nIn addition to Primetime Emmy Awards and nominations, I Love Lucy's many honors include the following:\n\nThe Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Center in Jamestown, New York is a museum memorializing Lucy and I Love Lucy, including replicas of the NYC apartment set (located in the Desilu Playhouse facility in the Rapaport Center).\nIn 1990, I Love Lucy became the first television show to be inducted into the Television Hall of Fame.\nIn 1997, the episodes \"Lucy Does a TV Commercial\" and \"Lucy's Italian Movie\" were respectively ranked No. 2 and No. 18 on TV Guide's list of the 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time.\nIn 1999, Entertainment Weekly ranked the birth of Little Ricky as the fifth greatest moment in television history.\nIn 2002, TV Guide ranked I Love Lucy No. 2 on its list of the 50 greatest shows, behind Seinfeld and ahead of The Honeymooners (According to TV Guide columnist Matt Roush, there was a \"passionate\" internal debate about whether I Love Lucy should have been first instead of Seinfeld. He stated that this was the main source of controversy in putting together the list.)\nIn 2007, Time magazine placed the show on its unranked list of the 100 best television shows.\nIn 2012, I Love Lucy was ranked the Best TV Comedy and the Best TV Show in Best in TV: The Greatest TV Shows of Our Time.\nIn 2013, TV Guide ranked I Love Lucy as the third greatest show of all time.\nA 2015 The Hollywood Reporter survey of 2,800 actors, producers, directors, and other industry people named I Love Lucy as their #8 favorite show.\n\n\n=== Documentary and dramatizations ===\nOn April 28, 1990, CBS aired a television movie titled I Love Lucy: The Very First Show hosted by Lucie Arnaz, daughter of Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz, with commentary that showed the original unaired pilot episode of I Love Lucy that was produced by Ball and Desi Arnaz themselves and found after 40 years. The movie was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award as an \"Outstanding Informational Special\".On February 10, 1991, CBS aired a television movie titled Lucy & Desi: Before the Laughter, about the lives of Ball and Desi Arnaz. The movie recreated a number of scenes from classic I Love Lucy episodes, including \"Lucy Thinks Ricky Is Trying to Murder Her\" and \"Lucy Does a TV Commercial\". Frances Fisher starred as Ball and Maurice Benard as Desi Arnaz.On May 4, 2003, CBS aired a television movie titled Lucy, portraying the life of Ball and recreating a number of scenes from classic I Love Lucy episodes, including \"Lucy Does a TV Commercial\", \"Lucy Is Enceinte\", and \"Job Switching\". Near the end of the movie, a selection of TV Guide covers is seen in a hallway, showing I Love Lucy franchises on their covers. Also included is close-up of a New York Post article about the birth of Little Ricky. Rachel York starred as Ball and Danny Pino as Desi Arnaz.In October 2011, the stage play I Love Lucy Live on Stage premiered to sold-out houses at the Greenway Court Theatre in Los Angeles. Staged and directed by Rick Sparks, the show featured the performance of two I Love Lucy episodes \u2013 \"The Benefit\" and \"Lucy Has Her Eyes Examined\", presented to the theatre audience as though they were attending a filming at the Desilu Playhouse in the 1950s. In 2012, the show began a national tour which lasted until 2015.In July 2018, I Love Lucy: A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Sitcom, a behind-the-scenes comedy about I Love Lucy by Gregg Oppenheimer (son of series creator Jess Oppenheimer), had its world premiere in a Los Angeles production by L.A. Theatre Works. Recorded before a live audience at the James Bridges Theater, UCLA, the production aired on public radio and was released on Audio CD and as a downloadable mp3 in September of that year. The performance starred Sarah Drew as Ball, Oscar Nu\u00f1ez as Desi Arnaz, and Seamus Dever as Oppenheimer. A version by Jarvis & Ayres Productions was aired in August 2020 on BBC Radio 4.In the spring of 2020 NBC's sitcom Will & Grace paid tribute to I Love Lucy with a special episode titled \"We Love Lucy\". During the episode Lucy & Ricky Ricardo and Ethel & Fred Mertz appear in dream sequences based on scenes from the 1951 CBS series. Lucie Arnaz made a cameo in the episode in the role originated in the \"Job Switching\" episode by actress Elvia Allman as the Factory Foreperson.\n\n\n== In color ==\n\nSeveral classic episodes of I Love Lucy have been colorized. Star and producer Desi Arnaz had expressed interest in airing the show in color as early as 1955, but the cost of such a presentation was prohibitive at the time.\nThe first episode to be colorized was the Christmas special, which had been feared to be lost for many years, as it was not included in the regular syndication package with the rest of the series. A copy was discovered in 1989 in the CBS vaults and was aired by CBS during December of that year in its original black-and-white format. In 1990, this episode was again aired in the days prior to Christmas, but this time the framing sequence was in color, while the clips from earlier episodes remained in black and white. The special performed surprisingly well in the ratings during both years, and aired on CBS each December through 1994.\nIn 2007, as the \"Complete Series\" DVD set was being prepared for release, DVD producer Gregg Oppenheimer decided to have the episode \"Lucy Goes to Scotland\" digitally colorized (referencing color publicity stills and color \"home movies\" taken on the set during production), making it the first I Love Lucy episode to be fully colorized. Four years later, Time Life released the \"Lucy's Italian Movie\" episode for the first time in full color as part of the \"Essential 'I Love Lucy'\" collection.\nThe colorized \"Lucy Goes to Scotland\" episode has never aired on television, but that episode, along with the Christmas special and \"Lucy's Italian Movie\", were packaged together on the 2013 \"I Love Lucy Colorized Christmas\" DVD. In 2014, Target stores sold an exclusive version of the DVD that also included \"Job Switching\".\n\n\n=== Annual colorized specials ===\nOn December 20, 2013, CBS revived an annual holiday tradition when it reaired the Christmas special for the first time in nearly two decades. The Christmas special's framing sequence was colorized anew. The network paired this special with the color version of \"Lucy's Italian Movie\" episode. This special attracted 8.7 million people. Nearly a year later, on December 7, 2014, the Christmas special was again aired on CBS, but this time paired with the popular episode \"Job Switching\", which was newly colorized for that broadcast. That episode appeared on the \"I Love Lucy: The Ultimate Season 2\" Blu-ray edition released on August 4, 2015. CBS aired the Christmas special again on December 23, 2015, with the flashback scenes being colorized for the first time, and with a colorized \"Lucy Does a TV Commercial\" replacing \"Job Switching\". CBS next aired the Christmas special on December 2, 2016, this time paired with the newly colorized \"Lucy Gets in Pictures\". On December 22, 2017, the Christmas episode was followed by a newly colorized episode, \"The Fashion Show\". On December 14, 2018, the Christmas episode was paired with a newly colorized episode, \"Pioneer Women\".On May 17, 2015, CBS began a new springtime tradition when it aired two newly colorized episodes in an \"I Love Lucy Superstar Special\" consisting of \"L.A. at Last\" and \"Lucy and Superman\", which attracted 6.4 million viewers. A DVD of this special was released on October 4, 2016. A second \"Superstar Special\" containing the newly colorized two-part episode \"Lucy Visits Grauman's\" and \"Lucy and John Wayne\" aired on May 20, 2016 and was released on DVD on January 17, 2017. A third \"Superstar Special\" aired on May 19, 2017, featuring two more newly colorized Hollywood-based episodes: \"The Dancing Star\" featuring Van Johnson, and \"Harpo Marx\". A two-episode \"Funny Money Special\" was introduced on April 19, 2019, featuring the episodes \"The Million-Dollar Idea\" and \"Bonus Bucks\", both from early 1954. On December 20, 2019, CBS aired its annual I Love Lucy Christmas episode along with a new colorized episode, \"Paris At Last\". The I Love Lucy Christmas Special scored a 4.9 million in the ratings, becoming the night's most-watched show on television.\n\n\n=== Colorized feature film ===\nOn August 6, 2019, Ball's would-be 108th birthday, a one-night-only event took place in movie theaters around the United States, I Love Lucy: A Colorized Celebration, a feature film consisting of five colorized episodes, three of which contain never-before-seen content. The episodes included are: \"The Million Dollar Idea\" (1954), \"Lucy Does a TV Commercial\" (1952), \"Pioneer Women\" (1952), \"Job Switching\" (1952) and \"L.A. at Last!\" (1955). A short documentary on the colorization process of the episodes was also included. The film proved to be very successful, grossing $777,645 from 660 theaters across the country, coming in at #6 at the domestic box office and beating Disney's Aladdin.\n\n\n== Home media ==\nBeginning in the summer of 2001, Columbia House Television began releasing I Love Lucy on DVD in chronological order. They began that summer with the pilot and the first three episodes on a single DVD. Every six weeks, another volume of four episodes would be released on DVD in chronological order. During the summer of 2002, each DVD would contain between five and seven episodes on a single DVD. They continued to release the series very slowly and would not even begin to release any season 2 episodes until the middle of 2002. By the spring of 2003, the third season on DVD began to be released with about six episodes released every six weeks to mail order subscribers. All these DVDs have the identical features as the DVDs eventually released in the season box sets in retail.\nBy the fall of 2003, season four episodes began to be offered by mail. By the spring of 2004 season five DVDs with about six episodes each began to be released gradually. Columbia House ended the distribution of these mail order DVDs in the Winter of 2005. They began releasing complete season sets in the Summer of 2004 every few months. They stated that Columbia House Subscribers would get these episodes through mail before releasing any box sets with the same episodes. They finally ended gradual subscriptions in 2005, several months before season 5 became available in retail. Columbia House then began to make season box sets available instead of these single volumes.\nCBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) has released all six seasons of I Love Lucy on DVD in Region 1, as well as all 13 episodes of The Lucy and Desi Comedy Hour (as I Love Lucy: The Final Seasons \u2013 7, 8, & 9). Bonus features include rare on-set color footage and the \"Desilu/Westinghouse\" promotional film, as well as deleted scenes, original openings and interstitials (before they were altered or replaced for syndication) and on-air flubs. These DVDs offered identical features and identical content to the mail order single sets formerly available until 2005.\nIn December 2013, the first high-definition release of I Love Lucy was announced, with the Blu-ray edition of the first season, scheduled for May 5, 2014. The Second Season Ultimate Blu-ray was released on August 4, 2015.\n\n\n=== Other releases ===\nI Love Lucy's Zany Road Trip: California Here We Come!, a compilation of 27 episodes, released by CBS/FOX Video on VHS in 1992\n\"I Love Lucy \u2013 Season 1\" (9 separate discs labeled \"Volumes\", first volume released July 2, 2002, final volume released September 23, 2003)\n\"I Love Lucy \u2013 Season 1\" (9 Volumes in box set, released September 23, 2003)\n\"I Love Lucy \u2013 50th Anniversary Special\" (1 disc, released October 1, 2002)\n\"I Love Lucy: The Movie and Other Great Rarities\" (1 disc, released April 27, 2010) (Also included as a bonus disc in the complete series set.)\n\"The Best of I Love Lucy\" (2 discs: 14 episodes, released in June 2011 in conjunction with the 60th anniversary of the series and Lucille Ball's 100th birthday; sold exclusively through Target.)The DVD releases feature the syndicated heart opening, and offer the original broadcast openings as bonus features. Season 6 allows viewers to choose whether to watch the episodes with the original opening or the syndicated opening. The TV Land openings are not on these DVDs.\nInitially, the first season was offered in volumes, with four episodes per disc. After the success of releasing seasons 2, 3, and 4 in slimpacks, the first season was re-released as a seven disc set, requiring new discs to be mastered and printed to include more episodes per disc so there would be fewer discs in the set. For the complete series box set, the first season would be redone again, this time to six DVDs, retaining all bonus features. The individual volume discs for the first season are still in print, but are rare for lack of shelf space and because the slimpacks are more popular. In 2012, all season sets were reissued in slipcovered clear standard-sized amaray DVD cases, with season 1 being the 6-disc version as opposed to the 7-disc version.\nEpisodes feature English closed-captioning, but only Spanish subtitles.\nIn Australia and the UK, the first three seasons were finally released in Region 2 & Region 4 on August 3, 2010, by CBS, distributed by Paramount. Season 1 includes the pilot and all 35 Season 1 episodes in a 7-disc set. Season 2 includes all 31 Season 2 episodes in a 5-disc set. Season 3 includes all 31 Season 3 episodes in a 5-disc set. Season 2 and 3 are in a slimline pack. All three seasons have been restored and digitally remastered. All episodes appear in order of their original air dates, although it states that some episodes may be edited from their original network versions. It is unknown if the remaining seasons will be released individually. A complete series box set titled I Love Lucy: Complete Collection was scheduled for release on April 6, 2016, and in the UK on May 30, 2016. This collection contains 34 DVDs with all six seasons of I Love Lucy and all 13 episodes of The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour.\nIn September 2018, Time-Life released a DVD, Lucy: The Ultimate Collection, which collected 76 episodes of I Love Lucy, The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour, The Lucy Show, Here's Lucy, and the short-lived ABC-TV series Life with Lucy (which has never before been released to home media), plus a wide variety of bonus features.A DVD collection, I Love Lucy: Colorized Collection was released on August 13, 2019. It contains every colorized episode of I Love Lucy aired to date of the set's release date.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nStatue of Lucille Ball\nRicky (song)\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nI Love Lucy at IMDb\nI Love Lucy at AllMovie\nI Love Lucy at The Interviews: An Oral History of Television", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Blank_television_set.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Fifties_jukebox.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/I_Love_Lucy_1955.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/I_Love_Lucy_Cast.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/I_Love_Lucy_title.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/I_love_lucy_1956.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/I_love_lucy_bedroom_set_1953.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/I_love_lucy_doll_1952.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/I_love_lucy_pajamas_1953.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Karl-Freund-1932.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Lucille_Ball_I_love_Lucy_Little_Ricky_actors_1955.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Lucille_Ball_John_Wayne_1955.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Lucy_Goes_To_Havana_Lucy_Desi_Comedy_Hour_1957.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Lucy_as_superman_1957.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Lucy_in_scotland_1956.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/SMirC-laugh.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Vivian_vance_1948.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/William_Frawley_1951.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/20/I_Love_Lucy_original.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg"], "summary": "I Love Lucy is an American television sitcom that originally aired on CBS from October 15, 1951, to May 6, 1957, with a total of 180 half-hour episodes spanning six seasons. The show starred Lucille Ball, her then real-life husband Desi Arnaz, Vivian Vance, and William Frawley. It followed the life of Lucy Ricardo (Ball), a young middle-class housewife in New York City, who often concocted plans with her best friends Ethel and Fred Mertz (Vance and Frawley) to appear alongside her bandleader husband Ricky Ricardo (Arnaz) in his nightclub, trying numerous schemes to mingle with, or be a part of show business. After the series ended in 1957, a modified version continued for three more seasons with 13 one-hour specials; it ran from 1957 to 1960. It was first known as The Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Show and later in reruns as The Lucy\u2013Desi Comedy Hour.\nI Love Lucy became the most-watched show in the United States in four of its six seasons, and it was the first to end its run at the top of the Nielsen ratings. As of 2011, episodes of the show have been syndicated in dozens of languages across the world and remain popular with an American audience of 40 million each year. A colorized version of its Christmas episode attracted more than 8 million viewers when CBS aired it in prime time in 2013, 62 years after the show premiered; CBS has aired two to three colorized episodes each year since then, once at Christmas and again in the spring.The show, which was the first scripted television program to be shot on 35mm film in front of a studio audience, by cinematographer Karl Freund, won five Emmy Awards and received numerous nominations and honors. It was the first show to feature an ensemble cast. It is often regarded as one of the greatest and most influential sitcoms in history. In 2012, it was voted the 'Best TV Show of All Time' in a survey conducted by ABC News and People magazine.\n\n"}, "Lucy_Does_a_TV_Commercial": {"links": ["Laura Dern", "Lucy and Ricky Ricardo", "Ross Elliott", "Here's Lucy", "Ew.com", "Fred Mertz", "Jerry Hausner", "Jess Oppenheimer", "List of Here's Lucy episodes", "Vivian Vance", "Desi Arnaz", "Marc Daniels", "Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act", "Lucy in London", "William Frawley", "Will & Grace", "Phillip Morris USA", "List of I Love Lucy episodes", "Ross Elliot", "I Love Lucy", "List of The Lucy\u2013Desi Comedy Hour episodes", "Philip Morris ", "My Favorite Husband", "Herbal tonic", "Theodore J. Mooney", "NBC", "Dinner for One", "ISBN ", "MeTV", "Pectin", "Life with Lucy", "The Lucy Show", "List of The Lucy Show episodes", "Debra Messing", "The Girls Want to Go to a Nightclub", "United States", "Lucy Goes to the Hospital", "Ethel Mertz", "Sitcom", "The Lucy\u2013Desi Comedy Hour", "TV Guide", "Bob Carroll Jr.", "Statue of Lucille Ball", "I Love Lucy ", "one hundred Greatest Episodes of All Time", "Red Skelton", "Lucy and Superman", "Vaudeville", "Ricky Ricardo Jr.", "Lucille Ball", "Madelyn Pugh"], "content": "\"Lucy Does a TV Commercial\" is the 30th episode of the 1950s television sitcom I Love Lucy, airing on May 5, 1952. It is considered to be the most famous episode of the show. In 1997, TV Guide ranked it #2 on their list of the \"100 Greatest Episodes of All Time\". In 2009, they ranked it #4 on their list of \"TV's Top 100 Episodes of All Time.\" The initial episode was watched by 68% of the television viewing audience at the time.\n\n\n== Plot ==\nRicky (Desi Arnaz) is given an opportunity to host a television show and is notified that he needs to find a girl to do a commercial spot for one of their sponsors. Lucy (Lucille Ball) begs Ricky to let her do the commercial, but he refuses. Lucy asks Fred (William Frawley) to assist her in a scheme to get Ricky to watch her on television. When Ricky returns home from his band rehearsal, she is behind the TV screen \u2013 inside the set's empty body \u2013 doing a mock commercial as Johnny, the bellhop of Phillip Morris fame. Ricky, disliking the stunt, goes behind the set and plugs the cord back into its outlet, which sets off a minor explosion behind Lucy. Ricky discovers that she has taken each part of the television set out, piece by piece (rather than sliding the whole chassis out), so that she could fit into the box.\nThe following morning, Lucy avoids Ricky. Ricky asks Fred if he can wait for a telephone call from the girl willing to do the commercial to tell her the time and studio. After Ricky leaves, Lucy tells Fred she will deliver the message instead. When the girl calls, Lucy tells her she is not needed for the commercial and proceeds to takes her place.\nThe director of the commercial (Ross Elliot) explains to Lucy their sales pitch regarding the \"Vitameatavegamin\" health tonic. What both Lucy and the director are unaware of \u2013 but what the propman (Jerry Hausner) realizes to his shock \u2013 is that the tonic contains 23% alcohol. Lucy begins her first take, taking a sip of the tonic, which tastes terrible, as evidenced by her grimace. After a few more practice runs, Lucy becomes intoxicated and her speech becomes slurred. The director asks the propman to take her to her dressing room to rest until the commercial goes live. When the television show begins, Ricky sings \"El Relicario\", but Lucy comes out from backstage and staggers toward Ricky. She sways, waves to the camera, starts singing along with Ricky, and repeats her sales pitch in the middle of his singing despite Ricky's attempts to keep her off-screen. Ricky desperately carries her off the stage.\n\n\n== Notes ==\nIn later reruns, the scene where Lucy is in a broken television set was edited to remove references to Philip Morris, which was sponsoring I Love Lucy at the time. (The Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act banned tobacco advertisements from broadcast television beginning in 1971.) The DVD release, as well as the colorized episode, restore this.\nThe Vitameatavegamin was originally 11% alcohol, but was increased to 23% on the show. The bottle from which Lucille Ball was at first pouring the tonic, and later drinking from directly, actually contained apple pectin.\nThe character of Ethel (Vivian Vance) is absent from this episode; Fred says that she is visiting her mother.\nThe central sketch was originally created by Red Skelton and had been part of his vaudeville routine since the 1930s. Skelton granted Ball permission to use it in I Love Lucy.\nAs of 2017, the dress Ball wore during the rehearsal scene is owned by actress Laura Dern.\n\n\n== Enduring popularity ==\nThe word \"Vitameatavegamin\" has since become a shorthand for this episode and for the I Love Lucy show in general. In 2011, more than 900 Lucille Ball lookalikes gathered under a \"Vitameatavegamin\" sign to honor Ball's 100th birthday, setting a world record for the most Lucy lookalikes in one place. Also in 2011, a talking Lucy doll was produced which recites lines from this episode.In the April 9, 2020 episode of Will & Grace, Debra Messing recreated the scene.\n\n\n== See also ==\nLucille Ball (2009 statue)\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== See also ==\n\"Dinner for One\"\nList of I Love Lucy episodes", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Vitameatavegamine.png"], "summary": "\"Lucy Does a TV Commercial\" is the 30th episode of the 1950s television sitcom I Love Lucy, airing on May 5, 1952. It is considered to be the most famous episode of the show. In 1997, TV Guide ranked it #2 on their list of the \"100 Greatest Episodes of All Time\". In 2009, they ranked it #4 on their list of \"TV's Top 100 Episodes of All Time.\" The initial episode was watched by 68% of the television viewing audience at the time."}, "Desi_Arnaz": {"links": ["CBS", "Encyclopedia of Popular Music", "Gustavo P\u00e9rez Firmat", "Library of Congress", "Sound stage", "Sunday Showcase", "Surname", "ISBN ", "My Favorite Husband", "Mission: Impossible ", "Danny Thomas", "The Carol Channing Show", "Kinescope", "Army Good Conduct Medal", "Thoroughbred", "Desi Arnaz Jr", "Linda Lavin", "Gerardo Machado", "Bandleader", "Ethnic joke", "Bataan ", "Conga line", "The Fountain of Youth", "United States Army", "Father Takes a Wife", "Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse", "Museum of Broadcast Communications", "Forever, Darling", "The Long, Long Trailer", "Multiple-camera setup", "Hollywood Walk of Fame", "Southern California", "Lewis Carroll", "Bullfighter", "Karl Freund", "Rory Calhoun", "I Love Lucy", "Saturday Night Live ", "James Garner", "Miami", "P.C. Richard & Son", "World War II Victory Medal", "List of actors with Hollywood Walk of Fame motion picture stars", "Cuban Pete ", "Cuban Americans", "Rodgers and Hart", "Jamestown, New York", "Saint Leo University", "The Lucy Show", "Rerun", "Del Mar Racetrack", "Alice ", "Richard Denning", "Birmingham General Army Hospital", "Bob Carroll, Jr.", "San Diego State University", "The Dick Van Dyke Show", "The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love", "The Mothers-In-Law", "Babal\u00fa", "F. W. Woolworth Company", "The Texan ", "Lucy and Ricky Ricardo", "Being the Ricardos", "Broadway theatre", "Four Jacks and a Jill", "Los Angeles Times", "San Fernando Valley", "MBA ", "Corona, California", "Holiday in Havana", "List of Cuban Americans", "VIAF ", "Saturday Night Live", "The Navy Comes Through", "Turner Classic Movies", "Lucie Arnaz", "Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Center", "NBC", "Virgin Books", "Similau", "The Lucy\u2013Desi Comedy Hour", "The Untouchables ", "Too Many Girls ", "Colin Larkin ", "Barbara Whiting", "Robert Taylor ", "Desiderio Alberto Arnaz II", "The Virginian ", "Victor Orsatti", "Interlocutory", "Lung cancer", "Bacardi", "Amazon Studios", "The Hollywood Walk of Fame", "Desilu, Too", "The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour", "Kennedy Center Honors", "Celoron, New York", "Four Jacks and a Jill ", "Mojave Desert", "I Love Lucy's fiftyth Anniversary Special", "Desi Arnaz Jr.", "Seamus Dever", "Margaret Whiting", "World War II", "Cuban Revolution of nineteen thirty-three", "Whirlybirds", "Ironside ", "Gary Morton", "Sarah Drew", "Fulgencio Batista", "Golden Globe", "Spanish name", "Bob Hope", "Oscar Hijuelos", "Mike Douglas", "The Pepsodent Show", "Federal Bureau of Investigation", "New York City", "Star Trek: The Original Series", "Those Whiting Girls", "The Lady in Red ", "The Mothers-in-Law", "Hollywood, Los Angeles", "Santiago de Cuba", "Paramount Television ", "Jabberwocky", "Jess Oppenheimer", "Tampa", "Broadcast syndication", "Desilu Studios", "The Escape Artist", "ISNI ", "I Love Lucy ", "The Ann Sothern Show", "AllMovie", "Desi Arnaz and His Orchestra", "Vivian Vance", "United Artists Television", "IMDb", "Aaron Sorkin", "Black-and-white", "Television Hall of Fame", "RKO Pictures", "Lucille Ball", "Here's Lucy", "The Mambo Kings", "The Red Skelton Show", "Diverticulitis", "Conscription in the United States", "Javier Bardem", "Find a Grave", "MPI Home Video", "thirteenth Golden Globe Awards", "Nicole Kidman", "Situation comedy", "Mike Wallace", "Del Mar, California", "The Andy Griffith Show", "Madelyn Pugh", "Jitterumba", "Desilu Productions", "Paramount Television", "Cuba", "Internet Broadway Database", "Xavier Cugat", "Vaudeville", "Western ", "Google Doodle", "CBS Radio", "Horse-breeding", "West Texas Historical Association", "St. Patrick Catholic School ", "Melody Master", "Louis Armstrong", "Oscar Nu\u00f1ez", "American Campaign Medal", "Google", "United Service Organization", "Marco Rizo", "Kraft Music Hall", "Desi Arnaz Stakes", "Leonard Bernstein", "The Danny Thomas Show"], "content": "Desiderio Alberto Arnaz y de Acha III (March 2, 1917 \u2013 December 2, 1986), better known as Desi Arnaz,  was a Cuban-American actor, musician, bandleader, comedian and film and television producer, revolutionary in the creation of modern television. He is best known for his role as the witty Ricky Ricardo on the American television sitcom I Love Lucy, in which he co-starred with his then-wife Lucille Ball. Arnaz and Ball are generally credited as the innovators of the syndicated rerun, which they pioneered with the I Love Lucy series.Arnaz and Lucille Ball co-founded and ran the television production company called Desilu Productions, originally to market I Love Lucy to television networks. After I Love Lucy ended, Arnaz went on to produce several other television series, at first with Desilu Productions, and later independently, including The Ann Sothern Show and The Untouchables. He was also renowned for leading his Latin music band, the Desi Arnaz Orchestra.\n\n\n== Early life ==\nArnaz was born Desiderio Alberto Arnaz y de Acha, III, in Santiago de Cuba, Cuba, to Desiderio Alberto Arnaz y de Alberni II (March 8, 1894 \u2013 May 31, 1973) and Dolores \"Lolita\" de Acha y de Socias (April 2, 1896 \u2013 October 24, 1988). His father was Santiago's youngest mayor and also served in the Cuban House of Representatives. His maternal grandfather was Alberto de Acha, an executive at rum producer Bacardi & Co.Arnaz describes the opulent family life of his early youth in his autobiography, A Book (1976)\u2014the family owned three ranches, a palatial home, and a vacation mansion on a private island in Santiago Bay, Cuba. Following the Cuban Revolution of 1933, led by Fulgencio Batista, which overthrew President Gerardo Machado, Alberto Arnaz was jailed and all of his property was confiscated. He was released after six months when his brother-in-law Alberto de Acha intervened on his behalf. The family then fled to Miami, where Desi attended St. Patrick Catholic High School in Miami Beach. In the summer of 1934, he attended Saint Leo Prep (near Tampa) to help improve his English. His first job was working at Woolworths in Miami. He then went into the tile business with his father before turning to show business full-time.\n\n\n== Professional career ==\n\n\n=== Musician and actor ===\nAfter finishing high school, Arnaz formed a band, the Siboney Septet, and began making a name for himself in Miami. Xavier Cugat, after seeing Arnaz perform, hired him for his touring orchestra, playing the conga drum and singing. Becoming a star attraction encouraged him to start his own band, the Desi Arnaz Orchestra.Arnaz and his orchestra became a hit in New York City's club scene, where he introduced the concept of conga line dancing to the city. He came to the attention of Rodgers and Hart who, in 1939, cast him in their Broadway musical Too Many Girls. The show was a hit and RKO Pictures bought the movie rights.Arnaz went to Hollywood the next year to appear in the show's movie version at RKO, which also starred Lucille Ball. Arnaz and Ball fell in love during the film's production and eloped on November 30, 1940.Arnaz appeared in several movies in the 1940s such as Bataan,  starring Robert Taylor (1943). Many consider his portrayal of the jive-loving California National Guardsman Felix Ramirez to be his best early role.\nHe received his draft notice, but before reporting, he injured his knee. He completed his recruit training, but was classified for limited service in the United States Army during World War II. He was assigned to direct United Service Organization (USO) programs at the Birmingham General Army Hospital in the San Fernando Valley. Discovering the first thing the wounded soldiers requested was a glass of cold milk, he arranged for movie starlets to meet them and pour the milk for them.\nHe served 2 years, 7 months and 4 days in the Army as a Staff Sergeant. For his service during World War II, he was awarded the Army Good Conduct Medal, the American Campaign Medal, and the World War II Victory Medal. Following his discharge from the Army on December 1, 1945, he formed another orchestra, which was successful in live appearances and recordings. He sang for troops in Birmingham Hospital with John Macchia and hired his childhood friend Marco Rizo to play piano and arrange for the orchestra.\nFor the 1946\u201347 season, Arnaz was the bandleader, conducting his Desi Arnaz Orchestra, on Bob Hope's radio show (The Pepsodent Show) on NBC.In 1951, Arnaz was given a game show on CBS Radio, Your Tropical Trip  in order to entice Arnaz and Ball to stay at CBS over a competing offer from NBC, and to keep Arnaz and his band employed and in Hollywood, rather than touring. The musical game show, hosted by Arnaz, had audience members competing for a Caribbean vacation and also featured Arnaz's orchestra. The program aired from January 1951 until September, shortly before the premiere of I Love Lucy in October.\nWhen he became successful in television, he kept the orchestra on his payroll, and Rizo arranged and orchestrated the music for I Love Lucy.\n\n\n=== I Love Lucy ===\n\nOn October 15, 1951, Arnaz co-starred in the premiere of I Love Lucy, in which he played a fictionalized version of himself, Cuban orchestra leader Enrique \"Ricky\" Ricardo. His co-star was his real-life wife, Lucille Ball, who played Ricky's wife, Lucy. Television executives had been pursuing Ball to adapt her very popular radio series My Favorite Husband for television. Ball insisted on Arnaz playing her on-air spouse so the two would be able to spend more time together. CBS wanted Ball's Husband co-star Richard Denning.The original premise was for the couple to portray Lucy and Larry Lopez, a successful show business couple whose glamorous careers interfered with their efforts to maintain a normal marriage. Market research indicated, however, that this scenario would not be popular, so Jess Oppenheimer changed it to make Ricky Ricardo a struggling young orchestra leader and Lucy an ordinary housewife who had show business fantasies but no talent. The character name \"Larry Lopez\" was dropped because of a real-life bandleader named Vincent Lopez, and was replaced with \"Ricky Ricardo\". The name was inspired by Henry Richard, a family friend and the brother of P.C. Richard of P.C. Richard & Son. This name translates to Enrique Ricardo. Ricky often appeared at, and later owned, the Tropicana Club, which under his ownership he renamed Club Babalu.Initially, the idea of having Ball and the distinctly Latin American Arnaz portray a married couple encountered resistance as they were told that Desi's Cuban accent and Latin style would not be agreeable to American viewers. The couple overcame these objections, however, by touring together, during the summer of 1950, in a live vaudeville act they developed with the help of Spanish clown Pepito P\u00e9rez, together with Ball's radio show writers. Much of the material from their vaudeville act, including Lucy's memorable seal routine, was used in the pilot episode of I Love Lucy. Segments of the pilot were recreated in the sixth episode of the show's first season.  During his time on the show, Arnaz and Ball became TV's most successful entrepreneurs.\n\n\n=== Desilu Productions ===\n\nWith Ball, Arnaz founded Desilu Productions in 1950, initially to produce the vaudeville-style touring act that led to I Love Lucy. At that time, most television programs were broadcast live, and as the largest markets were in New York, the rest of the country received only kinescope images. Karl Freund, Arnaz's cameraman, and even Arnaz himself have been credited with the development of the multiple-camera setup production style using adjacent sets in front of a live audience that became the standard for subsequent situation comedies. The use of film enabled every station around the country to broadcast high-quality images of the show. Arnaz was told that it would be impossible to allow an audience onto a sound stage, but he worked with Freund to design a set that would accommodate an audience, allow filming, and adhere to fire and safety codes..  Due to the expense of 35mm film, Arnaz and Ball agreed to salary cuts.  In return they retained the rights to the films.  This was the basis for their invention of re-runs and syndicating TV shows (a huge source of new revenue).In addition to I Love Lucy, he executive produced The Ann Sothern Show and Those Whiting Girls (starring Margaret Whiting and Barbara Whiting), and was involved in several other series such as The Untouchables, Whirlybirds, and Sheriff of Cochise / United States Marshal. He also produced the feature film Forever, Darling (1956), in which he and Ball starred. In the late 1950s, Arnaz proposed a Western television series to his then neighbor, Victor Orsatti, who formed a production company, Ror-Vic, in partnership with actor Rory Calhoun. Ror-Vic produced The Texan, which aired on Monday evenings on CBS from 1958 to 1960. Episodes were budgeted at $40,000 each, with two black-and-white segments filmed weekly through Desilu Studios. Despite the name, the series was filmed mostly in Pearl Flats in the Mojave Desert of Southern California. The program could have been renewed for a third season had Calhoun not desired to return to films.The original Desilu company continued long after Arnaz's divorce from Ball and her subsequent marriage to Gary Morton. Desilu produced its own programs and provided facilities to other producers. Desilu produced The Andy Griffith Show, The Dick Van Dyke Show, The Lucy Show, Mission: Impossible, and Star Trek. When Ball sold her share of Desilu to what became Paramount Television, Arnaz went on to form his own production company from his share of Desilu. With the newly formed Desi Arnaz Productions, he made The Mothers-In-Law (at Desilu) for United Artists Television and NBC. This sitcom ran for two seasons from 1967 to 1969. Arnaz's company was succeeded-in-interest by the company now known as Desilu, Too. Desilu, Too and Lucille Ball Productions worked hand-in-hand with MPI Home Video in the home video reissues of the Ball/Arnaz material not owned by CBS (successor-in-interest to Paramount Television, which in turn succeeded the original Desilu company). This material included Here's Lucy and The Mothers-In-Law, as well as many programs and specials Ball and Arnaz made independently of each other.\n\n\n== Personal life ==\n\n\n=== Beliefs ===\nArnaz and Ball decided that the show would maintain what Arnaz termed \"basic good taste\" and were therefore determined to avoid ethnic jokes, as well as humor based on physical handicaps or mental disabilities. Arnaz recalled that the only exception consisted of making fun of Ricky Ricardo's accent; even these jokes worked only when Lucy, as his wife, did the mimicking.Arnaz was deeply patriotic about the United States. In his memoirs, he wrote that he knew of no other country in the world where \"a sixteen-year-old kid, broke and unable to speak the language\" could achieve the successes that he had.\n\n\n=== Marriages ===\n\nArnaz and Lucille Ball were married on November 30, 1940. Their marriage was always turbulent. Convinced that Arnaz was being unfaithful to her and also because he came home drunk several times, Ball filed for divorce in September 1944, but returned to him before the interlocutory decree became final. Arnaz and Ball subsequently had two children, actors Lucie Arnaz (born 1951) and Desi Arnaz Jr. (born 1953).\nArnaz's marriage with Ball began to collapse under the strain of his growing problems with alcohol and infidelity. According to his memoir, the combined pressures of managing the production company, as well as supervising its day-to-day operations, had greatly worsened as it grew much larger, and he felt compelled to seek outlets to alleviate the stress. Arnaz was also suffering from diverticulitis. Ball divorced him in 1960. When Ball returned to weekly television, she and Arnaz worked out an agreement regarding Desilu, wherein she bought him out.Arnaz married his second wife, Edith Eyre Hirsch (n\u00e9e McSkimming), on March 2, 1963, and greatly reduced his show business activities. He served as executive producer of The Mothers-in-Law, and during its two-year run, made four guest appearances as a Spanish matador, Se\u00f1or Delgado. Edith died in 1985, aged 67, from cancer.\nAlthough Arnaz and Ball both married other spouses after their divorce in 1960, they remained friends and grew closer in his final decade. \"I Love Lucy was never just a title\", wrote Arnaz in the last years of his life. Family home video later aired on television showed Ball and Arnaz playing together with their grandson Simon shortly before Arnaz's death.\n\n\n== Later life ==\n\nIn the 1970s, Arnaz co-hosted a week of shows with daytime host and producer Mike Douglas. Vivian Vance appeared as a guest. Arnaz also headlined a Kraft Music Hall special on NBC that featured his two children, with a brief appearance by Vance. To promote his autobiography, A Book, on February 21, 1976, Arnaz served as a guest host on Saturday Night Live, with his son, Desi, Jr., also appearing. The program contained spoofs of I Love Lucy and The Untouchables. The spoofs of I Love Lucy were supposed to be earlier concepts of the show that never made it on the air, such as \"I Love Louie\", where Desi lived with Louis Armstrong. He read Lewis Carroll's poem \"Jabberwocky\" in a heavy Cuban accent (he pronounced it \"Habberwocky\"). Desi Jr., played the drums and, supported by the SNL band, Desi sang both \"Babal\u00fa\" and another favorite from his dance band days, \"Cuban Pete\"; the arrangements were similar to the ones used on I Love Lucy. He ended the broadcast by leading the entire cast in a raucous conga line through the SNL studio.Desi Arnaz contributed to charitable and nonprofit organizations, including San Diego State University. He also taught classes at San Diego State in studio production and acting for television. Arnaz made a guest appearance on the TV series Alice, starring Linda Lavin and produced by I Love Lucy co-creators Madelyn Pugh (Madelyn Davis) and Bob Carroll, Jr.\n\n\n== Thoroughbred racing ==\nArnaz and his wife eventually moved to Del Mar, California where he lived the rest of his life in semi-retirement. He owned a horse-breeding farm in Corona, California and raced Thoroughbreds. The Desi Arnaz Stakes at Del Mar Racetrack is named in his honor.\n\n\n== Death ==\nArnaz was a regular smoker for much of his life and often smoked cigarettes on the set of I Love Lucy. He smoked Cuban cigars until he was in his sixties. Arnaz was diagnosed with lung cancer in 1986, and died several months later on December 2, 1986, at the age of 69. Arnaz was cremated and his ashes scattered. His death came just five days before Lucille Ball received the Kennedy Center Honors. He was predeceased by his second wife, Edith, who had died a year earlier on March 23, 1985. His mother outlived him by almost two years.\n\n\n== Legacy ==\nDesi Arnaz has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame: one at 6301 Hollywood Boulevard for contributions to motion pictures and one at 6250 Hollywood Boulevard for television. Unlike his co-stars, Arnaz was never nominated for an Emmy for his performance in I Love Lucy. In 1956, he won a Golden Globe for Best Television Achievement for helping to shape the American Comedy through  his contributions in front of and behind the camera of I Love Lucy. He was inducted into the Television Academy's Hall of Fame.The Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Center museum is in Jamestown, New York, and the Desi Arnaz Bandshell in the Lucille Ball Memorial Park is in Celoron, New York.\nDesi Arnaz appears as a character in Oscar Hijuelos's 1989 novel The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love and is portrayed by his son, Desi Arnaz Jr., in the 1992 film adaptation, The Mambo Kings.Arnaz was portrayed by Oscar Nu\u00f1ez in I Love Lucy: A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Sitcom, a comedy about how Arnaz and Ball battled to get their sitcom on the air. It had its world premiere in Los Angeles on July 12, 2018, co-starring Sarah Drew as Lucille Ball and Seamus Dever as I Love Lucy creator-producer-head writer Jess Oppenheimer. The play, written by Jess Oppenheimer's son, Gregg Oppenheimer, was recorded in front of a live audience for nationwide public radio broadcast and online distribution.On March 2, 2019, Google celebrated what would have been Arnaz's 102nd birthday with a Google doodle.Being the Ricardos, a biographical film written and directed by Aaron Sorkin and produced by Amazon Studios, is slated to be released in 2021 starring Javier Bardem as Arnaz alongside Nicole Kidman as Ball. Deadline described the film as: \"set during one production week of I Love Lucy \u2014 Monday table read through Friday audience filming\u2014 when Lucy and Desi face a crisis that could end their careers and another that could end their marriage.\"\n\n\n== Filmography ==\n\n\n=== Soundtracks ===\n1940: Too Many Girls  (performer: \"Spic 'n' Spanish\", \"You're Nearer\", \"Conga\") (\"'Cause We Got Cake\")\n1941: Father Takes a Wife  (\"Perfidia\" (1939), \"Mi amor\" (1941))\n1942: Four Jacks and a Jill  (\"Boogie Woogie Conga\" 1941))\n1946: Desi Arnaz and His Orchestra  (performer: \"Guadalajara\", \"Babalu (Babal\u00fa)\", \"Tabu (Tab\u00fa)\", \"Pin Marin\") ... a.k.a. \"Melody Masters: Desi Arnaz and His Orchestra\" \u2013 USA (series title)\n1949: Holiday in Havana  (writer: \"Holiday In Havana\", \"The Arnaz Jam\")\n1956: Forever, Darling  (performer: \"Forever, Darling\" (reprise))\n1952: I Love Lucy (3 episodes, 1952\u20131956) ... a.k.a. \"Lucy in Connecticut\" \u2013 USA (rerun title) ... a.k.a. \"The Sunday Lucy Show\" \u2013 USA (rerun title) ... a.k.a. \"The Top Ten Lucy Show\" \u2013 USA (rerun title) \u2013 Lucy and Bob Hope (1956) TV episode (performer: \"Nobody Loves the Ump\" (uncredited)) \u2013 Ricky's European Booking (1955) TV episode (performer: \"Forever, Darling\" (uncredited)) \u2013 Cuban Pals (1952) TV episode (performer: \"The Lady in Red\", \"Similau\")\n1958: The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour (1 episode, 1958) ... a.k.a. \"We Love Lucy\" \u2013 USA (syndication title) \u2013 Lucy Wins a Race Horse (1958) TV episode (performer: \"The Bayamo\")\n2001: I Love Lucy's 50th Anniversary Special (TV) (performer: \"California, Here I Come\", \"Babalu (Babal\u00fa)\") ... a.k.a. \"The I Love Lucy 50th Anniversary Special\" \u2013 USA (DVD title)\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nArnaz, Desi. A Book. New York: William Morrow, 1976; ISBN 0688003427 (autobiography to 1960)\nSanders, Coyne Steven, and Thomas W. Gilbert. Desilu: The Story of Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz. New York: Morrow, 1993; ISBN 9780688112172 (revised edition 2011 ISBN 9780062020017) (full dual biography focusing prominently on business affairs of Desilu Productions)\nBrady, Kathleen. Lucille The Life of Lucille Ball (1994), New York: Hyperion; ISBN 0-7868-6007-3\nP\u00e9rez Firmat, Gustavo. \"The Man Who Loved Lucy,\" in Life on the Hyphen: The Cuban-American Way. Austin: The University of Texas Press, 1994. Rpt. 1996, 1999. Revised and expanded edition, 2012.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nList of Cuban Americans\nList of actors with Hollywood Walk of Fame motion picture stars\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nDesi Arnaz at IMDb\nDesi Arnaz at the TCM Movie Database\nDesi Arnaz at the Internet Broadway Database \nDesi Arnaz at Find a Grave\nDesi Arnaz at AllMovie\nGuide to the Desi Arnaz Papers 1947\u20131976 Special Collections and University Archives, Library and Information Access, San Diego State University\nLucille Ball and Desi Arnaz Papers, 1915-1990 at the Library of Congress\n\"Arnaz, Desi \u2013 U.S. Actor/Media Executive\" at the Museum of Broadcast Communications\nDesi Arnaz from the Federal Bureau of Investigation Vault", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Desi_Arnaz_1950.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Desi_arnaz_sr_and_jr_1974.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Heinkel_He_111_during_the_Battle_of_Britain.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Lucille_Ball_and_Desi_Arnaz.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Lucille_Ball_and_Desi_Arnaz_1955.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Lucy_desi_1957.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/P_vip.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg"], "summary": "Desiderio Alberto Arnaz y de Acha III (March 2, 1917 \u2013 December 2, 1986), better known as Desi Arnaz,  was a Cuban-American actor, musician, bandleader, comedian and film and television producer, revolutionary in the creation of modern television. He is best known for his role as the witty Ricky Ricardo on the American television sitcom I Love Lucy, in which he co-starred with his then-wife Lucille Ball. Arnaz and Ball are generally credited as the innovators of the syndicated rerun, which they pioneered with the I Love Lucy series.Arnaz and Lucille Ball co-founded and ran the television production company called Desilu Productions, originally to market I Love Lucy to television networks. After I Love Lucy ended, Arnaz went on to produce several other television series, at first with Desilu Productions, and later independently, including The Ann Sothern Show and The Untouchables. He was also renowned for leading his Latin music band, the Desi Arnaz Orchestra."}, "Technirama": {"links": ["Pan and scan", "Film format", "The Music Man ", "Anamorphic format", "Super Panavision", "17.fivemm film", "Walt Disney Productions", "Fullscreen ", "Shoot and protect", "IMAX", "Kinopanorama", "VistaVision", "Pillarbox", "twenty-eight mm film", "Film grain", "Anamorphic", "Windowbox ", "Super Technirama seventy", "Technicolor", "seventy mm film", "List of film formats", "Anamorphic widescreen", "Cinemiracle", "sixteen mm film", "List of Technirama films", "nine.5 mm film", "Todd-AO", "Aspect ratio ", "14:nine", "9.five mm film", "Sleeping Beauty ", "Ultra Panavision seventy", "Super thirty-five", "fourteen:9", "Academy ratio", "Open matte", "seventeen.5mm film", "Film gauge", "Letterboxing ", "Techniscope", "Cinerama", "Widescreen", "eight mm film", "thirty-five mm movie film", "United States", "Super Panavision seventy", "The Black Cauldron ", "CinemaScope", "The Vikings "], "content": "Technirama is a screen process that has been used by some film production houses as an alternative to CinemaScope. It was first used in 1957 but fell into disuse in the mid-1960s. The process was invented by Technicolor and is an anamorphic process with a screen ratio the same as revised CinemaScope (2.35:1) (which became the standard), but it is actually 2.25:1 on the negative.\n\n\n== Technical ==\nThe Technirama process used a film frame area twice as large as CinemaScope. This gave the former a sharper image with less photographic grain. Cameras used 35-mm film running horizontally with an 8-perforation frame, double the normal size, exactly the same as VistaVision. VistaVision cameras were sometimes adapted. Technirama used 1.5:1 anamorphic curved mirror optics in front of the camera lens (unlike CinemaScope's cylindrical lenses which squeezed the image in a 1:2 ratio). In the laboratory, the 8-perforation horizontal negative would be reduced optically, incorporating a 1.33:1 horizontal squeeze to create normal 4-perforation (vertically running) prints with images having an anamorphic ratio of 2:1.\nJust as VistaVision had a few flagship engagements using 8-perf horizontal contact prints and special horizontal-running projectors, there is a bit of evidence that horizontal prints were envisioned for Technirama as well (probably with 4-track magnetic sound as in CinemaScope), but to what extent this was ever done commercially, if at all, remains unclear.\nThe name Super Technirama 70 was used on films where the shooting was done in Technirama and at least some prints were made on 70-mm stock by unsqueezing the image.  Such prints would be compatible with those made by such 65-mm negative processes as Todd-AO and Super Panavision.  The quality would have been very good but perhaps a bit less than those processes, because the negative was not quite as large and needed to be printed optically.\nTechnicolor had roughly 12 of its Three-Strip cameras converted into VistaVision cameras, using camera movements supplied by Mitchell Camera Corporation, the 1932 supplier of the original Three-Strip camera movements. After the 1956 delivery by Mitchell Camera Corporation, the converted Technicolor Three-Strip cameras immediately became obsolete, and were surplus to Technicolor's operations.  These converted Three-Strip VistaVision cameras thereafter became the standard Technirama cameras, which were subsequently supplemented by a few Paramount hand-held VistaVision cameras fitted with anamorphic optics. The logistical advantage of using 35mm film, end-to-end, should not be underestimated.\nA few 8-perf titles have been preserved on 65mm film, but most have been preserved on 35mm film or are considered unprintable.\nThe color was enhanced through the use of a special development process that was used to good effect in films such as The Vikings (1958) and The Music Man (1962). However, fewer than 40 films were produced using this process in the United States. It was more popular and longer-lasting in Europe. Walt Disney Productions used the process twice for full-length animated features: Sleeping Beauty (1959), and The Black Cauldron (1985). The 2008 DVD and Blu-ray Disc release of Walt Disney's Sleeping Beauty was shown at an aspect-ratio of 2.55:1 for the first time.\n\n\n== Specifications ==\nFilm: 35 mm running horizontally using eight perforations at 24 frames per second.\nFilm area: 1.496\" (38 mm) \u00d7 0.992\" (25.2 mm).\nAnamorphic power: 1.5\nAspect ratio: 2.35:1 (Prints) 2.25:1 (Negative)\n\n\n== Films ==\nSee List of Technirama films.\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of film formats\nSuper Technirama 70\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nWidescreen museum Technirama page.\nThe Technirama Process - Technicolor 100 Explanation of the format by the George Eastman Museum", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Technirama_8_perf_35_mm_film.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg"], "summary": "Technirama is a screen process that has been used by some film production houses as an alternative to CinemaScope. It was first used in 1957 but fell into disuse in the mid-1960s. The process was invented by Technicolor and is an anamorphic process with a screen ratio the same as revised CinemaScope (2.35:1) (which became the standard), but it is actually 2.25:1 on the negative."}, "Anamorphic_widescreen": {"links": ["14:nine", "SDTV", "ITU-R", "Cinemiracle", "eight mm film", "Pillarbox", "MPEG-two", "TV set", "Monty Python and the Holy Grail", "Widescreen", "Pan-and-scan", "ATSC tuner", "twenty-eight mm film", "ITV ", "Progressive scan", "TV channel", "Shoot and protect", "nine.5 mm film", "Aspect ratio ", "Safe area ", "Pan and scan", "Anamorphic format", "BBC Two", "Standard Definition", "Interlaced scanning", "Cinerama", "Rec. six oh-one", "seventy mm film", "Windowbox ", "four eightyi", "Stretch-o-Vision", "Super Panavision seventy", "Computer monitor", "Pixel aspect ratio", "Remote control", "Technirama", "9.five mm film", "Nominal analogue blanking", "Super thirty-five", "List of film formats", "Todd-AO", "Channel four", "Techniscope", "Film format", "Academy ratio", "fourteen:9", "Kinopanorama", "Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers", "Letterboxed", "Film gauge", "17.fivemm film", "Set-top box", "TV network", "BBC One", "The Walt Disney Company", "Ultra Panavision seventy", "Terrestrial TV", "Multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding", "Matte ", "TV station", "HDTV", "Concave lens", "Digital television", "Overscan", "DVD", "Letterboxing ", "Serial digital interface", "CinemaScope", "Windowboxing", "Open matte", "Blu-ray Disc", "sixteen mm film", "PALplus", "Convex lens", "SCART", "SMPTE", "Digital television broadcasting", "five seventy-sixi", "Video", "Active Format Description", "Fullscreen ", "VistaVision", "thirty-five mm movie film", "Star Wars ", "Anamorphosis", "D-one ", "IMAX", "Channel five ", "Letterbox ", "seventeen.5mm film"], "content": "Anamorphic widescreen (also called Full height anamorphic or FHA) is a process by which a comparatively wide widescreen image is horizontally compressed to fit into a storage medium (photographic film or MPEG-2 Standard Definition frame, for example) with a narrower aspect ratio, reducing the horizontal resolution of the image while keeping its full original vertical resolution. Compatible play-back equipment (a projector with modified lens, or a digital video player or set-top box) can then expand the horizontal dimension to show the original widescreen image. This is typically used to allow one to store widescreen images on a medium that was originally intended for a narrower ratio, while using as much of the frame \u2013 and therefore recording as much detail \u2013 as possible.The technique comes from cinema, when a film would be framed and recorded as widescreen but the picture would be \"squashed together\" using a special concave lens to fit into non-widescreen 1.37:1 aspect ratio film. This film can then be printed and manipulated like any other 1.37:1 film stock, although the images on it will appear to be squashed horizontally (or elongated vertically). An anamorphic lens on the projector in the cinema (a convex lens) corrects the picture by performing the opposite distortion, returning it to its original width and its widescreen aspect ratio.\nThe optical scaling of the lens to a film medium is considered more desirable than the digital counterpart, due to the amount of non-proportional pixel-decimated scaling that is applied to the width of an image to achieve (something of a misnomer) a so-called \"rectangular\" pixel widescreen image. The legacy ITU-R Rec. 601 4:3 image size is used for its compatibility with the original video bandwidth that was available for professional video devices that used fixed clock rates of a SMPTE 259M serial digital interface. One would produce a higher-quality upscaled 16:9 widescreen image by using either a 1:1 SD progressive frame size of 640\u00d7360 or for ITU-R Rec. 601 and SMPTE 259M compatibility a letterboxed frame size of 480i or 576i. Similar operations are performed electronically to allow widescreen material to be stored on formats or broadcast on systems that assume a non-widescreen aspect ratio, such as DVD or standard definition digital television broadcasting.\n\n\n== Film ==\n\nMany commercial films (especially epics \u2013 usually with the CinemaScope 2.35:1 optical sound or the older 4-track mag sound 2.55:1 aspect ratio) are recorded on standard 35 mm ~4:3 aspect ratio film[1], using an anamorphic lens to horizontally compress all footage into a ~4:3 frame.  Another anamorphic lens on the movie theatre projector corrects (optically decompresses) the picture (see anamorphic format for details).  Other movies (often with aspect ratios of 1.85:1 in the USA or 1.66:1 in Europe) are made using the simpler matte technique, which involves both filming and projecting without any expensive special lenses.  The movie is produced in 1.375 format, and then the resulting image is simply cropped in post-production (or perhaps in the theater's projector) to fit the desired aspect ratio of 1.85:1 or 1.66:1 or whatever is desired.  Besides costing less, the main advantage of the matte technique is that it leaves the studio with \"real\" footage (the areas that are cropped for the theatrical release) which can be used in preference to pan-and-scan when producing 4:3 DVD releases, for example.\nThe anamorphic encoding on DVD is related to the anamorphic filming technique (like CinemaScope) only by name.  For instance, Star Wars (1977) was filmed in 2.39:1 ratio using an anamorphic camera lens, and shown in theaters using the corresponding projector lens.  Since it is a widescreen film, when encoded on a widescreen-format DVD the studio would almost certainly use the anamorphic encoding process.  Monty Python and the Holy Grail was filmed in  1.85:1 ratio without using an anamorphic lens on the camera, and similarly was shown in theaters without the need for the decompression lens. However, since it is also a widescreen film, when encoded on a widescreen-format DVD the studio would probably use the anamorphic encoding process.\nIt does not matter whether the filming was done using the anamorphic lens technique: as long as the source footage is intended to be widescreen, the digital anamorphic encoding procedure is appropriate for the DVD release.  As a sidenote, if a purely non-widescreen version of the analog-anamorphic Star Wars were to be released on DVD, the only options would be pan-and-scan or hardcoded 4:3 letterboxing (with the black letterboxes actually encoded as part of the DVD data).   If you were to release a purely non-widescreen version of Monty Python, you would have those options, as well as the additional option of an \"open-matte\" release, where the film footage that was never visible in theaters (due to use of the matte technique in post-production or in the theatrical projectors) is \"restored\" to the purely non-widescreen DVD release.\n\n\n== Laserdisc ==\nWhile not anamorphic widescreen per se, many of the earliest Laserdisc offerings forewent the pan-and-scan cropping typical of home releases at the time, the mastering-technicians opting instead to simply squeeze the film's original aspect ratio down to 4:3. While this resulted in an image that was overly compressed on standard televisions, many later HDTVs can stretch out this picture, thus restoring the correct aspect ratio.\nLater during the 1990s, a handful of Laserdiscs were released with proper anamorphic transfers. Four were released in the US as promotional items with Toshiba 16:9 TV sets (Unforgiven, Free Willy, The Fugitive, Grumpy Old Men), 12 were released commercially in Japan (marketed as SQUEEZE LD) as derived products from the MUSE/Hi-Vision releases. Three were commercially released in Germany PAL+ format (Schlafes Bruder, Showgirls, Mikrokosmos).\nVideo was stretched vertically to fill the whole 4:3 picture of a Laserdisc (and add more information where black bars would be at the top and bottom) then either un-squeezed horizontally on a 16:9 TV set or using an anamorphic lens on a 4:3 video projector.\n\n\n== DVD Video ==\nA DVD labeled as \"Widescreen Anamorphic\" contains video that has the same frame size in pixels as traditional fullscreen video, but uses wider pixels. The shape of the pixels is called pixel aspect ratio and is encoded in the video stream for a DVD player to correctly identify the proportions of the video. If an anamorphic DVD video is played on standard 4:3 television without adjustment, the image will look horizontally squeezed.\n\n\n=== Packaging ===\n\nAlthough currently there is no labeling standard, DVDs with content originally produced in an aspect ratio wider than 1.33:1 are typically labeled \"Anamorphic Widescreen\", \"Enhanced for 16:9 televisions\", \"Enhanced for widescreen televisions\", or similar.  If not so labeled, the DVD is intended for a 4:3 display (\"fullscreen\"), and will be letterboxed or panned and scanned.\nThere has been no clear standardization for companies to follow regarding the advertisement of anamorphically enhanced widescreen DVDs. Some companies, such as Universal and Disney, include the aspect ratio of the movie.\n\n\n== Blu-ray video ==\nUnlike DVD, Blu-ray supports SMPTE HD resolutions of 720p and 1080i/p with a display aspect ratio of 16:9 and a pixel aspect ratio of 1:1, so widescreen video is scaled non-anamorphically (this is referred to as \"square\" pixels).\nBlu-ray also supports anamorphic wide-screen, both at the DVD-Video/D-1 resolutions of 720\u00d7480 (NTSC) and 720\u00d7576 (PAL), and at the higher resolution of 1440\u00d71080 (source aspect ratio of 4:3, hence a pixel aspect ratio of 4:3 = 16:9 / 4:3 when used as anamorphic 16:9). See Blu-ray Disc: Technical specifications for details.\n\n\n== Television ==\nMajor digital television channels in Europe (for example, the five major UK terrestrial TV channels of BBC One, BBC Two, ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5), as well as Australia, carry anamorphic widescreen programming in standard definition. In almost all cases, 4:3 programming is also transmitted on the same channel. The SCART switching signal can be used by a set-top-box to signal the television which kind of programming (4:3 or anamorphic) is currently being received, so that the television can change modes appropriately. The user can often elect to display widescreen programming in a 4:3 letterbox format instead of pan and scan if they do not have a widescreen television.\nTV stations and TV networks can also include Active Format Description (AFD) just as DVDs can.  Many ATSC tuners (integrated or set-top box) can be set to respond to this, or to apply a user setting.  This can sometimes be set on a per-channel basis, and often on a per-input basis, and usually easily with a button on the remote control.  Unfortunately, tuners often fail to allow this on SDTV (480i-mode) channels, so that viewers are forced to view a small picture instead of cropping the unnecessary sides (which are outside of the safe area anyhow), or zooming to eliminate the windowboxing that may be causing a very tiny picture, or stretching/compressing to eliminate other format-conversion errors.  The shrunken pictures are especially troublesome for smaller TV sets.\nMany modern HDTV sets have the capability to detect black areas in any video signal, and to smoothly re-scale the picture independently in both directions (horizontal and vertical) so that it fills the screen.  However, some sets are 16:10 (1.6:1) like some computer monitors, and will not crop the left and right edges of the picture, meaning that all programming looks slightly (though usually imperceptibly) tall and thin.\nATSC allows two anamorphic widescreen SDTV formats (interlaced and progressive scan) which are 704\u00d7480 (10% wider than 640\u00d7480); this is narrower than the 720\u00d7480 of DVD due to 16 pixels being consumed by overscan (nominal analogue blanking) \u2013 see overscan: analog to digital resolution issues. The format can also be used for fullscreen programming, and in this case it is anamorphic with pixels slightly taller (10:11, or 0.91:1) than their width.\n\n\n== See also ==\nAnamorphosis\nAspect ratio\nLetterbox\nPan and scan\nShoot and protect\n\n\n== Notes ==\n1. ^ The standard 1932 Academy ratio changed the true aspect ratio of the image data to 1.375 when they made space for audio tracks, however, this is close enough to 4:3 that the difference is often glossed over.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nAnamorphic vs. Non-Anamorphic DVD\nAnamorphic Laserdiscs released in the USA\nAnamorphic Laserdisc released in Japan\nPAL+ Laserdiscs released in Germany", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/MGM-Pkg.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Univ-Pkg.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg"], "summary": "Anamorphic widescreen (also called Full height anamorphic or FHA) is a process by which a comparatively wide widescreen image is horizontally compressed to fit into a storage medium (photographic film or MPEG-2 Standard Definition frame, for example) with a narrower aspect ratio, reducing the horizontal resolution of the image while keeping its full original vertical resolution. Compatible play-back equipment (a projector with modified lens, or a digital video player or set-top box) can then expand the horizontal dimension to show the original widescreen image. This is typically used to allow one to store widescreen images on a medium that was originally intended for a narrower ratio, while using as much of the frame \u2013 and therefore recording as much detail \u2013 as possible.The technique comes from cinema, when a film would be framed and recorded as widescreen but the picture would be \"squashed together\" using a special concave lens to fit into non-widescreen 1.37:1 aspect ratio film. This film can then be printed and manipulated like any other 1.37:1 film stock, although the images on it will appear to be squashed horizontally (or elongated vertically). An anamorphic lens on the projector in the cinema (a convex lens) corrects the picture by performing the opposite distortion, returning it to its original width and its widescreen aspect ratio.\nThe optical scaling of the lens to a film medium is considered more desirable than the digital counterpart, due to the amount of non-proportional pixel-decimated scaling that is applied to the width of an image to achieve (something of a misnomer) a so-called \"rectangular\" pixel widescreen image. The legacy ITU-R Rec. 601 4:3 image size is used for its compatibility with the original video bandwidth that was available for professional video devices that used fixed clock rates of a SMPTE 259M serial digital interface. One would produce a higher-quality upscaled 16:9 widescreen image by using either a 1:1 SD progressive frame size of 640\u00d7360 or for ITU-R Rec. 601 and SMPTE 259M compatibility a letterboxed frame size of 480i or 576i. Similar operations are performed electronically to allow widescreen material to be stored on formats or broadcast on systems that assume a non-widescreen aspect ratio, such as DVD or standard definition digital television broadcasting."}, "Open_matte": {"links": ["Animal House", "Pillarbox", "CinemaScope", "The Blues Brothers ", "Zack Snyder's Justice League", "Home video", "Ultra Panavision seventy", "Cinerama", "Full screen ", "Aspect ratio ", "Film gauge", "Negative pulldown", "VistaVision", "Anamorphic widescreen", "Stanley Kubrick", "Top Gun", "The Shining ", "Full frame ", "14:nine", "eight mm film", "thirty-five mm movie film", "Frame line", "Titanic ", "Roger Donaldson", "seventeen.5mm film", "17.fivemm film", "Married print", "Academy ratio", "Todd-AO", "The Recruit", "Schindler's List", "twenty-eight mm film", "Super Panavision seventy", "Technirama", "Fullscreen ", "Widescreen", "sixteen mm film", "fourteen:9", "Avatar ", "Letterboxing ", "Shoot and protect", "IMAX", "Microphone", "Sam Raimi", "4:three", "Film format", "Camera operator", "Back to the Future ", "List of film formats", "Jurassic Park ", "Kinopanorama", "Matte ", "Spider-Man ", "Movie projector", "four:3", "Eyes Wide Shut", "Cinemiracle", "Windowbox ", "9.five mm film", "Cropping ", "nine.5 mm film", "Pan and scan", "seventy mm film", "Anamorphic format", "Super thirty-five", "Terminator two: Judgment Day", "Techniscope", "Anamorphic", "Full Metal Jacket", "High-definition television", "Blu-ray threeD"], "content": "Open matte is a filming technique that involves matting out the top and bottom of the film frame in the movie projector (known as a soft matte) for the widescreen theatrical release and then scanning the film without a matte (at Academy ratio) for a full screen home video release.\nOpen matte can be used with non-anamorphic films presented in 2.20:1 or 2.39:1, but it isn't used as often, mainly because it adds too much additional headroom, depending upon how well the framing was protected or if the director chooses to create a certain visual aesthetic. Instead, those films will employ either pan and scan or reframing using either the well-protected areas or the areas of interest. Films shot anamorphically use the entire 35 mm frame (except for the soundtrack area), so they must use pan and scan as a result.\n\n\n== History ==\nThe rise of new film exhibition technologies in 1950s like Cinerama and anamorphic lenses, led to shooting wide aspect ratios for theatrical films. This coincided with the rise of television and home media with a much different, narrow aspect ratio of 4:3. To avoid letterboxing for broadcast releases, films were therefore reframed and cropped shot by shot to fit appropriately the full screen with the 4:3 aspect, with a process called pan and scan. Hence, only a cropped small portion of the theatrical frame was broadcast.\nMany films over the years have used the open matte technique for home video releases and television broadcasts, the most prominent of which include the Back to the Future trilogy, the Jurassic Park trilogy, Schindler's List, Titanic, Top Gun, National Lampoon's Animal House, and The Blues Brothers, as well as many films that have been specially formatted for the IMAX expanded aspect ratio of 1.90:1 and 1.43:1. Stanley Kubrick also used this technique for his last three films The Shining (1980), Full Metal Jacket (1987) and Eyes Wide Shut (1999). Sam Raimi's Spider-Man (2002), James Cameron's Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), Roger Donaldson's The Recruit (2003), and Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) are also examples of open matte.\n\n\n== Difference between open matte and pan and scan ==\nPan and scan deals with only the 2.39:1 master of a film. For HDTV, the film is panned and scanned to a portion of a frame, usually in accordance to the most important details in a shot. Open matte involves opening up the top and bottom of a frame to show more information, which is usually done with non-anamorphic films with a wide 2.39:1 aspect ratio to fill a 16:9 display for HDTV broadcasts. Additionally, filmmakers may choose to open up the frame for a film's home video release, such as with James Cameron's Avatar and the Blu-ray 3D release of Titanic.\nIf footage with taller ratios were shot (digitally or on film), for example IMAX scenes for various films, then the screen area is cropped in accordance to the deliverable ratio. This helps in preserving headroom and composition for the film beyond the theatrical release.\n\n\n== Usage ==\nUsually, non-anamorphic 4-perf films are filmed directly on the entire full frame silent aperture gate (1.33:1). When a married print is created, this frame is slightly re-cropped by the frame line and optical soundtrack down to Academy ratio (1.37:1). The movie projector then uses an aperture mask to soft matte the Academy frame to the intended aspect ratio (1.85:1 or 1.66:1). When the 4:3 full-screen video master is created, many filmmakers may prefer to use the full Academy frame (\"open matte\") instead of creating a pan and scan version from within the 1.85 framing. Because the framing is increased vertically in the open matte process, the decision to use it needs to be made prior to shooting, so that the camera operator can frame for 1.85:1 and \"protect\" for 4:3; otherwise unintended objects such as boom microphones, cables, and light stands may appear in the open matte frame, thus requiring some amount of pan and scan in some or all scenes. Additionally, the un-matted 4:3 version may often throw off an otherwise tightly framed shot and add an inordinate amount of headroom above actors (particularly with 1.85:1), depending upon how well the framing was protected or if the director chooses to create a certain visual aesthetic.  With high-definition television now in common usage (with its standardized 16:9 (1.78:1) aspect ratio), the need to reformat 1.85:1 movies for television viewing has virtually evaporated, although television broadcasts still reformat 2.39:1 movies by means of using open matte or pan and scan. For films with wider aspect ratios (2.39:1, for example) the matting bars will appear on the top and bottom of the screen of the broadcast image, thus preserving each director's framing intent.\n\n\n== See also ==\nShoot and protect\nAspect ratio (image)", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/82/Open_matte_film_illustration.jpg"], "summary": "Open matte is a filming technique that involves matting out the top and bottom of the film frame in the movie projector (known as a soft matte) for the widescreen theatrical release and then scanning the film without a matte (at Academy ratio) for a full screen home video release.\nOpen matte can be used with non-anamorphic films presented in 2.20:1 or 2.39:1, but it isn't used as often, mainly because it adds too much additional headroom, depending upon how well the framing was protected or if the director chooses to create a certain visual aesthetic. Instead, those films will employ either pan and scan or reframing using either the well-protected areas or the areas of interest. Films shot anamorphically use the entire 35 mm frame (except for the soundtrack area), so they must use pan and scan as a result."}, "eight_mm_film": {"links": ["seventeen.5mm film", "Bell & Howell", "Cinemiracle", "Fujifilm", "thirty-five mm movie film", "VistaVision", "eightmm ", "Home movies", "Eastman Kodak", "Single-eight", "List of silent films released on eight mm or Super eight mm film", "IMAX", "seventy mm film", "twenty-eight mm film", "Svema", "Kodak", "Film gate", "Super thirty-five", "17.fivemm film", "Shoot and protect", "Film format", "Filmo", "List of film formats", "Pan and scan", "Open matte", "Nazi Germany", "Agfa Movex eight", "Pillarbox", "Jacques Bogopolsky", "fourteen:9", "Fullscreen ", "Soviet Union", "Windowbox ", "Aspect ratio ", "sixteen mm film", "Kazan Optical-Mechanical Plant", "Letterboxing ", "Cinerama", "Standard eight mm film", "Techniscope", "Universum ", "Ultra Panavision seventy", "Japan", "Anamorphic format", "Academy ratio", "9.five mm film", "Widescreen", "14:nine", "CinemaScope", "Cine film", "Anamorphic widescreen", "nine.5 mm film", "Great Depression", "Zapruder film", "Todd-AO", "Kinopanorama", "Super Panavision seventy", "eight mm ", "Super eight film", "Film gauge", "Technirama", "Film formats"], "content": "8 mm film is a motion picture film format in which the film strip is eight millimeters wide. It exists in two main versions \u2013 the original standard 8 mm film, also known as regular 8 mm, and Super 8. Although both standard 8 mm and Super 8 are 8 mm wide, Super 8 has a larger image area because of its smaller and more widely spaced perforations.\nThere are also two other varieties of Super 8 \u2013 Single 8 mm and Straight-8 \u2013 that require different cameras, but produce a final film with the same dimensions.\n\n\n== Standard 8 ==\n\nThe standard 8 mm (also known as regular 8) film format was developed by the Eastman Kodak company during the Great Depression and released to the market in 1932 to create a home movie format that was less expensive than 16 mm.\nDouble 8 spools actually contain a 16 mm film with twice as many perforations along each edge as normal 16 mm film; on its first pass through the camera, the film is exposed only along half of its width. When the first pass is complete, the operator opens the camera and flips and swaps the spools (the design of the spool hole ensures that the operator does this properly) and the same film is subsequently exposed along its other edge, the edge left unexposed on the first pass. After the film is developed, the processor splits it down the middle, resulting in two lengths of 8 mm film, each with a single row of perforations along one edge.  Each frame is half the width and half the height of a 16 mm frame, so there are four times the number of frames in a given film area, which is what makes it cost less. Because of the two passes of the film, the format was sometimes called Double 8. The frame size of regular 8 mm is 4.8 mm \u00d7 3.5 mm and 1 meter of film contains 264 pictures. Normally Double 8 is filmed at 16 or 18 frames per second.\nCommon length film spools allowed filming of about 3 to 4+1\u20442 minutes at 12, 15, 16 and 18 frames per second.\n\nKodak ceased sales of standard 8 mm film under its own brand in the early 1990s, but continued to manufacture the film, which was sold via independent film stores. Black-and-white 8 mm film is still manufactured in the Czech Republic, and several companies buy bulk quantities of 16 mm film to make regular 8 mm by re-perforating the stock, cutting it into 25 foot (7.6 m) lengths, and collecting it into special standard 8 mm spools, which they then sell. Re-perforation requires special equipment. Some specialists also produce Super 8 mm film from existing 16 mm, or even 35 mm film stock.\n\n\n=== Sound ===\nWhen Eastman Kodak first conceived the 8 mm format, no provision was made for the addition of a sound track. Nevertheless, in the 1960s, projectors appeared on the market that were capable of recording and replaying sound from a magnetic stripe applied to the film after it had been processed. The only part of the film wide enough to accept such a magnetic stripe was the area between the edge and the perforations. A much narrower stripe was sometimes added to the opposite edge so that the film piled up evenly on the spool, but was never used for sound.  The sound to picture separation was the same dimensionally as 16 mm film and as that format is 28 frames, that meant that the Double-8 system was 56 frames. The proximity of the sound stripe to the perforations caused some problems in keeping the film in close contact with the sound head. There was never an optical system.\nA few sound prints appeared for the use in double 8 projectors.\n\n\n== Super 8 ==\n\nIn 1965, Super-8 film was released and was quickly adopted by many amateur film-makers. It featured a better quality image, and was easier to use mainly due to a cartridge-loading system that did not require reloading and rethreading halfway through. Super 8 was often erroneously criticized, since the film gates in some cheaper Super 8 cameras were plastic, as was the pressure plate built into the cartridge; the standard 8 cameras had a permanent metal film gate that was regarded as more reliable in keeping the film flat and the image in focus.  In reality, this was not the case.  The plastic pressure plate could be moulded to far tighter tolerances than their metal counterparts could be machined.To easily differentiate Super 8 film from Standard 8, projector spools for the former had larger spindle holes.  Therefore, it was not possible to mount a Super 8 spool on a Standard 8 projector, and vice versa.\n\n\n=== Sound ===\nThe Super 8 format was designed from the start to accommodate a sound track (one of the surprisingly few film formats to do so). This track would occupy the area between the edge of the film and the image area. As in the double 8 system, a second stripe was sometimes added between the edge and the perforations. The image to sound distance was much shorter for the Super 8 system at just 18 frames.\nAt first, the magnetic stripe had to be applied after the film was processed and recorded on a suitable projector. In the 1970s, cameras appeared which were able to record live sound directly onto pre-striped film. This film was loaded into oversize cartridges that provided access for the camera's sound recording head. The camera would also accept non sound cartridges, but silent cameras could not accept sound cartridges. One major advantage of the Super 8 system was that as the camera pressure plate was a part of the cartridge, it could be moulded to the profile of the stripe(s)s on the film.\nProjectors also appeared on the market which took advantage of the balance stripe next to the perforations by recording and replaying stereo sound.\nProjectors appeared in the late 1970s that featured the ability to play films with an optical soundtrack. The image-sound separation for the optical format was 22 frames. These were never popular in the English speaking world and are consequently very rare in those countries. But they did enjoy some popularity in the Far East and Europe mainly because optical prints were cheaper.\nSound prints in Super 8 were plentiful and considering that they were very expensive by modern-day standards, sold in appreciable quantities. A two-reel print (running approximately 17 minutes) cost around $50, with feature films costing at least $150-plus. A few prints were also released with stereo sound. In Europe, optical prints were also popular and were appreciated for their often superior sound quality. In theory, magnetic prints should have been superior, but Super 8 magnetic prints were often poorly recorded after the picture was processed, due to high-speed, mass production techniques. An optical track, on the other hand, could be printed at the same time as the image and in equivalent quality.\n\n\n== Single 8 ==\n\nAnother version of Super-8 film, Single-8, was produced by Fuji in Japan. Introduced in 1965 as an alternative to the Kodak Super 8 format, it had the same final film dimensions, but with a different cassette. Unlike the co-axial design of Super 8, the Single 8 cartridge featured one spool above the other.\n\n\n=== Sound ===\nSingle-8's film format being identical to Super-8 means that everything written above regarding projectors for Super-8 applies equally to Single-8.\nCameras also appeared for the Single-8 system that were capable of directly recording to pre-striped film which was presented in an oversize Single-8 cartridge which provided access for the camera's sound recording head, in a similar manner to Super-8. The only difference was that film manufacturers initially had to manufacture the film with a rebated area for the sound stripe. This was because the pressure plate ensuring good film registration was part of the camera and not the cartridge. The sound film had to be the same overall thickness as silent film which the camera could also accept. Although the rebated stock was more expensive to manufacture, a balance stripe on the opposite side of the film was rendered unnecessary and offset the cost. Fuji later developed a thinner film that did not require rebating but the balance stripe was required because the thickness of the sound stripe was almost the same as the film base.\n\n\n== Straight Eight ==\n\nA number of camera companies offered single width 8 mm film in magazines or spools, but the format faded when Kodak introduced Kodachrome, as this was only available in the double 8 mm format. The first single run 8mm film was offered in 1935 with a Bell & Howell movie camera Filmo 127-A called Straight Eight. Single width 8 mm film revived in the United States by Bolsey-8 in 1956, and continued for some time outside the United States, with Germany Agfa Movex 8 between 1937 and 1950's, Soviet Union KOMZ Ekran movie cameras and Svema offering reversal film in 1960's.\n\n\n== UltraPan 8 ==\nIntroduced in 2011 by Nicholas Kovats, and implemented by Jean-Louis Seguin, this format uses Standard 8 film in a modified Bolex (H16 or H8) camera. Similar to the Techniscope cameras of the 1960s, UltraPan 8 achieves wider aspect ratios generally reserved for camera systems with anamorphic lenses through manipulating film negative exposure instead of light capture. The area of film exposed per frame is 10.52 mm \u00d7 3.75 mm, having an aspect ratio of 2.8:1. There are effectively two UP8 frames for every one 16 mm frame. The design means there is no waste of film emulsion for the targeted aspect ratio. Earlier versions of this general idea date from the 1950s and exactly the same design occurs in implementations of the 1960s and 1970s. The current implementation of the idea gains impetus from the relative ease with which digital delivery systems can handle what would otherwise have required, in the past, either a dedicated mechanical projector or the transfer to another film format for which projectors were already available.\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of film formats\nList of silent films released on 8 mm or Super 8 mm film\nZapruder film\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nFilm formats history", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/8_mm_film_types.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/8mm_and_super8_and_double8.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/8mm_reels.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Bell_Howell_Filmo_2.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Cin%C3%A9-Kodak_Kodachrome_8mm_movie_film_expired_May1946.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/UniversumUNAM54.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Vintage_Agfa_Movex_8_Movie_Camera%2C_The_First_Single-8_Camera_To_Use_Film_In_A_Cartridge%2C_Made_In_Germany%2C_Circa_1937_%2821179067050%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%AD%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg"], "summary": "8 mm film is a motion picture film format in which the film strip is eight millimeters wide. It exists in two main versions \u2013 the original standard 8 mm film, also known as regular 8 mm, and Super 8. Although both standard 8 mm and Super 8 are 8 mm wide, Super 8 has a larger image area because of its smaller and more widely spaced perforations.\nThere are also two other varieties of Super 8 \u2013 Single 8 mm and Straight-8 \u2013 that require different cameras, but produce a final film with the same dimensions."}, "Home_movies": {"links": ["Assassination of John F. Kennedy", "Double feature", "Home movies ", "B movies in the nineteen fiftys", "Outsider art", "Videocassette recorder", "Doujin music", "Amateur pornography", "Visionary environment", "nine.5 mm film", "Small press", "Amateur film", "Microbrewery", "YouTube", "DIY ethic", "Musical instrument", "No Wave Cinema", "Maker Faire", "Lo-fi music", "Zapruder film", "Software", "Spontaneous combustion", "Independent film", "Video games", "Pirate radio", "Silent film", "Software cracking", "Sound", "17.five mm film", "Z movie", "Business of webcomics", "Homebrew ", "Video podcast", "Minicomic Co-ops", "Fangame", "Safety film", "Do it yourself", "Netlabel", "Machinima", "eight mm film", "B movies ", "User-generated content", "Module file", "Indie game development", "Eastman Kodak", "Video sharing", "Flash memory", "Webcomic", "seventeen.5 mm film", "Cinema of Transgression", "Warren Commission", "List of film formats", "Film stock", "Birt Acres", "Cowboy coding", "Podsafe", "Doujinshi printer", "Cassette culture", "Google Arts & Culture", "America's Funniest Home Videos", "Underwater videography", "Video", "Indie game", "Betamax", "Kodak", "Alternative manga", "Warez scene", "Social peer-to-peer processes", "Abraham Zapruder", "Alternative comics", "Cinematography", "Doujin soft", "Independent circuit", "Doujin", "Wedding videography", "List of indie game developers", "Independent media", "Doujinshi convention", "Homebrewing", "Independent station", "sixteen mm film", "Pornography", "Michael Richards", "Doujinshi", "Internet", "John F. Kennedy", "Minicomic", "Fanzine", "Video blogs", "Low-budget film", "Texas Archive of the Moving Image", "Guerrilla filmmaking", "Super eight mm film", "thirty-five mm movie film", "Bell & Howell", "Kodachrome", "Video Gag", "Camcorder", "Home video", "Esquire ", "Indie design", "Open-source record label", "Amateur press association", "Sprocket hole", "VHS", "Polyester", "Independent animation", "Photographic film", "Video camera", "Videotape", "Single-eight", "Cellulose nitrate", "Reading", "You've Been Framed!", "Fujifilm", "Pamela Anderson", "Vernacular photography", "Circuit bending", "Make ", "Film frame", "Indie art", "9.five mm film", "nineteen thirty-nine Worlds Fair", "Kato-chan Ken-chan Gokigen TV", "Demoscene", "Open-source software", "Doujin shop", "Video tape", "Webtoon", "Smartphones", "B movies since the nineteen eightys", "Path\u00e9 Fr\u00e8res", "ROM hacking", "Independent music", "Film", "Personal digital assistant", "Videography", "Reversal film", "Mod ", "Fan film", "Midnight movie", "Na\u00efve art", "Video production", "Free software", "Independent soft drink", "Independent record label", "B movie", "No-budget film", "Open-source video game", "Self-publishing", "Exploitation film", "Independent radio", "Experimental musical instrument", "Mail art", "Event videography", "Unofficial patch", "Standard eight mm film", "Tommy Lee", "Indie role-playing game"], "content": "A home movie is a short amateur film or video typically made just to preserve a visual record of family activities, a vacation, or a special event, and intended for viewing at home by family and friends. Originally, home movies were made on photographic film in formats that usually limited the movie-maker to about three minutes per roll of costly camera film. The vast majority of amateur film formats lacked audio, shooting silent film. \nThe 1970s saw the advent of consumer camcorders that could record an hour or two of video on one relatively inexpensive videocassette which also had audio and did not need to be developed the way film did. This was followed by digital video cameras that recorded to flash memory, and most recently smartphones with video recording capability, made the creation of home movies easier and much more affordable to the average person.\nThe technological boundaries between home-movie-making and professional movie-making are becoming increasingly blurred as prosumer equipment often offers features previously only available on professional equipment.\nIn recent years, clips from home movies have been available to wider audiences through television series such as Kato-chan Ken-chan Gokigen TV (1986 debut) in Japan, America's Funniest Home Videos (1989 debut) in the United States, You've Been Framed! (1990 debut) in Britain, Video Gag (1990 debut) in France, and online video sharing sites such as YouTube (founded 2005), that of users who want to share their home movies as user-generated content. The popularity of the Internet, and wider availability of high-speed connections has provided new ways of sharing home movies, such as video blogs (vlogs) and video podcasts.\n\n\n== History ==\nThe development of home movie-making has depended critically on the availability of equipment and media formats (film stock, video tape, etc.) at prices affordable to consumers. The introduction of film formats suitable for amateur hobbyists began early in the history of cinematography.\n\n\n=== 17.5 mm format ===\nThe 17.5 mm \"Birtac\" format was patented by Birt Acres in 1898. This format split the standard 35 mm film into two strips half as wide and could be loaded into the camera in daylight. Since the film frames were also half the height of 35 mm frames, the Birtac format used only 25% of the amount of film stock used by 35 mm. The camera doubled as a printer and projector, so equipment costs were also reduced.\n\n\n=== 9.5 mm format ===\nIn 1922, the French firm Path\u00e9 Fr\u00e8res introduced a new film format 9.5 mm wide which put the sprocket holes between the frames instead of along the sides of the film, allowing the images to occupy nearly the entire width. The resulting frames were nearly as large and clear as with the slightly later 16 mm format, which devoted much of its width to the stabilizing perforations. Used both for making home movies and for showing shortened \"cinema-at-home\" versions of professionally made feature films, it enjoyed popularity for several decades in Europe, including the UK, but was virtually unknown in the US.\n\n\n=== Safety film and the 16 mm format ===\nOf importance in making motion picture film practical for home use was the manufacturing option of safety film in the 1920s. The nitrate film used by professionals required caution in handling and projection because it is highly flammable. Nitrate film badly stored has been known to spontaneously combust.\nThe 16 mm format, which used only safety film, was introduced by Eastman Kodak in 1923 and became a standard in the non-professional market.  Although 16 mm had the advantage that users were not tied to one equipment manufacturer, and there were obvious cost advantages compared to standard 35 mm, the advent of an even smaller and cheaper format ultimately relegated 16 mm to professional users, particularly in the educational market.\n\n\n=== 8 mm film format and color ===\nIn 1932, Kodak introduced another new format, 8 mm, now called \"Standard 8\" or \"Regular 8\", which put four frames into the area occupied by one standard 16 mm frame. The film usually came in 16 mm wide \"Double 8\" form, which ran through the camera in two passes (one in each direction) and was slit in half after processing. The \"Straight 8\" variant came already cut to 8 mm width. In either case, the amount of film stock used per frame was again reduced by 75%. This finally brought home movies within the reach of the average family. The smaller format also made possible smaller and more portable cameras and projectors.\nThe introduction of Kodachrome color reversal film for 16 mm in 1935, and for 8 mm in 1936, facilitated home color cinematography. The availability of reversal film, both black-and-white and Kodachrome, was very important to the economics of home movie-making because it avoided the expense of separate negatives and positive prints.\n\n\n=== Super 8 and Single-8 film formats ===\nThe original 8 mm format was largely superseded within a few years of Kodak's 1965 introduction of Super 8 film. The Super 8 format used the same film width as standard 8 mm, but the perforations were smaller, making room for larger frames that yielded a clearer image. In addition, Super 8 film came in cartridges for easier loading into the camera. High-end Super 8 also could be purchased with a magnetic audio track, allowing for synchronized sound home movies. Single-8, a competing product from Fujifilm, was also introduced in 1965. It used the same new format as Super 8 but on a thinner polyester base and in a different type of camera cartridge.\n\n\n=== Home video-making ===\nThe introduction of the Beta VCR in 1975 and VHS in 1976 heralded a revolution in the making of home movies.  Videocassettes were extremely inexpensive compared to film and they could even be erased. This had the effect of greatly increasing the hours of footage of most family video libraries. It took a few years before consumer video cameras and portable VCRs were introduced, and later combined to create camcorders, but by that time, many consumers already had the playback equipment in their homes.\n\n\n== Omnipresence and controversy ==\nPortability and small size of digital home movie equipment, such as camera phones and PDAs with video capabilities, has led to the banning of such devices from various places, due to privacy and security concerns.\nPornographic movies of celebrities have been rumoured to exist for many years, but the ease of creating home movies on video has resulted in several celebrity sex tapes becoming available to the public, often without the permission of participants. The honeymoon video of Pamela Anderson and Tommy Lee from 1998 was the first highly publicized example.Portability of digital equipment helps fuel other controversies as well, such as the incident on November 17, 2006 in which comedian Michael Richards got into a racist war of words with an audience member during his comedy club act. Large parts of the incident were captured on the camera phone of another audience member and broadcast widely.\nHome movies have played important roles in controversial criminal investigations. The prime example is the Zapruder film of the 1963 assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy, accidentally captured on Kodachrome film with an 8 mm home movie camera. The film became crucial evidence for the Warren Commission, which investigated the assassination. At first, only black-and-white enlargements of individual film frames were published, and the most gruesome frame was withheld. The public did not actually see the images in motion for many years. The first showing on network television occurred in 1975.\n\n\n== See also ==\nAmateur film\nCinematography\nEvent videography\nUnderwater videography\nVideography\nVideo production\nWedding videography\nAmateur pornography\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nHome Movies at the Texas Archive of the Moving Image.\nCenter for Home Movies\nNortheast Historic Film Collections containing home movies\nHome Movie Clips and Streaming Home Movies\nFrench Home Movies archive\nWave to the Camera exhibit on Texas home movies by Texas Archive of the Moving Image at Google Arts & Culture", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Ny-worldfair1939-noaudio.ogv", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Zapruder_Camera.gif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg"], "summary": "A home movie is a short amateur film or video typically made just to preserve a visual record of family activities, a vacation, or a special event, and intended for viewing at home by family and friends. Originally, home movies were made on photographic film in formats that usually limited the movie-maker to about three minutes per roll of costly camera film. The vast majority of amateur film formats lacked audio, shooting silent film. \nThe 1970s saw the advent of consumer camcorders that could record an hour or two of video on one relatively inexpensive videocassette which also had audio and did not need to be developed the way film did. This was followed by digital video cameras that recorded to flash memory, and most recently smartphones with video recording capability, made the creation of home movies easier and much more affordable to the average person.\nThe technological boundaries between home-movie-making and professional movie-making are becoming increasingly blurred as prosumer equipment often offers features previously only available on professional equipment.\nIn recent years, clips from home movies have been available to wider audiences through television series such as Kato-chan Ken-chan Gokigen TV (1986 debut) in Japan, America's Funniest Home Videos (1989 debut) in the United States, You've Been Framed! (1990 debut) in Britain, Video Gag (1990 debut) in France, and online video sharing sites such as YouTube (founded 2005), that of users who want to share their home movies as user-generated content. The popularity of the Internet, and wider availability of high-speed connections has provided new ways of sharing home movies, such as video blogs (vlogs) and video podcasts."}, "Chiascuro": {"links": ["Clair-obscur", "Grisaille", "Portrait of Juan de Pareja", "Stipple", "Sciography", "Printmaking", "The Proposition ", "Domenico Beccafumi", "Art", "Georges de La Tour", "Giovanni Baglione", "Jan Both", "Saint Sebastian", "Fuseli", "Jean-Honor\u00e9 Fragonard", "Stanley Kubrick", "Joseph Wright of Derby", "High Renaissance", "Caravaggio", "W. Eugene Smith", "William-Adolphe Bouguereau", "Flemish Baroque painter", "Raphael", "Purple parchment", "Portrait miniaturist", "Gouache", "Botticelli", "Parmigianino", "Sven Nykvist", "Gregg Toland", "Rembrandt lighting", "High-key lighting", "Art historian", "Tenebrism", "Vasari", "Stalker ", "Matthias Stom", "Ugo da Carpi", "Bill Henson", "Woodcut", "Pella", "Shading", "Italian language", "Jusepe de Ribera", "Baroque", "F\u00eates galantes", "Hans Wechtlin", "Bodycolour", "Fra Angelico", "Surface tone", "Judith Leyster", "Sergei Eisenstein", "Adoration of the Shepherds ", "Drawing", "Wayback Machine", "Gottfried Schalken", "The Devil and Daniel Webster ", "A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery", "Francisco Goya", "Low Countries", "Garry Winogrand", "Hans Burgkmair the Elder", "The Bolt ", "The Milkmaid ", "Vilmos Zsigmond", "Byzantine art", "Canonical painting modes of the Renaissance", "Naples", "Trophime Bigot", "Expressionist", "Photography", "Dutch Republic", "Floria Sigismondi", "Peter Paul Rubens", "Low key", "La Fornarina", "Metropolis ", "Ralph Gibson", "Nicholas Hilliard", "Renaissance art", "Nativity of Jesus", "Illuminated manuscript", "Rembrandt", "Light-and-shade watermark", "Hugo van der Goes", "Roger de Piles", "Vittorio Storaro", "Clair Obscur", "Rembrandt van Rijn", "Hatching", "Saturn ", "Watercolour", "Andrei Tarkovsky", "Watteau", "Painting", "Low-key photography", "Antoine Watteau", "Chiaroscuro ", "Man of Sorrows", "Lucas Cranach the Elder", "Ludolph Buesinck", "Engraving", "Roy Strong", "Crucifixion of St. Peter ", "Paolo Veronese", "Mise-en-scene", "Film noir", "Magdalene with the Smoking Flame", "Nativity at Night ", "Tate", "The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari", "Spain", "An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump", "Fijnschilder", "Chiaroscuro woodcut", "Eug\u00e8ne Delacroix", "Annie Leibovitz", "Printmaker", "Josef Koudelka", "Contrast ", "Jacob Jordaens", "Utrecht Caravaggisti", "Monotyping", "Bartolommeo Coriolano", "Leonardo da Vinci", "The Hunchback of Notre Dame ", "The Knitting Girl", "Illumination ", "Gerrit Dou", "Manuscript illumination", "El Greco", "Unione", "Tintoretto", "Mannerism", "Dirck van Baburen", "The Elevation of the Cross ", "Apollodorus ", "Hans Baldung Grien", "John Everett Millais", "Elizabeth I of England", "Royal Academy", "Lothar Wolleh", "Jos\u00e9 de Ribera", "Bridget of Sweden", "Gerrit van Honthorst", "Diego Vel\u00e1zquez", "Geertgen tot Sint Jans", "Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione", "Nosferatu", "Annunciation", "L\u00e1szl\u00f3 Kov\u00e1cs ", "Andrea Mantegna", "Barry Lyndon", "ISBN ", "Johannes Vermeer", "Sfumato", "Adam Elsheimer", "Renaissance", "Old master print", "Stag Hunt Mosaic", "Ingmar Bergman", "Cangiante", "Hendrick Goltzius", "Hans Springinklee", "Hans Holbein the Younger"], "content": "Chiaroscuro (English:  kee-AR-\u0259-SKOOR-oh, -\u2060SKEWR-, Italian: [\u02cckjaro\u02c8sku\u02d0ro]; Italian for 'light-dark'), is one of the canonical painting modes of the Renaissance. In art, it is the use of strong contrasts between light and dark, usually bold contrasts affecting a whole composition. It is also a technical term used by artists and art historians for the use of contrasts of light to achieve a sense of volume in modelling three-dimensional objects and figures. Similar effects in cinema and photography also are called chiaroscuro.\nFurther specialized uses of the term include chiaroscuro woodcut for coloured woodcuts printed with different blocks, each using a different coloured ink; and chiaroscuro drawing for drawings on coloured paper in a dark medium with white highlighting.\nThe underlying principle is that solidity of form is best achieved by the light falling against it. Artists known for developing the technique include Leonardo da Vinci, Caravaggio and Rembrandt. It is a mainstay of black and white and low-key photography. It is one of the modes of painting colour in Renaissance art (alongside cangiante, sfumato and unione). Artists well-known for their use of chiaroscuro include Rembrandt, Caravaggio, Vermeer, and Goya.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Origin in the chiaroscuro drawing ===\n\nThe term chiaroscuro originated during the Renaissance as drawing on coloured paper, where the artist worked from the paper's base tone toward light using white gouache, and toward dark using ink, bodycolour or watercolour. These in turn drew on traditions in illuminated manuscripts going back to late Roman Imperial manuscripts on purple-dyed vellum. Such works are called \"chiaroscuro drawings\", but may only be described in modern museum terminology by such formulae as \"pen on prepared paper, heightened with white bodycolour\". Chiaroscuro woodcuts began as imitations of this technique. When discussing Italian art, the term sometimes is used to mean painted images in monochrome or two colours, more generally known in English by the French equivalent, grisaille. The term broadened in meaning early on to cover all strong contrasts in illumination between light and dark areas in art, which is now the primary meaning.\n\n\n=== Chiaroscuro modelling ===\n\nThe more technical use of the term chiaroscuro is the effect of light modelling in painting, drawing, or printmaking, where three-dimensional volume is suggested by the value gradation of colour and the analytical division of light and shadow shapes\u2014often called \"shading\". The invention of these effects in the West, \"skiagraphia\" or \"shadow-painting\" to the Ancient Greeks, traditionally was ascribed to the famous Athenian painter of the fifth century BC, Apollodoros. Although few Ancient Greek paintings survive, their understanding of the effect of light modelling still may be seen in the late-fourth-century BC mosaics of Pella, Macedonia, in particular the Stag Hunt Mosaic, in the House of the Abduction of Helen, inscribed gnosis epoesen, or 'knowledge did it'.\nThe technique also survived in rather crude standardized form in Byzantine art and was refined again in the Middle Ages to become standard by the early fifteenth-century in painting and manuscript illumination in Italy and Flanders, and then spread to all Western art.\nAccording to the theory of the art historian Marcia B. Hall, which has gained considerable acceptance, chiaroscuro is one of four modes of painting colours available to Italian High Renaissance painters, along with cangiante, sfumato and unione.The Raphael painting illustrated, with light coming from the left, demonstrates both delicate modelling chiaroscuro to give volume to the body of the model, and strong chiaroscuro in the more common sense, in the contrast between the well-lit model and the very dark background of foliage. To further complicate matters, however, the compositional chiaroscuro of the contrast between model and background probably would not be described using this term, as the two elements are almost completely separated. The term is mostly used to describe compositions where at least some principal elements of the main composition show the transition between light and dark, as in the Baglioni and Geertgen tot Sint Jans paintings illustrated above and below.\nChiaroscuro modelling is now taken for granted, but it has had some opponents; namely: the English portrait miniaturist Nicholas Hilliard cautioned in his treatise on painting against all but the minimal use we see in his works, reflecting the views of his patron Queen Elizabeth I of England: \"seeing that best to show oneself needeth no shadow of place but rather the open light... Her Majesty... chose her place to sit for that purpose in the open alley of a goodly garden, where no tree was near, nor any shadow at all...\"In drawings and prints, modelling chiaroscuro often is achieved by the use of hatching, or shading by parallel lines. Washes, stipple or dotting effects, and \"surface tone\" in printmaking are other techniques.\n\n\n=== Chiaroscuro woodcuts ===\n\nChiaroscuro woodcuts are old master prints in woodcut using two or more blocks printed in different colours; they do not necessarily feature strong contrasts of light and dark.  They were first produced to achieve similar effects to chiaroscuro drawings.  After some early experiments in book-printing, the true chiaroscuro woodcut conceived for two blocks was probably first invented by Lucas Cranach the Elder in Germany in 1508 or 1509, though he backdated some of his first prints and added tone blocks to some prints first produced for monochrome printing, swiftly followed by Hans Burgkmair the Elder.  Despite Vasari's claim for Italian precedence in Ugo da Carpi, it is clear that his, the first Italian examples, date to around 1516 But other sources suggest, the first chiaroscuro woodcut to be the Triumph of Julius Caesar, which was created by Andrea Mantegna, an Italian painter, between 1470 and 1500. Another view states that: \"Lucas Cranach backdated two of his works in an attempt to grab the glory\" and that the technique was invented \"in all probability\" by Burgkmair \"who was commissioned by the emperor Maximilian to find a cheap and effective way of getting the imperial image widely disseminated as he needed to drum up money and support for a crusade\".Other printmakers who have used this technique include Hans Wechtlin, Hans Baldung Grien, and Parmigianino. In Germany, the technique achieved its greatest popularity around 1520, but it was used in Italy throughout the sixteenth century. Later artists such as Goltzius sometimes made use of it. In most German two-block prints, the keyblock (or \"line block\") was printed in black and the tone block or blocks had flat areas of colour. In Italy, chiaroscuro woodcuts were produced without keyblocks to achieve a very different effect.\n\n\n=== Compositional chiaroscuro to Caravaggio ===\n\nManuscript illumination was, as in many areas, especially experimental in attempting ambitious lighting effects since the results were not for public display. The development of compositional chiaroscuro received a considerable impetus in northern Europe from the vision of the Nativity of Jesus of Saint Bridget of Sweden, a very popular mystic. She described the infant Jesus as emitting light; depictions increasingly reduced other light sources in the scene to emphasize this effect, and the Nativity remained very commonly treated with chiaroscuro through to the Baroque. Hugo van der Goes and his followers painted many scenes lit only by candle or the divine light from the infant Christ. As with some later painters, in their hands the effect was of stillness and calm rather than the drama with which it would be used during the Baroque.\nStrong chiaroscuro became a popular effect during the sixteenth century in Mannerism and Baroque art. Divine light continued to illuminate, often rather inadequately, the compositions of Tintoretto, Veronese, and their many followers. The use of dark subjects dramatically lit by a shaft of light from a single constricted and often unseen source, was a compositional device developed by Ugo da Carpi (c. 1455 \u2013 c. 1523), Giovanni Baglione (1566\u20131643), and Caravaggio (1571\u20131610), the last of whom was crucial in developing the style of tenebrism, where dramatic chiaroscuro becomes a dominant stylistic device.\n\n\n=== 17th and 18th centuries ===\n\nTenebrism was especially practiced in Spain and the Spanish-ruled Kingdom of Naples, by Jusepe de Ribera and his followers. Adam Elsheimer (1578\u20131610), a German artist living in Rome, produced several night scenes lit mainly by fire, and sometimes moonlight. Unlike Caravaggio's, his dark areas contain very subtle detail and interest. The influences of Caravaggio and Elsheimer were strong on Peter Paul Rubens, who exploited their respective approaches to tenebrosity for dramatic effect in paintings such as The Raising of the Cross (1610\u20131611). Artemisia Gentileschi (1593\u20131656), a Baroque artist who was a follower of Caravaggio, was also an outstanding exponent of tenebrism and chiaroscuro.\nA particular genre that developed was the nocturnal scene lit by candlelight, which looked back to earlier northern artists such as Geertgen tot Sint Jans and more immediately, to the innovations of Caravaggio and Elsheimer. This theme played out with many artists from the Low Countries in the first few decades of the seventeenth century, where it became associated with the Utrecht Caravaggisti such as Gerrit van Honthorst and Dirck van Baburen, and with Flemish Baroque painters such as Jacob Jordaens. Rembrandt van Rijn's (1606\u20131669) early works from the 1620s also adopted the single-candle light source. The nocturnal candle-lit scene re-emerged in the Dutch Republic in the mid-seventeenth century on a smaller scale in the works of fijnschilders such as Gerrit Dou and Gottfried Schalken.\n\nRembrandt's own interest in effects of darkness shifted in his mature works. He relied less on the sharp contrasts of light and dark that marked the Italian influences of the earlier generation, a factor found in his mid-seventeenth-century etchings. In that medium he shared many similarities with his contemporary in Italy, Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, whose work in printmaking led him to invent the monotype.\nOutside the Low Countries, artists such as Georges de La Tour and Trophime Bigot in France and Joseph Wright of Derby in England, carried on with such strong, but graduated, candlelight chiaroscuro. Watteau used a gentle chiaroscuro in the leafy backgrounds of his f\u00eates galantes, and this was continued in paintings by many French artists, notably Fragonard. At the end of the century Fuseli and others used a heavier chiaroscuro for romantic effect, as did Delacroix and others in the nineteenth century.\n\n\n== Use of the term ==\n\nThe French use of the term, clair-obscur, was introduced by the seventeenth-century art-critic Roger de Piles in the course of a famous argument (D\u00e9bat sur le coloris), on the relative merits of drawing and colour in painting (his Dialogues sur le coloris, 1673, was a key contribution to the D\u00e9bat).\nIn English, the Italian term has been used since at least the late seventeenth century. The term is less frequently used of art after the late nineteenth century, although the Expressionist and other modern movements make great use of the effect.\nEspecially since the strong twentieth-century rise in the reputation of Caravaggio, in non-specialist use the term is mainly used for strong chiaroscuro effects such as his, or Rembrandt's. As the Tate puts it: \"Chiaroscuro is generally only remarked upon when it is a particularly prominent feature of the work, usually when the artist is using extreme contrasts of light and shade\". Photography and cinema also have adopted the term. For the history of the term, see Ren\u00e9 Verbraeken, Clair-obscur, histoire d\u2019un mot (Nogent-le-Roi, 1979).\n\n\n== Cinema and photography ==\nChiaroscuro also is used in cinematography to indicate extreme low key and high-contrast lighting to create distinct areas of light and darkness in films, especially in black and white films. Classic examples are The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920), Nosferatu (1922), Metropolis (1927) The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939), The Devil and Daniel Webster (1941), and the black and white scenes in Andrei Tarkovsky's Stalker (1979).\nFor example, in Metropolis, chiaroscuro lighting is used to create contrast between light and dark mise-en-scene and figures. The effect of this is primarily to highlight the differences between the capitalist elite and the workers.\nIn photography, chiaroscuro can be achieved with the use of \"Rembrandt lighting\". In more highly developed photographic processes, this technique also may be termed \"ambient/natural lighting\", although when done so for the effect, the look is artificial and not generally documentary in nature. In particular, Bill Henson along with others, such as W. Eugene Smith, Josef Koudelka, Garry Winogrand, Lothar Wolleh, Annie Leibovitz, Floria Sigismondi, and Ralph Gibson may be considered some of the modern masters of chiaroscuro in documentary photography.\n\nPerhaps the most direct intended use of chiaroscuro in filmmaking would be Stanley Kubrick's 1975 film Barry Lyndon. When informed that no lens currently had a wide enough aperture to shoot a costume drama set in grand palaces using only candlelight, Kubrick bought and retrofitted a special lens for these purposes: a modified Mitchell BNC camera and a Zeiss lens manufactured for the rigors of space photography, with a maximum aperture of f/.7. The naturally unaugmented lighting situations in the film exemplified low-key, natural lighting in filmwork at its most extreme outside of the Eastern European/Soviet filmmaking tradition (itself exemplified by the harsh low-key lighting style employed by Soviet filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein).\nSven Nykvist, the longtime collaborator of Ingmar Bergman, also informed much of his photography with chiaroscuro realism, as did Gregg Toland, who influenced such cinematographers as L\u00e1szl\u00f3 Kov\u00e1cs, Vilmos Zsigmond, and Vittorio Storaro with his use of deep and selective focus augmented with strong horizon-level key lighting penetrating through windows and doorways. Much of the celebrated film noir tradition relies on techniques Toland perfected in the early thirties that are related to chiaroscuro (though high-key lighting, stage lighting, frontal lighting, and other effects are interspersed in ways that diminish the chiaroscuro claim).\n\n\n== See also ==\nLight-and-shade watermark\n\n\n== Gallery ==\nChiaroscuro in modelling; paintings\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\nChiaroscuro in modelling; prints and drawings\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\nChiaroscuro as a major element in composition: painting\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\nChiaroscuro as a major element in composition: photography\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\nChiaroscuro faces\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\nChiaroscuro drawings and woodcuts\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nChiaroscuro Woodcut from the Metropolitan Museum of Art Timeline of Art History\nChiaroscuro woodcut from Spencer Museum of Art, Kansas\n(Modelling) chiaroscuro from 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In art, it is the use of strong contrasts between light and dark, usually bold contrasts affecting a whole composition. It is also a technical term used by artists and art historians for the use of contrasts of light to achieve a sense of volume in modelling three-dimensional objects and figures. Similar effects in cinema and photography also are called chiaroscuro.\nFurther specialized uses of the term include chiaroscuro woodcut for coloured woodcuts printed with different blocks, each using a different coloured ink; and chiaroscuro drawing for drawings on coloured paper in a dark medium with white highlighting.\nThe underlying principle is that solidity of form is best achieved by the light falling against it. Artists known for developing the technique include Leonardo da Vinci, Caravaggio and Rembrandt. It is a mainstay of black and white and low-key photography. It is one of the modes of painting colour in Renaissance art (alongside cangiante, sfumato and unione). Artists well-known for their use of chiaroscuro include Rembrandt, Caravaggio, Vermeer, and Goya."}, "Ingmar_Bergman": {"links": ["Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay", "Billy Wilder", "Alexander Sokurov", "Bong Joon-ho", "Halld\u00f3r Laxness", "Catti Edfeldt", "The Salesman ", "Kolya", "Gus Van Sant", "Kate Adie", "Palme d'Or", "Richard Curtis", "Michael Mann", "The Merry Widow", "Gabriel Axel", "Jerry Wald", "Michel Hazanavicius", "Fanny and Alexander", "Paul Schrader", "Torment ", "Bertrand Russell", "Tigerschi\u00f6ld", "Amanda Kernell", "Hour of the Wolf", "William Heinesen", "Tomas Alfredson", "Alexander Payne", "Daily rushes", "Bennett Miller", "Erik Bergman ", "Burnt by the Sun", "Joan Bakewell", "Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck", "David O. Selznick", "Minister ", "David Frost", "\u00c1gnes Heller", "David O. 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Wellman", "Carlos Saura", "Harold Jacob Smith", "Emir Kusturica", "It Rains on Our Love", "Hans Magnus Enzensberger", "Clas Lindberg", "Safdie brothers", "Nedrick Young", "King Vidor", "The Sea Inside", "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon", "Kevin Costner", "Olivier Assayas", "Bruce Forsyth", "Guldbagge Award for Best Screenplay", "Edward Zwick", "Joseph L. Mankiewicz", "Jack L. Warner", "Medieval", "Jean Renoir", "G\u00fcnter Grass", "Mats Bergman", "Michel Brault", "Ennio Morricone", "Jan Sv\u011br\u00e1k", "Richard Linklater", "Marleen Gorris", "No Man's Land ", "Terrence Malick", "Academy Award for Best International Feature Film", "Hans Alfredson", "In the Presence of a Clown", "Peter Morgan", "Karl Barth", "The Magician ", "Flach", "Freddie Young", "Bertrand Blier", "Arthur Freed", "Philip Kaufman", "Thelma Schoonmaker", "Volker Schl\u00f6ndorff", "Black Orpheus", "Larry Gelbart", "Steven Soderbergh", "Stan Chervin", "\u00c5sa Faringer", "Lisa Siwe", "Dreams ", "Stefan Ruzowitzky", "Bo Goldman", "Abby Mann", "Jenny Lumet", "Shari Springer Berman and Robert Pulcini", "A Separation", "Persona ", "Rolf B\u00f6rjlind", "Desmond Davis", "Albert Schweitzer", "Amat Escalante", "Ingrid von Rosen", "Kjell Grede", "Jan Halldoff", "Robert Towne", "Charles Burnett ", "Federico Fellini", "Julie Delpy", "Francis Ford Coppola", "The Walls of Malapaga", "All These Women", "Suzanne Osten", "Total Film", "Michael Grade", "N\u00e9e", "David Cronenberg", "A Man and a Woman", "Denis Forman", "A Fantastic Woman", "Danis Tanovi\u0107", "TIME ", "David Plowright", "National Board of Review Award for Best Director", "Carl Jav\u00e9r", "Carmen Maura", "Willard Huyck", "Hrafn Gunnlaugsson", "Rashomon", "Costa-Gavras", "Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion", "Norman Jewison", "Sam Spiegel", "Son of Saul", "V\u00e1clav Havel", "BAFTA Fellowship", "De Frese", "Fernando Trueba", "Autumn Sonata", "George Lucas", "Orson Welles", "Jim Taylor ", "The Best Intentions", "\u00c9ric Rohmer", "Hal B. 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A. L. Diamond", "Noah Baumbach", "Royal Dramatic Theatre", "Triptych", "Goethe Prize", "Alejandro Gonz\u00e1lez I\u00f1\u00e1rritu", "Charlotte Rampling", "Uppsala", "Faithless ", "Tim Schafer", "Monsieur Vincent", "Catherine Deneuve", "Woody Allen", "Jeremy Isaacs", "Alvar Aalto", "Per Fly", "Gabe Newell", "Arthur Koestler", "Trevor McDonald", "The Garden of the Finzi-Continis ", "Marie Nyrer\u00f6d", "Jack Cardiff", "The Barbarian Invasions", "Michael Haneke", "Eva ", "The New York Times", "Asghar Farhadi", "Andrew Davies ", "Nowhere in Africa", "Jesse Armstrong", "Coen brothers", "Alfred Hitchcock", "The Guardian", "Stockholm City Theatre", "Vladimir Menshov", "Julie Christie", "Andr\u00e9 T\u00e9chin\u00e9", "Filmsite.org", "John Carmack", "Shame ", "eight\u00bd", "Tom McCarthy ", "Sight & Sound", "Anthony Minghella", "Br\u00f6ms", "Karin's Face", "Colin Nutley", "Day for Night ", "Music in Darkness", "Bradley Cooper", "Gunnar Fischer", "Lutheranism", "Margareta Bergman", "Babaloo Mandel", "Roger Graef", "Terrence Rafferty", "Sveriges Television", "Peter Molyneux", "Vilgot Sj\u00f6man", "John Ajvide Lindqvist", "Tony Roche ", "John Mills", "Rolf Harris", "Neil Jordan", "Lukas Moodysson", "The Lives of Others", "Todd Haynes", "Paul Fox ", "Roger Avary", "Jon Snow ", "Henrik Ibsen", "Belle \u00c9poque ", "Walloons", "Wong Kar-wai", "Lew Grade", "Mikael H\u00e5fstr\u00f6m", "A Midsummer Night's Sex Comedy", "Roma ", "Wes Anderson", "The Virgin Spring", "Ella Lemhagen"], "content": "Ernst Ingmar Bergman (14 July 1918 \u2013 30 July 2007) was a Swedish film director, screenwriter, producer and playwright. Universally ranked among the most accomplished and influential filmmakers of all time, Bergman's films include The Seventh Seal, Persona, and Fanny and Alexander.\nBergman directed over sixty films and documentaries for cinematic release and for television screenings, most of which he also wrote. His theatrical career continued in parallel and included periods as Leading Director of the Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm and of the Residenztheater in Munich. He also directed over 170 plays. He forged a creative partnership with his cinematographers Gunnar Fischer and Sven Nykvist. Among his company of actors were Harriet Andersson, Bibi Andersson, Liv Ullmann, Gunnar Bj\u00f6rnstrand, Erland Josephson, Ingrid Thulin, and Max von Sydow. Most of his films were set in Sweden, and many films from Through a Glass Darkly (1961) onward were filmed on the island of F\u00e5r\u00f6.\nPhilip French referred to Bergman as \"one of the greatest artists of the 20th century ... he found in literature and the performing arts a way of both recreating and questioning the human condition.\" Director Martin Scorsese commented: \"If you were alive in the 50s and the 60s and of a certain age, a teenager on your way to becoming an adult, and you wanted to make movies, I don't see how you couldn't be influenced by Bergman ....It's impossible to overestimate the effect that those films had on people.\" Bergman was ranked 7th in director's poll on Sight & Sound's 2002 list of The Greatest Directors of All Time.\n\n\n== Biography ==\n\n\n=== Early life ===\n\nErnst Ingmar Bergman was born on 14 July 1918 in Uppsala, Sweden, the son of Erik Bergman, a Lutheran minister and later chaplain to the King of Sweden, and Karin (n\u00e9e \u00c5kerblom), a nurse who also had Walloon ancestors. The Bergman family was originally from J\u00e4rvs\u00f6 in G\u00e4vleborg county. Bergman's paternal grandfather worked as a pharmacist in Stockholm, and his paternal great grandfather Henrik Bergman worked as an assistant vicar and was married to Erika Augusta Agrell, daughter of vicar Erik Agrell and Elsa Margareta Hermanni, a daughter of chief accountant Hieronymus Emanuel Hermanni and Anna Katarina Neostadia. The Hermannis were merchants in Stockholm, Hieronymus' father, Simon Daniel, was wholesaler like his grandfather. Via Elsa Margareta Hermanni, Bergman descended from the noble families Br\u00f6ms, Stockenstr\u00f6m, Ehrenski\u00f6ld, clergy families of Swedish, Swedish-Finnish origin and burghers of Swedish and German origin. Via his paternal grandmother Alma Katarina Eneroth, Bergman descended from the German noble families Flach and de Frese introduced at the Swedish Riddarhuset. Alma Katarina Eneroth was a cousin of Bergman's maternal grandfather traffic manager Johan \u00c5kerblom. Thus Bergman's parents were second cousins. Bergman's maternal granddmother, Anna Calwagen, was the daughter of Ernst Gottfrid Calwagen, a lector of German and English, and his wife Charlotta Margareta Carsberg. The progenitor of the Calwagen family, the merchant Paul Calwagen, had emigrated from Holland to Karlshamn, Sweden in the 17th century. Paul's wife, the Dutch-Swedish Maria van der Hagen, was descendant of the Dutch-Swedish court painter Laurens van der Plas. Via Ernst Gottfried, Bergman was descendant of the noble families Tigerschi\u00f6ld and Weinholz as well as the Bure family.He grew up with his older brother Dag and sister Margareta surrounded by religious imagery and discussion. His father was a conservative parish minister with strict ideas of parenting. Ingmar was locked up in dark closets for infractions such as wetting himself. \"While father preached away in the pulpit and the congregation prayed, sang, or listened\", Ingmar wrote in his autobiography Laterna Magica,\n\nI devoted my interest to the church's mysterious world of low arches, thick walls, the smell of eternity, the coloured sunlight quivering above the strangest vegetation of medieval paintings and carved figures on ceilings and walls. There was everything that one's imagination could desire\u2014angels, saints, dragons, prophets, devils, humans ...\nAlthough raised in a devout Lutheran household, Bergman later stated that he lost his faith when aged eight, and only came to terms with this fact while making Winter Light in 1962. His interest in theatre and film began early: \"At the age of nine, he traded a set of tin soldiers for a magic lantern, a possession that altered the course of his life. Within a year, he had created, by playing with this toy, a private world in which he felt completely at home, he recalled. He fashioned his own scenery, marionettes, and lighting effects and gave puppet productions of Strindberg plays in which he spoke all the parts.\"Bergman attended Palmgren's School as a teenager. His school years were unhappy, and he remembered them unfavourably in later years. In a 1944 letter concerning the film Torment (sometimes known as Frenzy), which sparked debate on the condition of Swedish high schools (and which Bergman had written), the school's principal Henning H\u00e5kanson wrote, among other things, that Bergman had been a \"problem child\". Bergman wrote in a response that he had strongly disliked the emphasis on homework and testing in his formal schooling.\nIn 1934, aged 16, he was sent to Germany to spend the summer holidays with family friends. He attended a Nazi rally in Weimar at which he saw Adolf Hitler. He later wrote in Laterna Magica (The Magic Lantern) about the visit to Germany, describing how the German family had put a portrait of Hitler on the wall by his bed, and that \"for many years, I was on Hitler's side, delighted by his success and saddened by his defeats\". Bergman commented that \"Hitler was unbelievably charismatic. He electrified the crowd. ... The Nazism I had seen seemed fun and youthful\". Bergman did two five-month stretches in Sweden of mandatory military service.Bergman enrolled at Stockholm University College (later renamed Stockholm University) in 1937, to study art and literature. He spent most of his time involved in student theatre and became a \"genuine movie addict\". At the same time, a romantic involvement led to a physical confrontation with his father which resulted in a break in their relationship which lasted for many years. Although he did not graduate from the university, he wrote a number of plays and an opera, and became an assistant director at a local theatre. In 1942, he was given the opportunity to direct one of his own scripts, Caspar's Death. The play was seen by members of Svensk Filmindustri, which then offered Bergman a position working on scripts. He married Else Fisher in 1943.\n\n\n=== Film career until 1975 ===\n\nBergman's film career began in 1941 with his work rewriting scripts, but his first major accomplishment was in 1944 when he wrote the screenplay for Torment (a.k.a. Frenzy) (Hets), a film directed by Alf Sj\u00f6berg. Along with writing the screenplay, he was also appointed assistant director of the film. In his second autobiographical book, Images: My Life in Film, Bergman describes the filming of the exteriors as his actual film directorial debut. The film sparked debate on Swedish formal education. When Henning H\u00e5kanson (the principal of the high school Bergman had attended) wrote a letter following the film's release, Bergman, according to scholar Frank Gado, disparaged in a response what he viewed as H\u00e5kanson's implication that students \"who did not fit some arbitrary prescription of worthiness deserved the system's cruel neglect\". Bergman also stated in the letter that he \"hated school as a principle, as a system and as an institution. And as such I have definitely not wanted to criticize my own school, but all schools.\" The international success of this film led to Bergman's first opportunity to direct a year later. During the next ten years he wrote and directed more than a dozen films, including Prison (F\u00e4ngelse) in 1949, as well as Sawdust and Tinsel (Gycklarnas afton) and Summer with Monika (Sommaren med Monika), both released in 1953.\n\nBergman first achieved worldwide success with Smiles of a Summer Night (Sommarnattens leende, 1955), which won for \"Best poetic humour\" and was nominated for the Palme d'Or at Cannes the following year. This was followed by The Seventh Seal (Det sjunde inseglet) and Wild Strawberries (Smultronst\u00e4llet), released in Sweden ten months apart in 1957. The Seventh Seal won a special jury prize and was nominated for the Palme d'Or at Cannes, and Wild Strawberries won numerous awards for Bergman and its star, Victor Sj\u00f6str\u00f6m. Bergman continued to be productive for the next two decades. From the early 1960s, he spent much of his life on the island of F\u00e5r\u00f6, where he made several films.\nIn the early 1960s he directed three films that explored the theme of faith and doubt in God, Through a Glass Darkly (S\u00e5som i en Spegel, 1961), Winter Light (Nattvardsg\u00e4sterna, 1962), and The Silence (Tystnaden, 1963). Critics created the notion that the common themes in these three films made them a trilogy or cinematic triptych. Bergman initially responded that he did not plan these three films as a trilogy and that he could not see any common motifs in them, but he later seemed to adopt the notion, with some equivocation. His parody of the films of Federico Fellini, All These Women (F\u00f6r att inte tala om alla dessa kvinnor) was released in 1964.Largely a two-hander with Bibi Andersson and Liv Ullmann, Persona (1966) is a film that Bergman himself considered one of his most important works. While the highly experimental film won few awards, it has been considered his masterpiece. Other films of the period include The Virgin Spring (Jungfruk\u00e4llan, 1960), Hour of the Wolf (Vargtimmen, 1968), Shame (Skammen, 1968) and The Passion of Anna (En Passion, 1969). With his cinematographer Sven Nykvist, Bergman made use of a crimson color scheme for Cries and Whispers (1972), which received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Picture. He also produced extensively for Swedish television at this time. Two works of note were Scenes from a Marriage (Scener ur ett \u00e4ktenskap, 1973) and The Magic Flute (Trollfl\u00f6jten, 1975).\n\n\n=== Tax evasion charges in 1976 ===\nOn 30 January 1976, while rehearsing August Strindberg's The Dance of Death at the Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm, he was arrested by two plainclothes police officers and charged with income tax evasion. The impact of the event on Bergman was devastating. He suffered a nervous breakdown as a result of the humiliation, and was hospitalised in a state of deep depression.\nThe investigation was focused on an alleged 1970 transaction of 500,000 Swedish kronor (SEK) between Bergman's Swedish company Cinematograf and its Swiss subsidiary Persona, an entity that was mainly used for the paying of salaries to foreign actors. Bergman dissolved Persona in 1974 after having been notified by the Swedish Central Bank and subsequently reported the income. On 23 March 1976, the special prosecutor Anders Nordenadler dropped the charges against Bergman, saying that the alleged crime had no legal basis, saying it would be like bringing \"charges against a person who has stolen his own car, thinking it was someone else's\". Director General G\u00f6sta Ekman, chief of the Swedish Internal Revenue Service, defended the failed investigation, saying that the investigation was dealing with important legal material and that Bergman was treated just like any other suspect. He expressed regret that Bergman had left the country, hoping that Bergman was a \"stronger\" person now when the investigation had shown that he had not done any wrong.Although the charges were dropped, Bergman became disconsolate, fearing he would never again return to directing. Despite pleas by the Swedish prime minister Olof Palme, high public figures, and leaders of the film industry, he vowed never to work in Sweden again. He closed down his studio on the island of F\u00e5r\u00f6, suspended two announced film projects, and went into self-imposed exile in Munich, Germany. Harry Schein, director of the Swedish Film Institute, estimated the immediate damage as ten million SEK (kronor) and hundreds of jobs lost.\n\n\n=== Aftermath following arrest ===\nBergman then briefly considered the possibility of working in America; his next film, The Serpent's Egg (1977) was a German-U.S. production and his second English-language film (the first being The Touch, 1971). This was followed by a British-Norwegian co-production, Autumn Sonata (H\u00f6stsonaten, 1978) starring Ingrid Bergman (no relation), and From the Life of the Marionettes (Aus dem Leben der Marionetten, 1980) which was a British-German co-production.\nHe temporarily returned to his homeland to direct Fanny and Alexander (Fanny och Alexander, 1982). Bergman stated that the film would be his last, and that afterwards he would focus on directing theatre. After that he wrote several film scripts and directed a number of television specials. As with previous work for television, some of these productions were later theatrically released. The last such work was Saraband (2003), a sequel to Scenes from a Marriage and directed by Bergman when he was 84 years old.\nAlthough he continued to operate from Munich, by mid-1978 Bergman had overcome some of his bitterness toward the Swedish government. In July of that year he visited Sweden, celebrating his sixtieth birthday on the island of F\u00e5r\u00f6, and partly resumed his work as a director at Royal Dramatic Theatre. To honour his return, the Swedish Film Institute launched a new Ingmar Bergman Prize to be awarded annually for excellence in filmmaking. Still, he remained in Munich until 1984. In one of the last major interviews with Bergman, conducted in 2005 on the island of F\u00e5r\u00f6, Bergman said that despite being active during the exile, he had effectively lost eight years of his professional life.\n\n\n=== Retirement and death ===\nBergman retired from filmmaking in December 2003. He had hip surgery in October 2006 and was making a difficult recovery. He died in his sleep at age 89; his body was found at his home on the island of F\u00e5r\u00f6, on 30 July 2007, sixteen days after his 89th birthday. (It was the same day another renowned existentialist film director, Michelangelo Antonioni, died.) The interment was private, at the F\u00e5r\u00f6 Church on 18 August 2007. A place in the F\u00e5r\u00f6 churchyard was prepared for him under heavy secrecy. Although he was buried on the island of F\u00e5r\u00f6, his name and date of birth were inscribed under his wife's name on a tomb at Roslagsbro churchyard, Norrt\u00e4lje Municipality, several years before his death.\n\n\n== Filmography ==\n\nSelected work:\n\n\n== Style of working ==\n\n\n=== Repertory company ===\n\nBergman developed a personal \"repertory company\" of Swedish actors whom he repeatedly cast in his films, including Max von Sydow, Bibi Andersson, Harriet Andersson, Erland Josephson, Ingrid Thulin, Gunnel Lindblom, and Gunnar Bj\u00f6rnstrand, each of whom appeared in at least five Bergman features. Norwegian actress Liv Ullmann, who appeared in nine of Bergman's films and one televisual film (Saraband), was the last to join this group (in the film Persona), and ultimately became the most closely associated with Bergman, both artistically and personally. They had a daughter together, Linn Ullmann (born 1966).\nIn Bergman's working arrangement with Sven Nykvist, his best-known cinematographer, the two men developed sufficient rapport to allow Bergman not to worry about the composition of a shot until the day before it was filmed. On the morning of the shoot, he would briefly speak to Nykvist about the mood and composition he hoped for, and then leave Nykvist to work, lacking interruption or comment until post-production discussion of the next day's work.\n\n\n=== Financing ===\n\nBy Bergman's own account, he never had a problem with funding. He cited two reasons for this: one, that he did not live in the United States, which he viewed as obsessed with box-office earnings; and two, that his films tended to be low-budget affairs. (Cries and Whispers, for instance, was finished for about $450,000, while Scenes from a Marriage, a six-episode television feature, cost only $200,000.)\n\n\n=== Technique ===\nBergman usually wrote his films' screenplays, thinking about them for months or years before starting the actual process of writing, which he viewed as somewhat tedious. His earlier films are carefully constructed and are either based on his plays or written in collaboration with other authors. Bergman stated that in his later works, when on occasion his actors would want to do things differently from his own intention, he would let them, noting that the results were often \"disastrous\" when he did not do so. As his career progressed, Bergman increasingly let his actors improvise their dialogue. In his later films, he wrote just the ideas informing the scene and allowed his actors to determine the exact dialogue. When viewing daily rushes, Bergman stressed the importance of being critical but unemotive, claiming that he asked himself not if the work was great or terrible, but rather if it was sufficient or needed to be reshot.\n\n\n=== Subjects ===\nBergman's films usually deal with existential questions of mortality, loneliness, and religious faith. In addition to these cerebral topics, however, sexual desire features in the foreground of most of his films, whether the central event is medieval plague (The Seventh Seal), upper-class family activity in early twentieth century Uppsala (Fanny and Alexander), or contemporary alienation (The Silence). His female characters are usually more in touch with their sexuality than their male equivalents, and unafraid to proclaim it, sometimes with breathtaking overtness (as in Cries and Whispers) as would define the work of \"the conjurer,\" as Bergman called himself in a 1960 TIME cover story. In an interview with Playboy in 1964, he said: \"The manifestation of sex is very important, and particularly to me, for above all, I don't want to make merely intellectual films. I want audiences to feel, to sense my films. This to me is much more important than their understanding them.\" Film, Bergman said, was his demanding mistress. While he was a social democrat as an adult, Bergman stated that \"as an artist I'm not politically involved ... I don't make propaganda for either one attitude or the other.\"\n\n\n=== Bergman's views on his career ===\nWhen asked in the series of  interviews later titled  \"Ingmar Bergman \u2013 3 dokument\u00e4rer om film, teater, F\u00e5r\u00f6 och livet\" conducted by Marie Nyrer\u00f6d for Swedish TV and released in 2004, Bergman said that of his works, he held Winter Light, Persona, and Cries and Whispers in the highest regard. There he also states that he managed to push the envelope of film making in the films Persona and Cries and Whispers. Bergman stated on numerous occasions (for example in the interview book Bergman on Bergman) that The Silence meant the end of the era in which religious questions were a major concern of his films. Bergman said that he would get depressed by his own films: \"jittery and ready to cry... and miserable.\" In the same interview he also stated: \"If there is one thing I miss about working with films, it is working with Sven\" (Nykvist), the third cinematographer with whom he had collaborated.\n\n\n=== Theatrical work ===\n\nAlthough Bergman was universally famous for his contribution to cinema, he was also an active and productive stage director all his life. During his studies at what was then Stockholm University College, he became active in its student theatre, where he made a name for himself early on. His first work after graduation was as a trainee-director at a Stockholm theatre. At twenty-six years, he became the youngest theatrical manager in Europe at the Helsingborg City Theatre. He stayed at Helsingborg for three years and then became the director at Gothenburg city theatre from 1946 to 1949.\nHe became director of the Malm\u00f6 City Theatre in 1953, and remained for seven years. Many of his star actors were people with whom he began working on stage. He was the director of the Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm from 1960 to 1966, and manager from 1963 to 1966, where he began a long-time collaboration with choreographer Donya Feuer.\nAfter Bergman left Sweden because of the tax evasion incident, he became director of the Residenz Theatre of Munich, Germany (1977\u20131984). He remained active in theatre throughout the 1990s and made his final production on stage with Henrik Ibsen's The Wild Duck at the Royal Dramatic Theatre in 2002.\n\n\n== Personal life ==\n\n\n=== Marriages and children ===\n\nBergman was married five times:\n\n25 March 1943 \u2013 1945, to Else Fisher (1 March 1918 \u2013 3 March 2006), choreographer and dancer (divorced). Offspring:\nLena Bergman, actress, born 1943.\n22 July 1945 \u2013 1950, to Ellen Lundstr\u00f6m (23 April 1919 \u2013 6 March 2007), choreographer and film director (divorced). Children:\nEva Bergman, film director, born 1945\nJan Bergman, film director (1946\u20132000)\nthe twins Mats and Anna Bergman, both actors and film directors, born in 1948.\n1951 \u2013 1959, to Gun Grut (1916\u20131971), journalist (divorced). Offspring:\nIngmar Bergman Jr., retired airline captain, born 1951.\n1959 \u2013 1969, to K\u00e4bi Laretei (14 July 1922 \u2013 31 October 2014), concert pianist (divorced). Offspring:\nDaniel Bergman, film director, born 1962.\n11 November 1971 \u2013 20 May 1995, to Ingrid von Rosen (maiden name Karlebo). Offspring:\nMaria von Rosen, author, born 1959.The first four marriages ended in divorce, while the last ended when his wife Ingrid died of stomach cancer in 1995, aged 65. Aside from his marriages, Bergman had romantic relationships with actresses Harriet Andersson (1952\u20131955), Bibi Andersson (1955\u20131959), and Liv Ullmann (1965\u20131970). He was the father of writer Linn Ullmann with Ullmann. In all, Bergman had nine children, one of whom predeceased him. Bergman eventually married all the mothers of his children, with the exception of Liv Ullmann. His daughter with his last wife, Ingrid von Rosen, was born twelve years before their marriage. He had dozens of mistresses throughout his life and would justify the affairs to his various wives by telling them: \u201cI have so many lives.\u201dAlthough Bergman once described himself as one who had lost his faith in an afterlife, Max von Sydow stated in an interview that he had had many discussions with him about religion, and indicated that Bergman's belief in the afterlife was restored.\n\n\n== Awards and nominations ==\n\nIn 1958, he won the Best Director award for Brink of Life at the Cannes Film Festival, and won the Golden Bear for Wild Strawberries at the Berlin International Film Festival. In 1960 Bergman was featured in the cover of TIME, the first foreign-language filmmaker to do so since Leni Riefenstahl in 1936. In 1971, Bergman received the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award at the Academy Awards ceremony. Three of his films (Through a Glass Darkly, The Virgin Spring, and Fanny and Alexander) won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. In 1997, he was awarded the Palme des Palmes (Palm of the Palms) at the 50th anniversary of the Cannes Film Festival. He won many other awards and has been nominated for numerous other awards.\nAcademy Awards\n\n\n== Legacy ==\n\nIn 1996, Entertainment Weekly ranked Bergman at No. 8 in its \"50 Greatest Directors\" list.\nIn 2002, Bergman was listed at number nine on the British Film Institute's Sight & Sound list of the top ten film directors of modern times.MovieMaker magazine ranked Bergman at No. 13 on their 2002 list of The 25 Most Influential Directors of All Time. \nBergman was ranked at No. 36 on Empire magazine's \"Top 40 Greatest Directors of All-Time\" list in 2005. In 2007, Total Film magazine ranked Bergman at No. 7 on its \"100 Greatest Film Directors Ever\" list.\nIn 2017, New York magazine ranked Bergman at number 55 on their list of The 100 Best Screenwriters of All Time.Bergman's work was a point of reference and inspiration for director Woody Allen. He described Bergman as \u201cprobably the greatest film artist, all things considered, since the invention of the motion picture camera\u201d. Bergman's films are mentioned and praised in Annie Hall and others of Allen's films. Allen also admired Bergman's longtime director of photography Sven Nykvist and invited him to return as his DP on Crimes and Misdemeanors.Terrence Rafferty of The New York Times wrote that throughout the 1960s, when Bergman \"was considered pretty much the last word in cinematic profundity, his every tic was scrupulously pored over, analyzed, elaborated in ingenious arguments about identity, the nature of film, the fate of the artist in the modern world and so on.\"Danish Director Thomas Vinterberg has cited Bergman as one of his major influences, \"Bergman is always in my head. He is part of my upbringing and I was fortunate to meet him and get advice from him.\"Writer and director Richard Ayoade counts Bergman as one of his inspirations. In 2017, the British Film Institute (BFI) hosted an Ingmar Bergman season and Ayoade said in a Guardian interview that he saw everything in it, \"which was one of the best two months ever.\" The BFI's programme included a discussion with Ayoade on Bergman's 1966 film, Persona, before a screening.After Bergman died, a large archive of notes was donated to the Swedish Film Institute. Among the notes are several unpublished and unfinished scripts both for stage and films, and many more ideas for works in different stages of development. A never-performed play has the title K\u00e4rlek utan \u00e4lskare (\"Love without lovers\"), and has the note \"Complete disaster!\" written on the envelope; the play is about a director who disappears and an editor who tries to complete a work he has left unfinished. Other canceled projects include the script for a pornographic film which Bergman abandoned since he did not think it was alive enough, a play about a cannibal, some loose scenes set inside a womb, a film about the life of Jesus, a film about The Merry Widow, and a play with the title Fr\u00e5n sperm till sp\u00f6ke (\"From sperm to spook\"). The Swedish director Marcus Lindeen went through the material, and inspired by K\u00e4rlek utan \u00e4lskare he took samples from many of the works and turned them into a play, titled Arkivet f\u00f6r orealiserbara dr\u00f6mmar och visioner (\"The archive for unrealisable dreams and visions\"). Lindeen's play premiered on 28 May 2012 at the Stockholm City Theatre.\n\n\n== Exhibitions ==\n\n\n== See also ==\nCinema of Sweden\nList of film collaborations\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nBergman on Bergman: Interviews with Ingmar Bergman. By Stig Bj\u00f6rkman, Torsten Manns, and Jonas Sima; translated by Paul Britten Austin. Simon & Schuster, New York. Swedish edition copyright 1970; English translation 1973.\nFilmmakers on filmmaking: the American Film Institute seminars on motion pictures and television (edited by Joseph McBride). Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1983.\nImages: my life in film, Ingmar Bergman. Translated by Marianne Ruuth. New York, Arcade Pub., 1994, ISBN 1-55970-186-2\nSteene, Birgitta (1 January 2005). Ingmar Bergman: A Reference Guide. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 9789053564066.\nThe Magic Lantern, Ingmar Bergman. Translated by Joan Tate New York, Viking Press, 1988, ISBN 0-670-81911-5\nThe Demons of Modernity: Ingmar Bergman and European Cinema, John Orr, Berghahn Books, 2014.\nGado, Frank (1986). The Passion of Ingmar Bergman. Duke University Press. ISBN 0822305860.\nLivry, Anatoly (2020). Ingmar Bergman et le National-socialisme hitl\u00e9rien. Alba Leone, Paris. ISBN 978-973-0-32992-6.\n\n\n== External links ==\n Quotations related to Ingmar Bergman at Wikiquote\n Media related to Ingmar Bergman at Wikimedia Commons\n\nIngmar Bergman Foundation\nIngmar Bergman at IMDb\nIngmar Bergman at the Swedish Film Database \nIngmar Bergman at the TCM Movie Database \nIngmar Bergman, film on The Guardian\nIngmar Bergman on the British Film Institute\nThe Ingmar Bergman Foundation\nIngmar Bergman all posters\nThe Guardian/NFT interview with Liv Ullmann by Shane Danielson, 23 January 2001\nBergman Week\nRegilexikon\nDVD Beaver's Director's Chair on Bergman, with links to DVD and Blu-ray comparisons of his major filmsBibliographiesIngmar Bergman Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)\nIngmar Bergman Site\nCollection of interviews with Bergman", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Bergman_Sjostrom_1957.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Filmstaden.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Grave_of_Ingmar_Bergman%2C_may_2008.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Ingmar_86135a.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Ingmar_Bergman_%26_Sven_Nykvist.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Ingmar_Bergman_%281966%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Ingmar_Bergman_Signature.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Ingmar_Bergman_Smultronstallet.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Ingmar_Bergman_and_Ingrid_Thulin_-Tystnaden.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Popiersie_Ingmar_Bergman_ssj_20110627.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Sv-Ingmar_Bergman.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "Ernst Ingmar Bergman (14 July 1918 \u2013 30 July 2007) was a Swedish film director, screenwriter, producer and playwright. Universally ranked among the most accomplished and influential filmmakers of all time, Bergman's films include The Seventh Seal, Persona, and Fanny and Alexander.\nBergman directed over sixty films and documentaries for cinematic release and for television screenings, most of which he also wrote. His theatrical career continued in parallel and included periods as Leading Director of the Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm and of the Residenztheater in Munich. He also directed over 170 plays. He forged a creative partnership with his cinematographers Gunnar Fischer and Sven Nykvist. Among his company of actors were Harriet Andersson, Bibi Andersson, Liv Ullmann, Gunnar Bj\u00f6rnstrand, Erland Josephson, Ingrid Thulin, and Max von Sydow. Most of his films were set in Sweden, and many films from Through a Glass Darkly (1961) onward were filmed on the island of F\u00e5r\u00f6.\nPhilip French referred to Bergman as \"one of the greatest artists of the 20th century ... he found in literature and the performing arts a way of both recreating and questioning the human condition.\" Director Martin Scorsese commented: \"If you were alive in the 50s and the 60s and of a certain age, a teenager on your way to becoming an adult, and you wanted to make movies, I don't see how you couldn't be influenced by Bergman ....It's impossible to overestimate the effect that those films had on people.\" Bergman was ranked 7th in director's poll on Sight & Sound's 2002 list of The Greatest Directors of All Time.\n\n"}, "Another_Round_": {"links": ["Gabriele Salvatores", "Bodil Award for Best Screenplay", "Amarcord", "thirty-twond Robert Awards", "Letters from Iwo Jima", "Henry V ", "Roma ", "Dekalog", "Strike First Freddy", "The Look of Silence", "Begin the Beguine ", "San Francisco Bay Area Film Critics Circle", "Fanny and Alexander", "sixty-onest Bodil Awards", "The Sea Inside", "Alliance of Women Film Journalists", "The Skin I Live In", "twenty-sixth Robert Awards", "Amores perros", "Shall We Dance? ", "forty-sixth C\u00e9sar Awards", "Get Out Your Handkerchiefs", "Ordet", "The Ghost Writer ", "nineteenth Robert Awards", "Det Sande Ansigt", "twond Robert Awards", "seventy-fourth British Academy Film Awards", "Thomas Bo Larsen", "Houston Film Critics Society Awards twenty twenty", "A Stranger Knocks", "fifty-seventh Bodil Awards", "A Short Film About Killing", "No Man's Land ", "St. Louis Film Critics Association", "The Day Will Come ", "Lamerica", "European Film Award for Best Film", "The Flying Devils", "Shoeshine ", "Maria Bonnevie", "Ren\u00e9 Cl\u00e9ment", "Houston Film Critics Society", "L\u00e1szl\u00f3 Nemes", "Journey of Hope ", "Juan Jos\u00e9 Campanella", "A Sunday in the Country", "LUX Prize", "sixty-twond Bodil Awards", "Freeze-frame shot", "seventyth Bodil Awards", "Chicago Film Critics Association", "Fernando Trueba", "Luis Bu\u00f1uel", "United States dollar", "seventy-eightth Golden Globe Awards", "eighteenth Robert Awards", "twenty-twond Robert Awards", "That 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"Swedish Film Institute", "Samuel Goldwyn Films", "Three Colours: Red", "BAFTA Award for Best Direction", "Festen", "Der kom en dag", "sixty-threerd Bodil Awards", "The Hollywood Reporter", "Sisse Graum J\u00f8rgensen", "Yol", "twenty-fourth Robert Awards", "fourteenth LUX Audience Award", "Serge Bourguignon", "twentyth Robert Awards", "twenty twenty Toronto International Film Festival", "Academy Awards", "Bodil Award for Best Danish Film", "The Stolen Children", "Black and White in Color", "four Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days", "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon", "To Live ", "Golden Shell", "Y tu mam\u00e1 tambi\u00e9n", "Burgtheater", "sixtyth Bodil Awards", "Jean-Jacques Annaud", "The Element of Crime", "BAFTA Award for Best Original Screenplay", "Closely Watched Trains", "The Apartment ", "The Barbarian Invasions", "Black Orpheus", "Sin nombre ", "Samurai I: Musashi Miyamoto", "Man of Iron", "The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ", "threerd Robert Awards", "The Son ", "People Meet and Sweet 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"Parasite ", "Gomorrah ", "Cold War ", "eight\u00bd", "San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Foreign Language Film", "A Very Long Engagement", "The Lives of Others", "Golden Globe Awards", "sixteenth Robert Awards", "sixty-fiveth Bodil Awards", "War and Peace ", "Susanne ", "Cinema Paradiso", "Silver Shell for Best Actor", "Robert Award for Best Director", "Bong Joon-ho", "4 Months, three Weeks and 2 Days", "European Film Award for Best Director", "YouTube", "La Strada", "Leviathan ", "The Assault ", "Danton ", "Eurimages", "thirtyth Robert Awards", "Angi Vera", "The Full Monty", "Endeavor ", "Akira Kurosawa", "Mother ", "All About My Mother", "We Shall Overcome ", "King's Game", "Harry and the Butler", "BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language", "thirty-threerd Robert Awards", "Madame Rosa", "Vladimir Menshov", "Street Without End ", "Head-On ", "Caf\u00e9 Paradis", "Emma's Shadow", "Land and Freedom", "In My Life ", "In the Blood ", "Beauty and the Beast ", 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V\u00e4st", "Cach\u00e9 ", "Antonia's Line", "The Garden of the Finzi-Continis ", "Danish language", "Ang.: Lone", "Melancholia ", "You, the Living", "seventeenth Robert Awards", "LUX Audience Award", "Michael Haneke", "Mediterraneo", "The Official Story", "Academy Award for Best International Feature Film", "fourteenth Robert Awards", "Dersu Uzala ", "Carmen ", "Pelle the Conqueror", "Dear Wendy", "The Hunt ", "Jan Sv\u011br\u00e1k", "Breaking the Waves", "EFE", "Giuseppe Tornatore", "Alejandro Amen\u00e1bar", "The Square ", "Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck", "Be Dear to Me", "sixty-fourth Bodil Awards", "London Film Critics' Circle Award for Foreign Language Film of the Year", "Marcel Camus", "Chicago Film Critics Association Awards", "I've Loved You So Long", "Biutiful", "Binge drinking", "thirty-threerd European Film Awards", "The Escape ", "The Marriage of Maria Braun", "Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Foreign Language Film", "twenty-fiveth Robert Awards", "The Act of Killing", "Robert Award for Best Danish Film", "Au revoir les enfants", "Jazz All Around", "Coeurs flamb\u00e9s", "Tobias Lindholm", "Luis Puenzo", "Gavin Hood", "Kolya", "Terribly Happy", "Mephisto ", "The Great Beauty", "Toni Erdmann", "fifty-onest International Film Festival of India", "C\u00e9sar Awards", "Gertrud ", "Johnny Larsen", "Let the Right One In ", "Lars-Ole five.c", "Youth ", "In a Better World", "fifty-fourth Bodil Awards", "fifty-sixth Bodil Awards", "The White Ribbon", "Departures ", "San Sebasti\u00e1n International Film Festival", "Submarino", "The Day That Never Comes", "Raise the Red Lantern", "Farlig Ungdom", "J\u00e1n Kad\u00e1r", "Indochine ", "Bodil Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role", "Pain of Love", "It's All About Love", "The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie", "sixty-nineth Bodil Awards", "BFI London Film Festival", "C\u0153urs flamb\u00e9s", "Il Postino: The Postman", "Weekend ", "Sergei Bondarchuk", "Sturla Brandth Gr\u00f8vlen", "Ida ", "twelveth Robert Awards", "A Heart in Winter", "The Art of Crying", "Fran\u00e7ois Truffaut", "IndieWire Critics Poll", "Leonardo DiCaprio", "fifty-eightth Bodil Awards", "The Mercury News", "Character ", "Jos\u00e9 Luis Garci", "A Prophet", "Netherlands Film Fund", "The Motorcycle Diaries ", "Claude Lelouch", "The Secret in Their Eyes", "Maria Full of Grace", "Ingmar Bergman", "Nightwatch ", "Richard Dembo", "Rust and Bone", "A Fantastic Woman", "Adam and Eve ", "The Crying Game", "Force Majeure ", "Elle ", "Film Fest Gent", "Europa ", "fifteenth Robert Awards", "Susse Wold", "European Film Award for Best Actor", "The Shop on Main Street", "twenty-eightth Robert Awards", "Online Film Critics Society", "Jacques Tati", "Of Gods and Men ", "twenty-nineth Robert Awards", "Costa-Gavras", "thirteenth Robert Awards", "The Beast Within ", "The Counterfeiters ", "Der er et yndigt land ", "Amour ", "Farewell My Concubine ", "The Virgin Spring", "The Favourite", "Gate of Hell ", "International co-production", "Dancer in the Dark", "Adam's Apples", "Volver", "Jean de Florette", "Life Is Beautiful", "Paolo Sorrentino"], "content": "Another Round (Danish: Druk, \"binge drinking\") is a 2020 comedy-drama film directed by Thomas Vinterberg, from a screenplay by Vinterberg and Tobias Lindholm. An international co-production between Denmark, the Netherlands, and Sweden, the film stars Mads Mikkelsen, Thomas Bo Larsen, Magnus Millang, and Lars Ranthe.\nThe film had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on 12 September 2020, and was released in Denmark on 24 September 2020 by Nordisk Film. At the 93rd Academy Awards, the film won for Best International Feature Film and was also nominated for Best Director. It also won BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language and European Film Award for Best Film, and was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film.\n\n\n== Plot ==\nTeachers Martin, Tommy, Peter and Nikolaj are colleagues and friends at a gymnasium school in Copenhagen. All four struggle with unmotivated students and feel that their lives have become boring and stale. At a dinner celebrating Nikolaj's 40th birthday, the group begins to discuss psychiatrist Finn Sk\u00e5rderud, who has theorized that having a blood alcohol content (BAC) of 0.05 makes you more creative and relaxed. While the group dismisses the theory, Martin, who is depressed due to troubles in his marriage, is inspired and starts to drink at work. The rest of the group eventually decides to join him, considering the ordeal an experiment to test Sk\u00e5rderud's theory. They agree to a set of rules: their BAC should never be below 0.05 and that they should not drink after 8:00 pm.\nWithin a short period of time, all four members of the group find both their work and private lives more enjoyable. Martin, in particular, is delighted as he finally manages to reconnect with his wife and children. Agreeing that the experiment should be taken further, the group increases the daily BAC limit to 0.10. Still finding their lives improved, the group decides to attempt binge drinking to observe how their bodies and minds respond. The group has a fun night, but after coming home drunk, both Martin and Nikolaj are confronted by their families. Martin's family express their worries that he is descending into alcoholism, revealing that he has been visibly drunk for weeks. After a heated argument during which Martin's wife admits to infidelity, Martin leaves her. The group abandons the experiment.\nMonths later, all the members of the group have stopped drinking during the day with the exception of Tommy, who has become an alcoholic. A few days after arriving to work drunk, Tommy boards his boat with his old dog, sails out on the ocean and dies, presumably by falling in (possibly by suicide, but this is not explicitly stated).\nThe three remaining members of the group go out to dinner after Tommy's funeral and appear reluctant to drink the alcohol which is served. While dining, Martin receives a message from his wife who states that she is willing to give their marriage a new chance while the recently graduated students drive by. Martin, Peter and Nikolaj join them in celebrating and drinking at the harbour. Martin, a former jazz ballet dancer, dances with the rest of the partygoers, which he had refused up to this point in the film despite his colleagues' repeated urging. His dance becomes increasingly energetic and joyous, and the story ends as he leaps into the water, on a freeze frame of him in midair.\n\n\n== Cast ==\nMads Mikkelsen as Martin\nThomas Bo Larsen as Tommy\nLars Ranthe as Peter\nMagnus Millang as Nikolaj\nMaria Bonnevie as Anika\nSusse Wold as The Principal\n\n\n== Production ==\nThe film was based on a play Vinterberg had written while working at Burgtheater, Vienna. Additional inspiration came from Vinterberg's own daughter, Ida, who had told stories of the drinking culture within the Danish youth. Ida had originally pressed Vinterberg to adapt the play into a movie, and she was slated to play the daughter of Martin (Mads Mikkelsen). The story was originally \"A celebration of alcohol based on the thesis that world history would have been different without alcohol\". However, four days into filming, Ida was killed in a car accident. Following the tragedy, the script was reworked to become more life affirming. \"It should not just be about drinking. It was about being awakened to life\", stated Vinterberg. Tobias Lindholm served as director in the week following the accident. The film was dedicated to Ida, and was partially filmed in her classroom with her classmates.During production, the four main actors and Vinterberg would meet to drink just enough to let go of the embarrassment in front of each other. They would also watch drunk people on YouTube to better understand how completely inebriated people would act.\n\n\n== Release ==\nAnother Round was set to have its world premiere at the 2020 Cannes Film Festival, prior to the festival's cancellation due to government restrictions prompted by the COVID-19 pandemic. The film instead had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival. It was screened at the San Sebasti\u00e1n International Film Festival, where it competed for the Golden Shell and opened Film Fest Gent 2020 in Belgium.It was released in Denmark on 24 September 2020, by Nordisk Film. In September 2020, Samuel Goldwyn Films acquired U.S. distribution rights to the film. It was also selected as opening film at the 51st International Film Festival of India.\n\n\n== Reception ==\n\n\n=== Critical response ===\nOn review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Another Round holds an approval rating of 93% based on 205 reviews, with an average rating of 7.9/10. The site's critics consensus states: \"Take one part deftly directed tragicomedy, add a dash of Mads Mikkelsen in vintage form, and you've got Another Round \u2013 an intoxicating look at midlife crises.\" On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 79 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".\n\n\n=== Accolades ===\n\n\n== Remake ==\nAn American English-language remake of the film is planned to star Leonardo DiCaprio and to be produced by Appian Way Productions, Endeavor Content, and Makeready.\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of submissions to the 93rd Academy Awards for Best International Feature Film\nList of Danish submissions for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website \nAnother Round at IMDb\nAnother Round at Rotten Tomatoes", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ea/Another_Round_%28film%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "Another Round (Danish: Druk, \"binge drinking\") is a 2020 comedy-drama film directed by Thomas Vinterberg, from a screenplay by Vinterberg and Tobias Lindholm. An international co-production between Denmark, the Netherlands, and Sweden, the film stars Mads Mikkelsen, Thomas Bo Larsen, Magnus Millang, and Lars Ranthe.\nThe film had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on 12 September 2020, and was released in Denmark on 24 September 2020 by Nordisk Film. At the 93rd Academy Awards, the film won for Best International Feature Film and was also nominated for Best Director. It also won BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language and European Film Award for Best Film, and was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film."}, "United_States_dollar": {"links": ["Climate change in the United States", "Malayan dollar", "Western United States", "Bland-Allison Act", "Coinage clause", "Colorado River", "English language", "Saudi riyal", "Papua New Guinean kina", "Union ", "Bahraini dinar", "George Washington", "Central Bank of Russia", "German language", "Mill sign", "Federal Reserve Bank", "Bank of Pennsylvania", "Great Depression", "Malaya and British Borneo dollar", "List of companies of the United States by state", "Defense Intelligence Agency", "World Bank Group", "Nickel", "Mississippi River", "Prince Edward Island dollar", "Anguilla", "Ecuador", "Pound sterling", "Islamophobia in the United States", "XE.com", "United States Treasury security", "Senegal", "Code of Federal Regulations", "Hawai'i Sign Language", "Mount Rushmore", "twond United States Congress", "USD ", "French Polynesia", "Elections in the United States", "Wildcat banking", "Google Finance", "Spanish real", "Printer ", "Income inequality in the United States", "Jamaican dollar", "Palladium coin", "Trinidad and Tobago dollar", "Canary Islands", "S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe dobra", "Dahlonega Mint", "New Zealand", "Norwegian speciedaler", "Gold coin", "Bank War", "Abkhazia", "Monetary policy of the United States", "American literature", "Nepalese rupee", "Standard of living in the United States", "Milton Friedman", "Seal of the President of the United States", "Leather", "Great American Novel", "Federal enclave", "Constitution of the United States", "Hong Kong dollar", "Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States", "American Revolutionary War", "Quarter dollar", "Federal law enforcement in the United States", "Missouri River", "The Bahamas", "Royal Mint", "Uruguayan peso", "High-powered money", "Personal property", "Turkish lira", "Wayback Machine", "Bland\u2013Allison Act", "Standard of deferred payment", "Danish West Indian daler", "Dominican dollar", "Continental America", "Great Recession in the United States", "French West Indies", "State legislature ", "Mint Act", "Comorian franc", "Tanzanian shilling", "Ethiopian birr", "Second Industrial Revolution", "Articles of Confederation", "American Sign Language", "Nixon Shock", "Half dime", "Richard Nixon", "Sahrawi peseta", "Strong dollar policy", "Entropia Universe", "Texas dollar", "Australia", "Independent agencies of the United States government", "Oak", "American Buffalo ", "Newfoundland dollar", "Mauritian rupee", "Saint Barth\u00e9lemy", "American exceptionalism", "John Maynard Keynes", "Money", "Antigua and Barbuda", "Namibian dollar", "Israeli new shekel", "Susan B. 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Grant", "Promissory note"], "content": "The United States dollar (symbol: $; code: USD; also abbreviated US$ or U.S. Dollar, to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies; referred to as the dollar, U.S. dollar, American dollar, or colloquially buck) is the official currency of the United States and its territories. The Coinage Act of 1792 introduced the U.S. dollar at par with the Spanish silver dollar, divided it into 100 cents, and authorized the minting of coins denominated in dollars and cents. U.S. banknotes are issued in the form of Federal Reserve Notes, popularly called greenbacks due to its historically predominantly green color.\nThe monetary policy of the United States is conducted by the Federal Reserve System, which acts as the nation's central bank.\nThe U.S. dollar was originally defined under a bimetallic standard of 371.25 grains (24.057 g) fine silver or, from 1837, 23.22 grains (1.505 g) fine gold, or $20.67 per troy ounce. The Gold Standard Act of 1900 linked the dollar solely to gold. From 1934 its equivalence to gold was revised to $35 per troy ounce. Since 1971 all links to gold have been repealed.\nThe U.S. dollar became an important international reserve currency after the First World War, and displaced the pound sterling as the world's primary reserve currency by the Bretton Woods Agreement towards the end of the Second World War. The dollar is the most widely used currency in international transactions.\n\nIt is also the official currency in several countries and the de facto currency in many others,\n\nwith Federal Reserve Notes (and, in a few cases, U.S. coins) used in circulation.\nAs of February 10, 2021, currency in circulation amounted to US$2.10 trillion, $2.05 trillion of which is in Federal Reserve Notes (the remaining $50 billion is in the form of U.S. notes and coins).\n\n\n== Overview ==\n\n\n=== In the Constitution ===\nArticle I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution provides that Congress has the power \"[t]o coin money.\" Laws implementing this power are currently codified in Title 31 of the U.S. Code, under Section 5112, which prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued. These coins are both designated in the section as \"legal tender\" in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, in contrast to the American Silver Eagle which is pure silver. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins, which have values ranging from one cent (U.S. Penny) to 100 dollars. These other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar.\nArticle I, Section 9 of the Constitution provides that \"a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time,\" which is further specified by Section 331 of Title 31 of the U.S. Code. The sums of money reported in the \"Statements\" are currently expressed in U.S. dollars, thus the U.S. dollar may be described as the unit of account of the United States. \"Dollar\" is one of the first words of Section 9, in which the term refers to the Spanish milled dollar, or the coin worth eight Spanish reales.\n\n\n=== The Coinage Act ===\nIn 1792, the U.S. Congress passed the Coinage Act, of which Section 9 authorized the production of various coins, including:Dollars or Units\u2014each to be of the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current, and to contain three hundred and seventy-one grains and four sixteenth parts of a grain of pure, or four hundred and sixteen grains of standard silver.Section 20 of the Act designates the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States:[T]he money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units\u2026and that all accounts in the public offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation.\n\n\n=== Decimal Units ===\nUnlike the Spanish milled dollar, the Continental Congress and the Coinage Act prescribed a decimal system of units to go with the unit dollar, as follows:\n\nthe mill, or one-thousandth of a dollar; \nthe cent, or one-hundredth of a dollar; \nthe dime, or one-tenth of a dollar; and \nthe eagle, or ten dollars.\nCurrent relevance of these units:\n\nOnly the cent (\u00a2) is used as everyday division of the dollar.\nThe dime is used solely as the name of the coin with the value of 10 cents.\nThe mill (\u20a5) is relatively unknown, but before the mid-20th century was familiarly used in matters of sales taxes, as well as gasoline prices, which are usually in the form of $\u03a7\u03a7.\u03a7\u03a79 per gallon (e.g., $3.599, commonly written as $3.59+9\u204410).\nThe eagle is also largely unknown to the general public. This term was used in the Coinage Act of 1792 for the denomination of ten dollars, and subsequently was used in naming gold coins.The Spanish peso or dollar was historically divided into eight reales (colloquially, bits) - hence pieces of eight. Americans also learned counting in non-decimal bits of 121\u20442 cents before 1857 when Mexican bits were more frequently encountered than American cents; in fact this practice survived in New York Stock Exchange quotations until 2001.In 1854, Secretary of the Treasury James Guthrie proposed creating $100, $50, and $25 gold coins, to be referred to as a union, half union, and quarter union, respectively, thus implying a denomination of 1 Union = $100. However, no such coins were ever struck, and only patterns for the $50 half union exist.\nWhen currently issued in circulating form, denominations less than or equal to a dollar are emitted as U.S. coins, while denominations greater than or equal to a dollar are emitted as Federal Reserve Notes, disregarding these special cases:\n\nGold coins issued for circulation until the 1930s, up to the value of $20 (known as the double eagle)\nBullion or commemorative gold, silver, platinum, and palladium coins valued up to $100 as legal tender (though worth far more as bullion).\nCivil War paper currency issue in denominations below $1, i.e. fractional currency, sometimes pejoratively referred to as shinplasters.\n\n\n=== Etymology ===\n\nIn the 16th century, Count Hieronymus Schlick of Bohemia began minting coins known as joachimstalers, named for Joachimstal, the valley in which the silver was mined. In turn, the valley's name is titled after Saint Joachim, whereby thal or tal, a cognate of the English word dale, is German for 'valley.'\nThe joachimstaler was later shortened to the German taler, a word that eventually found its way into many languages, including:tolar (Czech and Slovak);\ndaler (Danish and Swedish);\ndalar and daler (Norwegian);\ndaler or daalder (Dutch); \ntalari (Ethiopian );\ntall\u00e9r (Hungarian);\ntallero (Italian); \n\u062f\u0648\u0644\u0627\u0631 (Arabic); and\ndollar (English).\nThe taler also lent its name to coins in other places of similar size and weight.\nThe leeuwendaler ('lion dollar') was a Dutch coin depicting a lion.\nFrom the 17th century to the early 18th century it was a popular coin of choice for foreign trade in the Dutch East Indies, in the Dutch North American New Netherland Colony (today the New York metropolitan area), and the other Thirteen Colonies since it contained less silver than most other available large coins.\nWith the discontinuation of the lion dollar before 1690, and the improvement in quality of Spanish-American coins emanating from Mexico from the 1720s, it was the Spanish peso which American colonists have increasingly referred to the dollar. The Spanish dollar, famously known as the 'piece of eight,' was distributed widely in the Spanish colonies of the New World and in the Philippines.\nEventually, dollar became the name of the official American currency.\n\n\n=== Nicknames ===\n\n\n==== Dollars in general ====\nThe colloquialism buck(s) (much like the British quid for the pound sterling) is often used to refer to dollars of various nations, including the U.S. dollar. This term, dating to the 18th century, may have originated with the colonial leather trade, or it may also have originated from a poker term. Likewise, the $1 note has been nicknamed buck, as well as single.\nGreenback is another nickname, originally applied specifically to the 19th-century Demand Note dollars, which were printed black and green on the back side, created by Abraham Lincoln to finance the North for the Civil War. It is still used to refer to the U.S. dollar (but not to the dollars of other countries). The term greenback is also used by  the financial press in other countries, such as\nAustralia,New Zealand,South Africa,\nand India.Other well-known names of the dollar as a whole in denominations include greenmail, green, and dead presidents, the latter of which referring to the deceased presidents pictured on most bills. Dollars in general have also been known as bones (e.g. \"twenty bones\" = $20). The newer designs, with portraits displayed in the main body of the obverse (rather than in cameo insets), upon paper color-coded by denomination, are sometimes referred to as bigface notes or Monopoly money.\nPiastre was the original French word for the U.S. dollar, used for example in the French text of the Louisiana Purchase. Calling the dollar a piastre is still common among the speakers of Cajun French and New England French. Modern French uses dollar for this unit of currency as well. The term is still used as slang for U.S. dollars in the French-speaking Caribbean islands, most notably Haiti.\n\n\n==== Specific to denomination ====\nThe quarter dollar coin is known as two bits, betraying the dollar's origins as the \"piece of eight\" (bits or reales).The infrequently-used $2 note is sometimes called deuce, Tom, or Jefferson (after Thomas Jefferson). Contrastly, the $5 bill has been called Lincoln, fin, fiver, and five-spot. The $50 bill is occasionally called a yardstick, or a grant, after President Ulysses S. Grant, pictured on the obverse. The $20 note has been referred to as a double sawbuck, Jackson (after Andrew Jackson), and double eagle. The $10 note can be referred to as a sawbuck, ten-spot, or Hamilton (after Alexander Hamilton).\nBenjamin, Benji, Ben, or Franklin, refers to the $100 bill, which features the likeness of the eponymous Benjamin Franklin. Other nicknames include C-note (C being the Roman numeral for 100), century note, and bill (e.g. two bills = $200).\nA grand (sometimes shortened to simply G) is a common term for the amount of $1,000, though the thousand-dollar note is no longer in general use. The suffix K or k (from kilo) is also commonly used to denote this amount (e.g. $10k = $10,000). Likewise, a large or stack usually references to a multiple of 1,000 (e.g. \"fifty large\" = $50,000).\n\n\n=== Dollar sign ===\n\nThe symbol $, usually written before the numerical amount, is used for the U.S. dollar (as well as for many other currencies). The sign was the result of a late 18th-century evolution of the scribal abbreviation ps for the peso, the common name for the Spanish dollars that were in wide circulation in the New World from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The p and the s eventually came to be written over each other giving rise to $.Another popular explanation is that it is derived from the Pillars of Hercules on the Spanish Coat of arms of the Spanish dollar. These Pillars of Hercules on the silver Spanish dollar coins take the form of two vertical bars (||) and a swinging cloth band in the shape of an S.\nYet another explanation suggests that the dollar sign was formed from the capital letters U and S written or printed one on top of the other. This theory, popularized by novelist Ayn Rand in Atlas Shrugged, does not consider the fact that the symbol was already in use before the formation of the United States.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Origins: the Spanish dollar ===\nThe US dollar was introduced at par with the Spanish-American silver dollar (or Spanish peso, Spanish milled dollar, eight-real coin, piece-of-eight). The latter was produced from the rich silver mine output of Spanish America; minted in Mexico City, Potos\u00ed (Bolivia), Lima (Peru) and elsewhere; and was in wide circulation throughout the Americas, Asia and Europe from the 16th to 19th centuries.\nAfter improvements of the Spanish dollar's minting in the 1720s it has displaced the use of other coins in the American colonies, most notably the lion dollar (occasionally called \"dog dollars\" for well-worn samples when the design is indistinguishable)\nwhich was used in the Dutch New Netherland Colony (New York) and the other English colonies from the 17th to early 18th century.\nEven after the United States Mint commenced issuing coins in 1792, locally minted dollars and cents were less abundant in circulation than Spanish American pesos and reales; hence Spanish, Mexican and American dollars all remained legal tender in the United States until the Coinage Act of 1857. In particular, Colonists' familiarity with the Spanish two-real quarter peso was the reason for issuing a quasi-decimal 25-cent quarter dollar coin rather than a 20-cent coin.\nFor the relationship between the Spanish dollar and the individual state colonial currencies, see Connecticut pound, Delaware pound, Georgia pound, Maryland pound, Massachusetts pound, New Hampshire pound, New Jersey pound, New York pound, North Carolina pound, Pennsylvania pound, Rhode Island pound, South Carolina pound, and Virginia pound.\n\n\n=== Coinage Act of 1792 ===\n\nOn the 6th of July 1785, the Continental Congress resolved that the money unit of the United States, the dollar, would contain 375.64 grains of fine silver; on the 8th of August 1786, the Continental Congress continued that definition and further resolved that the money of account, corresponding with the division of coins, would proceed in a decimal ratio, with the sub-units being mills at 0.001 of a dollar, cents at 0.010 of a dollar, and dimes at 0.100 of a dollar.After the adoption of the United States Constitution, the U.S. dollar was defined by the Coinage Act of 1792. It specified a \"dollar\" based on the Spanish milled dollar to contain 3714\u204416 grains of fine silver, or 416.0 grains (26.96 g) of \"standard silver\" of fineness 371.25/416 = 89.24%; as well as an \"eagle\" to contain 2474\u20448 grains of fine gold, or 270.0 grains (17.50 g) of 22 karat or 91.67% fine gold.Alexander Hamilton arrived at these numbers based on a treasury assay of the average fine silver content of a selection of worn Spanish dollars, which came out to be 371 grains. Combined with the prevailing gold-silver ratio of 15, the standard for gold was calculated at 371/15 = 24.73 grains fine gold or 26.98 grains 22K gold. Rounding the latter to 27.0 grains finalized the dollar's standard to 24.75 grains of fine gold or 24.75*15 = 371.25 grains fine silver.\nThe same coinage act also set the value of an eagle at 10 dollars, and the dollar at 1\u204410 eagle. It called for silver coins in denominations of 1, 1\u20442, 1\u20444, 1\u204410, and 1\u204420 dollar, as well as gold coins in denominations of 1, 1\u20442 and 1\u20444 eagle. The value of gold or silver contained in the dollar was then converted into relative value in the economy for the buying and selling of goods. This allowed the value of things to remain fairly constant over time, except for the influx and outflux of gold and silver in the nation's economy.Though a Spanish dollar freshly minted after 1772 theoretically contained 417.7 grains of silver of fineness 130/144 (or 377.1 grains fine silver), reliable assays of the period in fact confirmed a fine silver content of 370.95 grains (24.037 g) for the average Spanish dollar in circulation. \n\nThe new US silver dollar of 371.25 grains (24.057 g) therefore compared favorably and were received at par with the Spanish dollar for foreign payments, and after 1803 the United States Mint had to suspend making this coin out of its limited resources since it failed to stay in domestic circulation. It was only after Mexican independence in 1821 when their peso's fine silver content of 377.1 grains was firmly upheld, which the US later had to compete with using a heavier 378.0 grains (24.49 g) Trade dollar coin.\n\n\n=== Design ===\nThe early currency of the United States did not exhibit faces of presidents, as is the custom now; although today, by law, only the portrait of a deceased individual may appear on United States currency. In fact, the newly formed government was against having portraits of leaders on the currency, a practice compared to the policies of European monarchs. The currency as we know it today did not get the faces they currently have until after the early 20th century; before that \"heads\" side of coinage used profile faces and striding, seated, and standing figures from Greek and Roman mythology and composite Native Americans. The last coins to be converted to profiles of historic Americans were the dime (1946) and the Dollar (1971).\n\n\n=== Continental currency ===\n\nDuring the American Revolution the thirteen colonies became independent states. Freed from British monetary regulations, they each issued \u00a3sd paper money to pay for military expenses. The Continental Congress also began issuing \"Continental Currency\" denominated in Spanish dollars. For its value relative to states' currencies, see Early American currency#Continental currency.\nContinental currency depreciated badly during the war, giving rise to the famous phrase \"not worth a continental\". A primary problem was that monetary policy was not coordinated between Congress and the states, which continued to issue bills of credit. Additionally, neither Congress nor the governments of the several states had the will or the means to retire the bills from circulation through taxation or the sale of bonds. The currency was ultimately replaced by the silver dollar at the rate of 1 silver dollar to 1000 continental dollars. It gave rise to the phrase \"not worth a continental\", and was responsible for the clause in article 1, section 10 of the United States Constitution which reads: \"No state shall... make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts\".\n\n\n=== Silver and gold standards, 19th century ===\nFrom implementation of the 1792 Mint Act to the 1900 implementation of the gold standard the dollar was on a bimetallic silver-and-gold standard, defined as either 371.25 grains (24.056 g) of fine silver or 24.75 grains of fine gold (gold-silver ratio 15).\nSubsequent to the Coinage Act of 1834 the dollar's fine gold equivalent was revised to 23.2 grains; it was slightly adjusted to 23.22 grains (1.505 g) in 1837 (gold-silver ratio ~16). The same act also resolved the difficulty in minting the \"standard silver\" of 89.24% fineness by revising the dollar's alloy to 412.5 grains, 90% silver, still containing 371.25 grains fine silver. Gold was also revised to 90% fineness: 25.8 grains gross, 23.22 grains fine gold. \nSummary and links to coins issued in the 19th century:\n\nIn base metal: 1/2 cent, 1 cent, 5 cents.\nIn silver: half dime, dime, quarter dollar, half dollar, silver dollar.\nIn gold: gold $1, $2.50 quarter eagle, $5 half eagle, $10 eagle, $20 double eagle\nLess common denominations: bronze 2 cents, nickel 3 cents, silver 3 cents, silver 20 cents, gold $3.\n\n\n=== Note Issues, 19th century ===\n\nIn order to finance the War of 1812, Congress authorized the issuance of Treasury Notes, interest-bearing short-term debt that could be used to pay public dues. While they were intended to serve as debt, they did function \"to a limited extent\" as money. Treasury Notes were again printed to help resolve the reduction in public revenues resulting from the Panic of 1837 and the Panic of 1857, as well as to help finance the Mexican\u2013American War and the Civil War.\nPaper money was issued again in 1862 without the backing of precious metals due to the Civil War. In addition to Treasury Notes, Congress in 1861 authorized the Treasury to borrow $50 million in the form of Demand Notes, which did not bear interest but could be redeemed on demand for precious metals. However, by December 1861, the Union government's supply of specie was outstripped by demand for redemption and they were forced to suspend redemption temporarily. In February 1862 Congress passed the Legal Tender Act of 1862, issuing United States Notes, which were not redeemable on demand and bore no interest, but were legal tender, meaning that creditors had to accept them at face value for any payment except for public debts and import tariffs. However, silver and gold coins continued to be issued, resulting in the depreciation of the newly printed notes through Gresham's Law. In 1869, Supreme Court ruled in Hepburn v. Griswold that Congress could not require creditors to accept United States Notes, but overturned that ruling the next year in the Legal Tender Cases. In 1875, Congress passed the Specie Payment Resumption Act, requiring the Treasury to allow US Notes to be redeemed for gold after January 1, 1879.\n\n\n=== Gold standard, 20th century ===\n\nThough the dollar came under the gold standard de jure only after 1900, the bimetallic era was ended de facto by the Coinage Act of 1873, which repealed the free silver right of individuals to convert their silver into fully legal tender silver dollars, and right at the onset of the silver rush from the Comstock Lode in the 1870s. This was the so-called \"Crime of '73\".\nThe Gold Standard Act of 1900 repealed the U.S. dollar's historic link to silver and defined it solely as 23.22 grains (1.505 g) of fine gold (or $20.67 per troy ounce of 480 grains). In 1933, gold coins were confiscated by Executive Order 6102 under Franklin D. Roosevelt, and in 1934 the standard was changed to $35 per troy ounce fine gold, or 13.71 grains (0.888 g) per dollar.\nAfter 1968 a series of revisions to the gold peg was implemented, culminating in the Nixon Shock of August 15, 1971 which suddenly ended the convertibility of dollars to gold. The U.S. dollar has since floated freely on the foreign exchange markets.\n\n\n=== Federal Reserve Notes, 20th century to present ===\n\nCongress continued to issue paper money after the Civil War, the latest of which being the Federal Reserve Note that was authorized by the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. Since the discontinuation of all other types of notes (Gold Certificates in 1933, Silver Certificates in 1963, and United States Notes in 1971), US dollar notes have since been issued exclusively as Federal Reserve Notes.\n\n\n=== Emergence as Reserve Currency ===\n\nThe U.S. dollar first emerged as an important international reserve currency in the 1920s, displacing the British pound sterling as it emerged from the First World War relatively unscathed and since the United States was a significant recipient of wartime gold inflows. After the United States emerged as an even stronger global superpower during the Second World War, the Bretton Woods Agreement of 1944 established the U.S. dollar as the world's primary reserve currency and the only post-war currency linked to gold. Despite all links to gold being severed in 1971, the dollar continues be the world's foremost reserve currency for international trade to this day.\nThe Bretton Woods Agreement of 1944 also defined the post-World War II monetary order and relations among modern-day independent states, by setting up a system of rules, institutions, and procedures to regulate the international monetary system. The agreement founded the International Monetary Fund and other institutions of the modern-day World Bank Group, establishing the infrastructure for conducting international payments and accessing the global capital markets using the U.S. dollar.\nThe monetary policy of the United States is conducted by the Federal Reserve System, which acts as the nation's central bank. It was founded in 1913 under the Federal Reserve Act in order to furnish an elastic currency for the United States and to supervise its banking system, particularly in the aftermath of the Panic of 1907.\nFor most of the post-war period the U.S. government has financed its own spending by borrowing heavily from the dollar-lubricated global capital markets, in debts denominated in its own currency and at minimal interest rates. This ability to borrow heavily without facing significant balance of payments crisis has been described as the United States's exorbitant privilege.\n\n\n== Coins ==\n\nThe United States Mint has issued legal tender coins every year from 1792 to the present. From 1934 to present, the only denominations produced for circulation have been the familiar penny, nickel, dime, quarter, half dollar and dollar.\n\nGold and silver coins have been previously minted for general circulation from the 18th to the 20th centuries. The last gold coins were minted in 1933. The last 90% silver coins were minted in 1964, and the last 40% silver half dollar was minted in 1970.\nThe nickel is the only coin whose size and composition (5 grams, 75% copper and 25% nickel) is still in use from 1865 to today, except for wartime 1942-1945 Jefferson nickels which contained silver.\nDue to the penny's low value, some efforts have been made to eliminate the penny as circulating coinage.\nFor a discussion of other discontinued and cancelled denominations, see Obsolete denominations of United States currency#Coinage and Canceled denominations of United States currency#Coinage.\n\n\n=== Collector coins ===\nCollector coins for which everyday transactions are non-existent:\n\nAmerican Eagles originally were not available from the Mint for individuals but had to be purchased from authorized dealers. In 2006, the Mint began direct sales to individuals of uncirculated bullion coins with a special finish, and bearing a \"W\" mintmark.\nAmerican Silver Eagle $1 (1 troy oz) Silver bullion coin 1986\u2013present\nAmerican Gold Eagle $5 (1\u204410 troy oz), $10 (1\u20444 troy oz), $25 (1\u20442 troy oz), and $50 (1 troy oz) Gold bullion coin 1986\u2013present\nAmerican Platinum Eagle $10 (1\u204410 troy oz), $25 (1\u20444 troy oz), $50 (1\u20442 troy oz), and $100 (1 troy oz) Platinum bullion coin 1997\u2013present\nAmerican Palladium Eagle $25 (1 troy oz) Palladium bullion coin 2017\u2013present\nUnited States commemorative coins\u2014special issue coins\n$50.00 (Half Union) 1915\nPresidential Proofs (see below) 2007\u2013presentTechnically, all these coins are still legal tender at face value, though some are far more valuable today for their numismatic value, and for gold and silver coins, their precious metal value. No silver coin has been issued since 1970; however, since 1992, the U.S. Mint has produced special Silver Proof Sets in addition to the regular yearly proof sets with silver dimes, quarters, and half dollars in place of the standard copper-nickel versions. In addition, an experimental $4.00 (Stella) coin was also minted in 1879, but never placed into circulation, and is properly considered to be a pattern rather than an actual coin denomination.\nThe $50 coin mentioned was only produced in 1915 for the Panama-Pacific International Exposition (1915) celebrating the opening of the Panama Canal. Only 1,128 were made, 645 of which were octagonal; this remains the only U.S. coin that was not round as well as the largest and heaviest U.S. coin ever produced. A $100 gold coin was produced in High relief during 2015, although it was primarily produced for collectors, not for general circulation.Proof Sets: The United States Mint produces Proof Sets specifically for collectors and speculators. Silver Proofs tend to be the standard designs but with the dime, quarter, and half dollar containing 90% silver. Starting in 1983 and ending in 1997, the Mint also produced proof sets containing the year's commemorative coins alongside the regular coins. Another type of proof set is the Presidential Dollar Proof Set where the four special $1 coins are minted each year featuring a president. Because of budget constraints and increasing stockpiles of these relatively unpopular coins, the production of new presidential dollar coins for circulation was suspended on December 13, 2011, by U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy F. Geithner. Presidential dollars (along with all other dollar coin series) minted from 2012 onward were made solely for collectors. See link Presidential dollar coins for the sequence in which past presidents appeared in the series.\n\n\n=== Dollar coins ===\nThe standard silver dollar coin has been minted from 1794 to 1935 with a diameter of 1.50 inches (38 mm) and contained 371.25 grains (24.057 g) fine silver. This coin has never been popular in circulation for various reasons:\n\nFrom 1792 to 1803 the $1 coin compared favorably with the Spanish dollar and was accepted at par for overseas purchases. Its coinage was suspended in 1803 since it did not remain long in domestic circulation.\nIn the mid-1850s the price of gold dropped during the California gold rush, and the silver dollar was exported to places where it could fetch over $1 in gold.\nWhile substantial numbers of silver Morgan dollars were minted from 1878 pursuant to the Bland-Allison Act, there also existed an option to hold silver certificates fully backed by silver dollars kept in reserves. The majority of citizens therefore opted to use silver certificates while silver dollars languished inside vaults.Succeeding non-precious metal $1 coins from 1971 onwards did not circulate widely as well, the most important reason being the continued circulation of the $1 bill.\n\nFrom 1971 to 1978 the large-size copper-nickel Eisenhower dollar was minted. It was not popular due to its large size relative to its gradually diminishing value; further discussed under Eisenhower dollar.\nIn 1979 the smaller-sized Susan B. Anthony dollar coin was introduced; it was highly unpopular because they were often mistaken for quarters, due to their nearly equal size, their milled edge, and their similar color. For details about its subsequent issuance see Susan B. Anthony dollar.\nIn 2000 the Sacagawea dollar coin was introduced, correcting the various problems of the Anthony dollar by having a smooth edge, a gold color, same weight, and same electromagnetic signature that would avoid requiring changes to vending machines that accept the Anthony dollar. Again, it was rarely used since the $1 bill still widely circulates and continues to be popular; more details in link Sacagawea dollar\nFor the same reason, $1 coins issued under the Presidential $1 Coin Act of 2005 from 2007 to present rarely circulate; details of coins issued under this program contained in link Presidential dollar coins.\n\n\n=== Mint marks ===\n\n\n== Banknotes ==\n\nThe U.S. Constitution provides that Congress shall have the power to \"borrow money on the credit of the United States.\" Congress has exercised that power by authorizing Federal Reserve Banks to issue Federal Reserve Notes. Those notes are \"obligations of the United States\" and \"shall be redeemed in lawful money on demand at the Treasury Department of the United States, in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, or at any Federal Reserve bank\". Federal Reserve Notes are designated by law as \"legal tender\" for the payment of debts. Congress has also authorized the issuance of more than 10 other types of banknotes, including the United States Note and the Federal Reserve Bank Note. The Federal Reserve Note is the only type that remains in circulation since the 1970s.\nFederal Reserve Notes are printed by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing and are made from cotton fiber paper (as opposed to wood fiber used to make common paper). The \"large-sized notes\" issued before 1928 measured 7.42 in \u00d7 3.125 in (188.5 mm \u00d7 79.4 mm), while small-sized notes introduced that year measure 6.14 in \u00d7 2.61 in \u00d7 0.0043 in (155.96 mm \u00d7 66.29 mm \u00d7 0.11 mm). The dimensions of the modern (small-size) U.S. currency is identical to the size of Philippine peso banknotes issued under United States administration after 1903, which had proven highly successful.Currently printed denominations are $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100. Notes above the $100 denomination stopped being printed in 1946 and were officially withdrawn from circulation in 1969. These notes were used primarily in inter-bank transactions or by organized crime; it was the latter usage that prompted President Richard Nixon to issue an executive order in 1969 halting their use. With the advent of electronic banking, they became less necessary. Notes in denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, $10,000, and $100,000 were all produced at one time; see large denomination bills in U.S. currency for details. With the exception of the $100,000 bill (which was only issued as a Series 1934 Gold Certificate and was never publicly circulated; thus it is illegal to own), these notes are now collectors' items and are worth more than their face value to collectors.\nThough still predominantly green, post-2004 series incorporate other colors to better distinguish different denominations. As a result of a 2008 decision in an accessibility lawsuit filed by the American Council of the Blind, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing is planning to implement a raised tactile feature in the next redesign of each note, except the $1 and the current version of the $100 bill. It also plans larger, higher-contrast numerals, more color differences, and distribution of currency readers to assist the visually impaired during the transition period.\n\n\n== Monetary policy ==\n\nThe Federal Reserve Act created the Federal Reserve System in 1913 as the central bank of the United States. Its primary task is\nto conduct the nation\u2019s monetary policy to promote maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates in the U.S. economy. It is also tasked to promote the stability of the financial system and regulate financial institutions, and to act as lender of last resort.\nThe Monetary policy of the United States is conducted by the Federal Open Market Committee, which is composed of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors and 5 out of the 12 Federal Reserve Bank presidents, and is implemented by all twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks.\nMonetary policy refers to actions made by central banks which determine the size and growth rate of the money supply available in the economy, and which would result in desired objectives like low inflation, low unemployment and stable financial systems. The economy's aggregate money supply is the total of\n\nM0 money, or Monetary Base - \"dollars\" in currency and bank money balances credited to the central bank's depositors, which are backed by the central bank's assets,\nplus M1, M2, M3 money - \"dollars\" in the form of bank money balances credited to banks' depositors, which are backed by the bank's assets and investments.The FOMC influences the level of money available to the economy by the following means:\n\nReserve requirements - specifies a required minimum percentage of deposits in a commercial bank that should be held as reserve (i.e. as deposits with the Federal Reserve), with the rest available to loan or invest. Higher requirements mean less money loaned or invested, helping keep inflation in check. Raising the federal funds rate earned on those reserves also helps achieve this objective.\nOpen market operations - the Federal Reserve buys or sells US Treasury bonds and other securities held by banks in exchange for reserves; more reserves increase a bank's capacity to loan or invest elsewhere.\nDiscount window lending - banks can borrow from the Federal Reserve.Monetary policy directly affects interest rates; it indirectly affects stock prices, wealth, and currency exchange rates. Through these channels, monetary policy influences spending, investment, production, employment, and inflation in the United States. Effective monetary policy complements fiscal policy to support economic growth.\nThe adjusted monetary base has increased from approximately $400 billion in 1994, to $800 billion in 2005, and to over $3,000 billion in 2013.When the Federal Reserve makes a purchase, it credits the seller's reserve account (with the Federal Reserve). This money is not transferred from any existing funds\u2014it is at this point that the Federal Reserve has created new high-powered money. Commercial banks then decide how much money to keep in deposit with the Federal Reserve and how much to hold as physical currency. In the latter case the Federal Reserve places an order for printed money from the U.S. Treasury Department. The Treasury Department, in turn, sends these requests to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (to print new dollar bills) and the Bureau of the Mint (to stamp the coins).\nThe Federal Reserve's monetary policy objectives to keep prices stable and unemployment low is often called the dual mandate. This replaces past practices under a gold standard where the main concern is the gold equivalent of the local currency, or under a gold exchange standard where the concern is fixing the exchange rate versus another gold-convertible currency (previously practiced worldwide under the Bretton Woods Agreement of 1944 via fixed exchange rates to the U.S. dollar).\n\n\n== International use as reserve currency ==\n\n\n=== Ascendancy ===\nThe primary currency used for global trade between Europe, Asia and the Americas has historically been the Spanish-American silver dollar, which created a global silver standard system from the 16th to 19th centuries, due to abundant silver supplies in Spanish America.\nThe U.S. dollar itself was derived from this coin. The Spanish dollar was later displaced by the British pound sterling in the advent of the international gold standard in the last quarter of the 19th century.\nThe U.S. dollar began to displace the pound sterling as international reserve currency from the 1920s since it emerged from the First World War relatively unscathed and since the United States was a significant recipient of wartime gold inflows.\n\nAfter the U.S. emerged as an even stronger global superpower during the Second World War, the Bretton Woods Agreement of 1944 established the post-war international monetary system, with the U.S. dollar ascending to become the world's primary reserve currency for international trade, and the only post-war currency linked to gold at $35 per troy ounce.\n\nDespite all links to gold being severed in 1971, the dollar continues to play this role to this day.\n\n\n=== As international reserve currency ===\nThe U.S. dollar is joined by the world's other major currencies - the euro, pound sterling, Japanese yen and Chinese renminbi - in the currency basket of the Special drawing rights of the International Monetary Fund. Central banks worldwide have huge reserves of U.S. dollars in its holdings, and are significant buyers of U.S. treasury bills and notes.Foreign companies, entities and private individuals hold U.S. dollars in foreign deposit accounts called eurodollars (not to be confused with the euro), which are outside the jurisdiction of the Federal Reserve System. Private individuals also hold dollars outside the banking system mostly in the form of US$100 bills, of which 80% of its supply are held overseas.\nThe United States Department of the Treasury exercises considerable oversight over the SWIFT financial transfers network,\nand consequently has a huge sway on the global financial transactions systems, with the ability to impose sanctions on foreign entities and individuals.\n\n\n=== In the global markets ===\nThe U.S. dollar is predominantly the standard currency unit in which goods are quoted and traded, and with which payments are settled in, in the global commodity markets.\nThe U.S. Dollar Index is an important indicator of the dollar's strength or weakness versus a basket of six foreign currencies.\nThe United States Government is capable of borrowing trillions of dollars from the global capital markets in U.S. dollars issued by the Federal Reserve, which is itself under US government purview, at minimal interest rates and with virtually zero default risk. In contrast, foreign governments and corporations incapable of raising money in their own local currencies are forced to issue debt denominated in U.S. dollars, along with its consequent higher interest rates and risks of default.\nThe United States's ability to borrow in its own currency without facing significant balance of payments crisis has been frequently described as its exorbitant privilege.A frequent topic of debate is whether the strong dollar policy of the United States is indeed in America's own best interests, as well as in the best interest of the international community.\n\n\n=== Currencies fixed to the U.S. dollar ===\nFor a more exhaustive discussion of countries using the U.S. dollar as official or customary currency, or using currencies which are pegged to the U.S. dollar, see International use of the U.S. dollar#Dollarization and fixed exchange rates and Currency substitution#US dollar.\nCountries using the U.S. dollar as its official currency include:\n\nIn the Americas: Panama, Ecuador, El Salvador, British Virgin Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands, and the Caribbean Netherlands.\nThe constituent states of the former Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands: Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Marshall Islands.\nOthers: East Timor.Among the countries using the U.S. dollar together with other foreign currencies and its local currency are Cambodia and Zimbabwe.\nCurrencies pegged to the U.S. dollar include:\n\nIn the Caribbean: the Bahamian dollar, Barbadian dollar, Belize dollar, Bermudan dollar, Cayman Islands dollar, East Caribbean dollar, Netherlands Antillean guilder and the Aruban florin.\nThe currencies of the oil-producing Arab countries: the Saudi riyal, United Arab Emirates dirham, Omani rial, Qatari riyal and the Bahraini dinar.\nOthers: the Hong Kong dollar and the Macanese pataca.\n\n\n== Value ==\n\nThe 6th paragraph of Section 8 of Article 1 of the U.S. Constitution provides that the U.S. Congress shall have the power to \"coin money\" and to \"regulate the value\" of domestic and foreign coins. Congress exercised those powers when it enacted the Coinage Act of 1792. That Act provided for the minting of the first U.S. dollar and it declared that the U.S. dollar shall have \"the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current\".The table above shows the equivalent amount of goods that, in a particular year, could be purchased with $1. The table shows that from 1774 through 2012 the U.S. dollar has lost about 97.0% of its buying power.The decline in the value of the U.S. dollar corresponds to price inflation, which is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. A consumer price index (CPI) is a measure estimating the average price of consumer goods and services purchased by households. The United States Consumer Price Index, published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, is a measure estimating the average price of consumer goods and services in the United States. It reflects inflation as experienced by consumers in their day-to-day living expenses. A graph showing the U.S. CPI relative to 1982\u20131984 and the annual year-over-year change in CPI is shown at right.\nThe value of the U.S. dollar declined significantly during wartime, especially during the American Civil War, World War I, and World War II. The Federal Reserve, which was established in 1913, was designed to furnish an \"elastic\" currency subject to \"substantial changes of quantity over short periods\", which differed significantly from previous forms of high-powered money such as gold, national bank notes, and silver coins. Over the very long run, the prior gold standard kept prices stable\u2014for instance, the price level and the value of the U.S. dollar in 1914 was not very different from the price level in the 1880s. The Federal Reserve initially succeeded in maintaining the value of the U.S. dollar and price stability, reversing the inflation caused by the First World War and stabilizing the value of the dollar during the 1920s, before presiding over a 30% deflation in U.S. prices in the 1930s.Under the Bretton Woods system established after World War II, the value of gold was fixed to $35 per ounce, and the value of the U.S. dollar was thus anchored to the value of gold. Rising government spending in the 1960s, however, led to doubts about the ability of the United States to maintain this convertibility, gold stocks dwindled as banks and international investors began to convert dollars to gold, and as a result the value of the dollar began to decline. Facing an emerging currency crisis and the imminent danger that the United States would no longer be able to redeem dollars for gold, gold convertibility was finally terminated in 1971 by President Nixon, resulting in the \"Nixon shock\".The value of the U.S. dollar was therefore no longer anchored to gold, and it fell upon the Federal Reserve to maintain the value of the U.S. currency. The Federal Reserve, however, continued to increase the money supply, resulting in stagflation and a rapidly declining value of the U.S. dollar in the 1970s. This was largely due to the prevailing economic view at the time that inflation and real economic growth were linked (the Phillips curve), and so inflation was regarded as relatively benign. Between 1965 and 1981, the U.S. dollar lost two thirds of its value.In 1979, President Carter appointed Paul Volcker Chairman of the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve tightened the money supply and inflation was substantially lower in the 1980s, and hence the value of the U.S. dollar stabilized.Over the thirty-year period from 1981 to 2009, the U.S. dollar lost over half its value. This is because the Federal Reserve has targeted not zero inflation, but a low, stable rate of inflation\u2014between 1987 and 1997, the rate of inflation was approximately 3.5%, and between 1997 and 2007 it was approximately 2%. The so-called \"Great Moderation\" of economic conditions since the 1970s is credited to monetary policy targeting price stability.There is ongoing debate about whether central banks should target zero inflation (which would mean a constant value for the U.S. dollar over time) or low, stable inflation (which would mean a continuously but slowly declining value of the dollar over time, as is the case now). Although some economists are in favor of a zero inflation policy and therefore a constant value for the U.S. dollar, others contend that such a policy limits the ability of the central bank to control interest rates and stimulate the economy when needed.\n\n\n== Exchange rates ==\n\n\n=== Historical exchange rates ===\n\n\n=== Current exchange rates ===\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nCounterfeit United States currency\nDedollarisation\nInternational use of the U.S. dollar\nList of the largest trading partners of the United States\nMonetary policy of the United States\nPetrodollar recycling\nStrong dollar policy\nU.S. Dollar Index\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nU.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing Archived May 30, 1997, at the Wayback Machine\nU.S. Currency and Coin Outstanding and in Circulation\nAmerican Currency Exhibit at the San Francisco Federal Reserve Bank\nRelative values of the U.S. dollar, from 1774 to present\nHistorical Currency Converter\nSummary of BEP Production Statistics\n\n\n=== Images of U.S. currency and coins ===\nU.S. Currency Education Program page with images of all current banknotes\nU.S. Mint: Image Library\nHistorical and current banknotes of the United States (in English and German)", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/2014_ATB_Quarter_Obv.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/2021-P_US_Quarter_Obverse.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/2021_GW_crossing_Delaware_quarter_reverse.jpeg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/2021_Native_American_%241_Coin_Reverse.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/500_USD_note%3B_series_of_1934%3B_obverse.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/500_USD_note%3B_series_of_1934%3B_reverse.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/50_USD_Series_2004_Note_Back.jpg", 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"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/NNC-US-1907-G%2420-Saint_Gaudens_%28Roman%2C_high_relief%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fe/Sacagawea_dollar_obverse.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"], "summary": "The United States dollar (symbol: $; code: USD; also abbreviated US$ or U.S. Dollar, to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies; referred to as the dollar, U.S. dollar, American dollar, or colloquially buck) is the official currency of the United States and its territories. The Coinage Act of 1792 introduced the U.S. dollar at par with the Spanish silver dollar, divided it into 100 cents, and authorized the minting of coins denominated in dollars and cents. U.S. banknotes are issued in the form of Federal Reserve Notes, popularly called greenbacks due to its historically predominantly green color.\nThe monetary policy of the United States is conducted by the Federal Reserve System, which acts as the nation's central bank.\nThe U.S. dollar was originally defined under a bimetallic standard of 371.25 grains (24.057 g) fine silver or, from 1837, 23.22 grains (1.505 g) fine gold, or $20.67 per troy ounce. The Gold Standard Act of 1900 linked the dollar solely to gold. From 1934 its equivalence to gold was revised to $35 per troy ounce. Since 1971 all links to gold have been repealed.\nThe U.S. dollar became an important international reserve currency after the First World War, and displaced the pound sterling as the world's primary reserve currency by the Bretton Woods Agreement towards the end of the Second World War. The dollar is the most widely used currency in international transactions.\n\nIt is also the official currency in several countries and the de facto currency in many others,\n\nwith Federal Reserve Notes (and, in a few cases, U.S. coins) used in circulation.\nAs of February 10, 2021, currency in circulation amounted to US$2.10 trillion, $2.05 trillion of which is in Federal Reserve Notes (the remaining $50 billion is in the form of U.S. notes and coins)."}, "Taxation_in_the_United_States": {"links": ["Northwestern United States", "Elections in Michigan", "Foreign earned income exclusion", "List of islands of the United States", "Homelessness in the United States", "Elections in Iowa", "fifty-onest state", "Sexuality in the United States", "Taxation in Greenland", "Elections in Nevada", "LGBT rights in the United States", "Arkansas River", "President pro tempore of the United States Senate", "West Coast of the United States", "Citizenship of the United States", "Brett Kavanaugh", "Elections in New Hampshire", "Cold War", "Infrastructure of the United States", "Tax treaty", "United States Reports", "Chinese language and varieties in the United States", "War of eighteen twelve", "American Sign Language", "Patrick Leahy", "Religion in the United States", "American imperialism", "Elections in the United States", "United States federal executive departments", "Elections in Guam", "Taxation in El Salvador", "Tax accounting", "Taxation in Saint Pierre and Miquelon", "Same-sex marriage in the United States", "State tax levels in the United States", "German language in the United States", "Gross income", "Hawai'i Sign Language", "S corporations", "Southeastern United States", "Alternative minimum tax", "Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States", "Tariffs in United States history", "Taxation in Sint Eustatius", "Elections in Louisiana", "Partnership taxation in the United States", "Timeline of United States discoveries", "Chief Justice of the United States", "American Revolution", "Elections in Vermont", "Elections in Arizona", "Political ideologies in the United States", "Taxation in the Turks and Caicos Islands", "Bill of lading", "Appalachian Mountains", "History of American newspapers", "California Franchise Tax Board", "Elections in Florida", "Foreign trade zones of the United States", "Professional and working class conflict in the United States", "Revenue Act of nineteen thirty-four", "Political status of Puerto Rico", "Taxation in Saint Barth\u00e9lemy", "Americans", "Automated payment transaction tax", "National Bellas Hess v. 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Union Pacific Railroad Co.", "Folklore of the United States", "List of mountains of the United States", "Crime in the United States", "United States Armed Forces", "Taxation in Costa Rica", "Gulf Coast of the United States", "United States Constitution", "Home-ownership in the United States", "Discrimination in the United States", "Second-wave feminism", "Doi ", "Health care in the United States", "Economic Recovery Tax Act of nineteen eighty-one", "Federal Bureau of Investigation", "Elena Kagan", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Office of Appeals", "Private letter ruling", "U.S. state", "Tax Reform Act of nineteen eighty-six", "Tax rate", "Chuck Schumer", "Elections in New Jersey", "Women's suffrage in the United States", "Washington, D.C.", "Tax Reform Act of nineteen sixty-nine", "Taxation in the Dominican Republic", "Visa policy of the United States", "Capital gains tax", "Pre-Columbian era", "Eviction in the United States", "Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau", "Inheritance tax", "United States Marine Corps", "Visual art of the United States", "Tax Reduction Act of nineteen seventy-five", "National Park Service", "Ages of consent in the United States", "Fashion in the United States", "Military of the United States", "Elections in Oklahoma", "Elections in Idaho", "Revenue Act of nineteen sixteen", "Territorial evolution of the United States", "International taxation", "Elections in Puerto Rico", "Andrew Mellon", "Federal tribunals in the United States", "Family structure in the United States", "Sales tax", "Antony Blinken", "Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution", "Democratic Party ", "Kemp Commission", "Internet in the United States", "Corruption in the United States", "Revenue Act of nineteen forty-five", "Elections in Alaska", "Elections in Connecticut", "OCLC ", "Taxation in Mexico", "Taxation in Saint Lucia", "Columbia River", "Incarceration in the United States", "Music of the United States", "Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development", "Sonia Sotomayor", "Elections in Minnesota", "Elections in Missouri", "American exceptionalism", "Elections in Kansas", "Cheek v. 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Maryland", "United States Congress", "Taxation in the Cayman Islands", "Terrorism in the United States", "Architecture of the United States", "United Kingdom\u2013United States relations", "Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives", "List of countries by tax revenue as percentage of GDP", "Certified Public Accountant", "Civil rights movement", "COVID-nineteen pandemic in the United States", "John Roberts", "Red states and blue states", "Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of two thousand and one", "American literature", "nine\u2013nine\u2013nine Plan", "Elections in Wisconsin", "Tax deduction", "Efficient Taxation of Income", "United States district court", "Enrolled agent", "Agriculture in the United States", "Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States", "Mississippi River", "Chile", "United States Electoral College", "Party leaders of the United States Senate", "War on Terror", "Elections in Maine", "List of areas in the United States National Park System", "American Revolutionary War", "Value added tax", "Public policy of the United States", "Corporate tax in the United States", "Russian language in the United States", "Educational attainment in the United States", "Taxation in the United States", "Cinema of the United States", "Elections in Maryland", "IRS penalties", "Presidency of George W. Bush", "North American Free Trade Agreement", "Income tax", "South Carolina v. Baker", "Supreme Court of the United States", "Society of the United States", "Electronic funds transfer", "Military history of the United States during World War II", "Taxation in Navassa Island", "Continental America", "Index of the United States-related articles", "Culture of the United States", "Government of the United States", "Direct tax", "United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps", "History of American journalism", "Elections in Hawaii", "Obesity in the United States", "United States Supreme Court"], "content": "The United States of America has separate federal, state, and local governments with taxes imposed at each of these levels. Taxes are levied on income, payroll, property, sales, capital gains, dividends, imports, estates and gifts, as well as various fees. In 2010, taxes collected by federal, state, and municipal governments amounted to 24.8% of GDP. In the OECD, only Chile and Mexico are taxed less as a share of their GDP.Taxes fall much more heavily on labor income than on capital income. Divergent taxes and subsidies for different forms of income and spending can also constitute a form of indirect taxation of some activities over others. For example, individual spending on higher education can be said to be \"taxed\" at a high rate, compared to other forms of personal expenditure which are formally recognized as investments.\nTaxes are imposed on net income of individuals and corporations by the federal, most state, and some local governments. Citizens and residents are taxed on worldwide income and allowed a credit for foreign taxes. Income subject to tax is determined under tax accounting rules, not financial accounting principles, and includes almost all income from whatever source. Most business expenses reduce taxable income, though limits apply to a few expenses. Individuals are permitted to reduce taxable income by personal allowances and certain non-business expenses, including home mortgage interest, state and local taxes, charitable contributions, and medical and certain other expenses incurred above certain percentages of income. State rules for determining taxable income often differ from federal rules. Federal marginal tax rates vary from 10% to 37% of taxable income. State and local tax rates vary widely by jurisdiction, from 0% to 13.30% of income, and many are graduated. State taxes are generally treated as a deductible expense for federal tax computation, although the 2017 tax law imposed a $10,000 limit on the state and local tax (\"SALT\") deduction, which raised the effective tax rate on medium and high earners in high tax states. Prior to the SALT deduction limit, the average deduction exceeded $10,000 in most of the Midwest, and exceeded $11,000 in most of the Northeastern United States, as well as California and Oregon. The states impacted the most by the limit were the tri-state area (NY, NJ, and CT) and California; the average SALT deduction in those states was greater than $17,000 in 2014.The United States is one of two countries in the world that taxes its non-resident citizens on worldwide income, in the same manner and rates as residents; the other is Eritrea. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of imposition of such a tax in the case of Cook v. Tait.Payroll taxes are imposed by the federal and all state governments. These include Social Security and Medicare taxes imposed on both employers and employees, at a combined rate of 15.3% (13.3% for 2011 and 2012). Social Security tax applies only to the first $132,900 of wages in 2019. There is an additional Medicare tax of 0.9% on wages above $200,000. Employers must withhold income taxes on wages. An unemployment tax and certain other levies apply to employers. Payroll taxes have dramatically increased as a share of federal revenue since the 1950s, while corporate income taxes have fallen as a share of revenue. (Corporate profits have not fallen as a share of GDP).\nProperty taxes are imposed by most local governments and many special purpose authorities based on the fair market value of property. School and other authorities are often separately governed, and impose separate taxes. Property tax is generally imposed only on realty, though some jurisdictions tax some forms of business property. Property tax rules and rates vary widely with annual median rates ranging from 0.2% to 1.9% of a property's value depending on the state.Sales taxes are imposed by most states and some localities on the price at retail sale of many goods and some services. Sales tax rates vary widely among jurisdictions, from 0% to 16%, and may vary within a jurisdiction based on the particular goods or services taxed. Sales tax is collected by the seller at the time of sale, or remitted as use tax by buyers of taxable items who did not pay sales tax.\nThe United States imposes tariffs or customs duties on the import of many types of goods from many jurisdictions. These tariffs or duties must be paid before the goods can be legally imported. Rates of duty vary from 0% to more than 20%, based on the particular goods and country of origin.\nEstate and gift taxes are imposed by the federal and some state governments on the transfer of property inheritance, by will, or by lifetime donation. Similar to federal income taxes, federal estate and gift taxes are imposed on worldwide property of citizens and residents and allow a credit for foreign taxes.\n\n\n== Levels and types of taxation ==\n\nThe U.S. has an assortment of federal, state, local, and special-purpose governmental jurisdictions. Each imposes taxes to fully or partly fund its operations. These taxes may be imposed on the same income, property or activity, often without offset of one tax against another. The types of tax imposed at each level of government vary, in part due to constitutional restrictions. Income taxes are imposed at the federal and most state levels. Taxes on property are typically imposed only at the local level, although there may be multiple local jurisdictions that tax the same property. Other excise taxes are imposed by the federal and some state governments. Sales taxes are imposed by most states and many local governments. Customs duties or tariffs are only imposed by the federal government. A wide variety of user fees or license fees are also imposed.\n\n\n== Types of taxpayers ==\nTaxes may be imposed on individuals (natural persons), business entities, estates, trusts, or other forms of organization. Taxes may be based on property, income, transactions, transfers, importations of goods, business activities, or a variety of factors, and are generally imposed on the type of taxpayer for whom such tax base is relevant. Thus, property taxes tend to be imposed on property owners. In addition, certain taxes, particularly income taxes, may be imposed on the members of organizations for the organization's activities. Therefore, partners are taxed on the income of their partnership.\nWith a few exceptions, one level of government does not impose tax on another level of government or its instrumentalities.\n\n\n== Income tax ==\n\nTaxes based on income are imposed at the federal, most state, and some local levels within the United States. The tax systems within each jurisdiction may define taxable income separately. Many states refer to some extent to federal concepts for determining taxable income.\n\n\n=== History of the income tax ===\nThe first Income tax in the United States was implemented with the Revenue Act of 1861 by Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War. In 1895 the Supreme Court ruled that the U.S. federal income tax on interest income, dividend income and rental income was unconstitutional in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., because it was a direct tax. The Pollock decision was overruled by the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913, and by subsequent U.S. Supreme Court decisions including Graves v. New York ex rel. O'Keefe, South Carolina v. Baker, and Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co.\n\n\n=== Basic concepts ===\nThe U.S. income tax system imposes a tax based on income on individuals, corporations, estates, and trusts. The tax is taxable income, as defined, times a specified tax rate. This tax may be reduced by credits, some of which may be refunded if they exceed the tax calculated. Taxable income may differ from income for other purposes (such as for financial reporting). The definition of taxable income for federal purposes is used by many, but far from all states. Income and deductions are recognized under tax rules, and there are variations within the rules among the states. Book and tax income may differ. Income is divided into \"capital gains\", which are taxed at a lower rate and only when the taxpayer chooses to \"realize\" them, and \"ordinary income\", which is taxed at higher rates and on an annual basis. Because of this distinction, capital is taxed much more lightly than labor.\nUnder the U.S. system, individuals, corporations, estates, and trusts are subject to income tax. Partnerships are not taxed; rather, their partners are subject to income tax on their shares of income and deductions, and take their shares of credits. Some types of business entities may elect to be treated as corporations or as partnerships.\n\nTaxpayers are required to file tax returns and self assess tax. Tax may be withheld from payments of income (e.g., withholding of tax from wages). To the extent taxes are not covered by withholdings, taxpayers must make estimated tax payments, generally quarterly. Tax returns are subject to review and adjustment by taxing authorities, though far fewer than all returns are reviewed.\nTaxable income is gross income less exemptions, deductions, and personal exemptions. Gross income includes \"all income from whatever source\". Certain income, however, is subject to tax exemption at the federal or state levels. This income is reduced by tax deductions including most business and some nonbusiness expenses. Individuals are also allowed a deduction for personal exemptions, a fixed dollar allowance. The allowance of some nonbusiness deductions is phased out at higher income levels.\nThe U.S. federal and most state income tax systems tax the worldwide income of citizens and residents. A federal foreign tax credit is granted for foreign income taxes. Individuals residing abroad may also claim the foreign earned income exclusion. Individuals may be a citizen or resident of the United States but not a resident of a state. Many states grant a similar credit for taxes paid to other states. These credits are generally limited to the amount of tax on income from foreign (or other state) sources.\n\n\n=== Filing status ===\n\nFederal and state income tax is calculated, and returns filed, for each taxpayer. Two married individuals may calculate tax and file returns jointly or separately. In addition, unmarried individuals supporting children or certain other relatives may file a return as a head of household. Parent-subsidiary groups of companies may elect to file a consolidated return.\n\n\n=== Graduated tax rates ===\n\nIncome tax rates differ at the federal and state levels for corporations and individuals. Federal and many state income tax rates are higher (graduated) at higher levels of income. The income level at which various tax rates apply for individuals varies by filing status. The income level at which each rate starts generally is higher (i.e., tax is lower) for married couples filing a joint return or single individuals filing as head of household.\n\nIndividuals are subject to federal graduated tax rates from 10% to 39.6%. Corporations are subject to federal graduated rates of tax from 15% to 35%; a rate of 34% applies to income from $335,000 to $15,000,000. State income tax rates, in states which have a tax on personal incomes, vary from 1% to 16%, including local income tax where applicable. Nine (9) states do not have a tax on ordinary personal incomes.  These include Alaska, Florida, Nevada, South Dakota, Texas, Washington, and Wyoming.  Two states with a tax only on interest and dividend income of individuals, are New Hampshire and Tennessee.  State and local taxes are generally deductible in computing federal taxable income. Federal and many state individual income tax rate schedules differ based on the individual's filing status.\n\n\n=== Income ===\n\nTaxable income is gross income less adjustments and allowable tax deductions. Gross income for federal and most states is receipts and gains from all sources less cost of goods sold. Gross income includes \"all income from whatever source\", and is not limited to cash received.  Income from illegal activities is taxable and must be reported to the IRS.The amount of income recognized is generally the value received or which the taxpayer has a right to receive. Certain types of income are specifically excluded from gross income. The time at which gross income becomes taxable is determined under federal tax rules. This may differ in some cases from accounting rules.Certain types of income are excluded from gross income (and therefore subject to tax exemption). The exclusions differ at federal and state levels. For federal income tax, interest income on state and local bonds is exempt, while few states exempt any interest income except from municipalities within that state. In addition, certain types of receipts, such as gifts and inheritances, and certain types of benefits, such as employer-provided health insurance, are excluded from income.\nForeign non-resident persons are taxed only on income from U.S. sources or from a U.S. business. Tax on foreign non-resident persons on non-business income is at 30% of the gross income, but reduced under many tax treaties.\n\nThese brackets are the taxable income plus the standard deduction for a joint return. That deduction is the first bracket. For example, a couple earning $88,600 by September owes $10,453; $1,865 for 10% of the income from $12,700 to $31,500, plus $8,588 for 15% of the income from $31,500 to $88,600. Now, for every $100 they earn, $25 is taxed until they reach the next bracket.\nAfter making $400 more; going down to the 89,000 row the tax is $100 more. The next column is the tax divided by 89,000. The new law is the next column. This tax equals 10% of their income from $24,000 to $43,050 plus 12% from $43,050 to $89,000. The singles' sets of markers can be set up quickly. The brackets with its tax are cut in half.\nItemizers can figure the tax without moving the scale by taking the difference off the top. The couple above, having receipts for $22,700 in deductions, means that the last $10,000 of their income is tax free. After seven years the papers can be destroyed; if unchallenged.\nSource and Method\n\n\n=== Deductions and exemptions ===\n\nThe U.S. system allows reduction of taxable income for both business and some nonbusiness expenditures, called deductions. Businesses selling goods reduce gross income directly by the cost of goods sold. In addition, businesses may deduct most types of expenses incurred in the business. Some of these deductions are subject to limitations. For example, only 50% of the amount incurred for any meals or entertainment may be deducted. The amount and timing of deductions for business expenses is determined under the taxpayer's tax accounting method, which may differ from methods used in accounting records.Some types of business expenses are deductible over a period of years rather than when incurred. These include the cost of long lived assets such as buildings and equipment. The cost of such assets is recovered through deductions for depreciation or amortization.\nIn addition to business expenses, individuals may reduce income by an allowance for personal exemptions and either a fixed standard deduction or itemized deductions. One personal exemption is allowed per taxpayer, and additional such deductions are allowed for each child or certain other individuals supported by the taxpayer. The standard deduction amount varies by taxpayer filing status. Itemized deductions by individuals include home mortgage interest, property taxes, certain other taxes, contributions to recognized charities, medical expenses in excess of 7.5% of adjusted gross income, and certain other amounts.\nPersonal exemptions, the standard deduction, and itemized deductions are limited (phased out) above certain income levels.\n\n\n=== Business entities ===\n\nCorporations must pay tax on their taxable income independently of their shareholders. Shareholders are also subject to tax on dividends received from corporations. By contrast, partnerships are not subject to income tax, but their partners calculate their taxes by including their shares of partnership items. Corporations owned entirely by U.S. citizens or residents (S corporations) may elect to be treated similarly to partnerships. A limited liability company and certain other business entities may elect to be treated as corporations or as partnerships. States generally follow such characterization. Many states also allow corporations to elect S corporation status. Charitable organizations are subject to tax on business income.Certain transactions of business entities are not subject to tax. These include many types of formation or reorganization.\n\n\n=== Credits ===\n\nA wide variety of tax credits may reduce income tax at the federal and state levels. Some credits are available only to individuals, such as the child tax credit for each dependent child, American Opportunity Tax Credit for education expenses, or the Earned Income Tax Credit for low income wage earners. Some credits, such as the Work Opportunity Tax Credit, are available to businesses, including various special industry incentives. A few credits, such as the foreign tax credit, are available to all types of taxpayers.\n\n\n=== Payment or withholding of taxes ===\n\nThe United States federal and state income tax systems are self-assessment systems. Taxpayers must declare and pay tax without assessment by the taxing authority. Quarterly payments of tax estimated to be due are required to the extent taxes are not paid through withholdings. The second and fourth \"quarters\" are not a quarter of a year in length. The second \"quarter\" is two months (April and May) and the fourth is four months (September to December). Employers must withhold income tax, as well as Social Security and Medicare taxes, from wages. Amounts to be withheld are computed by employers based on representations of tax status by employees on Form W-4, with limited government review.\n\n\n=== State variations ===\n\nForty-three states and many localities in the U.S. impose an income tax on individuals. Forty-seven states and many localities impose a tax on the income of corporations. Tax rates vary by state and locality, and may be fixed or graduated. Most rates are the same for all types of income. State and local income taxes are imposed in addition to federal income tax. State income tax is allowed as a deduction in computing federal income, but is capped at $10,000 per household since the passage of the 2017 tax law. Prior to the change, the average deduction exceeded $10,000 in most of the Midwest, most of the Northeast, as well as California and Oregon.State and local taxable income is determined under state law, and often is based on federal taxable income. Most states conform to many federal concepts and definitions, including defining income and business deductions and timing thereof. State rules vary widely regarding to individual itemized deductions. Most states do not allow a deduction for state income taxes for individuals or corporations, and impose tax on certain types of income exempt at the federal level.\nSome states have alternative measures of taxable income, or alternative taxes, especially for corporations.\nStates imposing an income tax generally tax all income of corporations organized in the state and individuals residing in the state. Taxpayers from another state are subject to tax only on income earned in the state or apportioned to the state. Businesses are subject to income tax in a state only if they have sufficient nexus in (connection to) the state.\n\n\n=== Non-residents ===\nForeign individuals and corporations not resident in the United States are subject to federal income tax only on income from a U.S. business and certain types of income from U.S. sources. States tax individuals resident outside the state and corporations organized outside the state only on wages or business income within the state. Payers of some types of income to non-residents must withhold federal or state income tax on the payment. Federal withholding of 30% on such income may be reduced under a tax treaty. Such treaties do not apply to state taxes.\n\n\n=== Alternative tax bases (AMT, states) ===\nAn alternative minimum tax (AMT) is imposed at the federal level on a somewhat modified version of taxable income. The tax applies to individuals and corporations. The tax base is adjusted gross income reduced by a fixed deduction that varies by taxpayer filing status. Itemized deductions of individuals are limited to home mortgage interest, charitable contributions, and a portion of medical expenses. AMT is imposed at a rate of 26% or 28% for individuals and 20% for corporations, less the amount of regular tax. A credit against future regular income tax is allowed for such excess, with certain restrictions.\nMany states impose minimum income taxes on corporations or a tax computed on an alternative tax base. These include taxes based on capital of corporations and alternative measures of income for individuals. Details vary widely by state.\n\n\n=== Differences between book and taxable income for businesses ===\nIn the United States, taxable income is computed under rules that differ materially from U.S. generally accepted accounting principles. Since only publicly traded companies are required to prepare financial statements, many non-public companies opt to keep their financial records under tax rules. Corporations that present financial statements using other than tax rules must include a detailed reconciliation of their financial statement income to their taxable income as part of their tax returns. Key areas of difference include depreciation and amortization, timing of recognition of income or deductions, assumptions for cost of goods sold, and certain items (such as meals and entertainment) the tax deduction for which is limited.\n\n\n=== Reporting under self-assessment system ===\n\nIncome taxes in the United States are self-assessed by taxpayers by filing required tax returns. Taxpayers, as well as certain non-tax-paying entities, like partnerships, must file annual tax returns at the federal and applicable state levels. These returns disclose a complete computation of taxable income under tax principles. Taxpayers compute all income, deductions, and credits themselves, and determine the amount of tax due after applying required prepayments and taxes withheld. Federal and state tax authorities provide preprinted forms that must be used to file tax returns. IRS Form 1040 series is required for individuals, Form 1120 series for corporations, Form 1065 for partnerships, and Form 990 series for tax exempt organizations.\nThe state forms vary widely, and rarely correspond to federal forms. Tax returns vary from the two-page (Form 1040EZ) used by nearly 70% of individual filers to thousands of pages of forms and attachments for large entities. Groups of corporations may elect to file consolidated returns at the federal level and with a few states. Electronic filing of federal and many state returns is widely encouraged and in some cases required, and many vendors offer computer software for use by taxpayers and paid return preparers to prepare and electronically file returns.\n\n\n== Capital gains tax ==\n\nIndividuals and corporations pay U.S. federal income tax on the net total of all their capital gains. The tax rate depends on both the investor's tax bracket and the amount of time the investment was held. Short-term capital gains are taxed at the investor's ordinary income tax rate and are defined as investments held for a year or less before being sold. Long-term capital gains, on dispositions of assets held for more than one year, are taxed at a lower rate.\n\n\n== Payroll taxes ==\n\nIn the United States, payroll taxes are assessed by the federal government, many states, the District of Columbia, and numerous cities. These taxes are imposed on employers and employees and on various compensation bases. They are collected and paid to the taxing jurisdiction by the employers. Most jurisdictions imposing payroll taxes require reporting quarterly and annually in most cases, and electronic reporting is generally required for all but small employers. Because payroll taxes are imposed only on wages and not on income from investments, taxes on labor income are much heavier than taxes on income from capital.\n\n\n=== Income tax withholding ===\n\nFederal, state, and local withholding taxes are required in those jurisdictions imposing an income tax. Employers having contact with the jurisdiction must withhold the tax from wages paid to their employees in those jurisdictions. Computation of the amount of tax to withhold is performed by the employer based on representations by the employee regarding his/her tax status on IRS Form W-4. Amounts of income tax so withheld must be paid to the taxing jurisdiction, and are available as refundable tax credits to the employees. Income taxes withheld from payroll are not final taxes, merely prepayments. Employees must still file income tax returns and self assess tax, claiming amounts withheld as payments.\n\n\n=== Social Security and Medicare taxes ===\n\nFederal social insurance taxes are imposed equally on employers and employees, consisting of a tax of 6.2% of wages up to an annual wage maximum ($132,900 in 2019) for Social Security plus a tax of 1.45% of total wages for Medicare. For 2011, the employee's contribution was reduced to 4.2%, while the employer's portion remained at 6.2%. There is an additional Medicare tax of 0.9% on wages over $200,000, to be paid only by the employee (reported separately on the employee's tax return on Form 8959). To the extent an employee's portion of the 6.2% tax exceeds the maximum by reason of multiple employers (each of whom will collect up to the annual wage maximum), the employee is entitled to a refundable tax credit upon filing an income tax return for the year.\n\n\n=== Unemployment taxes ===\n\nEmployers are subject to unemployment taxes by the federal and all state governments. The tax is a percentage of taxable wages with a cap. The tax rate and cap vary by jurisdiction and by employer's industry and experience rating. For 2009, the typical maximum tax per employee was under $1,000. Some states also impose unemployment, disability insurance, or similar taxes on employees.\n\n\n=== Reporting and payment ===\nEmployers must report payroll taxes to the appropriate taxing jurisdiction in the manner each jurisdiction provides. Quarterly reporting of aggregate income tax withholding and Social Security taxes is required in most jurisdictions. Employers must file reports of aggregate unemployment tax quarterly and annually with each applicable state, and annually at the federal level.Each employer is required to provide each employee an annual report on IRS Form W-2 of wages paid and federal, state and local taxes withheld, with a copy sent to the IRS and the taxation authority of the state. These are due by January 31 and February 28 (March 31 if filed electronically), respectively, following the calendar year in which wages are paid. The Form W-2 constitutes proof of payment of tax for the employee.Employers are required to pay payroll taxes to the taxing jurisdiction under varying rules, in many cases within 1 banking day. Payment of federal and many state payroll taxes is required to be made by electronic funds transfer if certain dollar thresholds are met, or by deposit with a bank for the benefit of the taxing jurisdiction.\n\n\n=== Penalties ===\nFailure to timely and properly pay federal payroll taxes results in an automatic penalty of 2% to 10%. Similar state and local penalties apply. Failure to properly file monthly or quarterly returns may result in additional penalties. Failure to file Forms W-2 results in an automatic penalty of up to $50 per form not timely filed. State and local penalties vary by jurisdiction.\nA particularly severe penalty applies where federal income tax withholding and Social Security taxes are not paid to the IRS. The penalty of up to 100% of the amount not paid can be assessed against the employer entity as well as any person (such as a corporate officer) having control or custody of the funds from which payment should have been made.\n\n\n== Sales and excise taxes ==\n\n\n=== Sales and use tax ===\n\nThere is no federal sales or use tax in the United States. All but five states impose sales and use taxes on retail sale, lease and rental of many goods, as well as some services. Many cities, counties, transit authorities and special purpose districts impose an additional local sales or use tax. Sales and use tax is calculated as the purchase price times the appropriate tax rate. Tax rates vary widely by jurisdiction from less than 1% to over 10%. Sales tax is collected by the seller at the time of sale. Use tax is self assessed by a buyer who has not paid sales tax on a taxable purchase.\nUnlike value added tax, sales tax is imposed only once, at the retail level, on any particular goods. Nearly all jurisdictions provide numerous categories of goods and services that are exempt from sales tax, or taxed at a reduced rate. Purchase of goods for further manufacture or for resale is uniformly exempt from sales tax. Most jurisdictions exempt food sold in grocery stores, prescription medications, and many agricultural supplies. Generally cash discounts, including coupons, are not included in the price used in computing tax.\nSales taxes, including those imposed by local governments, are generally administered at the state level. States imposing sales tax require retail sellers to register with the state, collect tax from customers, file returns, and remit the tax to the state. Procedural rules vary widely. Sellers generally must collect tax from in-state purchasers unless the purchaser provides an exemption certificate. Most states allow or require electronic remittance of tax to the state. States are prohibited from requiring out of state sellers to collect tax unless the seller has some minimal connection with the state.\n\n\n=== Excise taxes ===\n\nExcise taxes may be imposed on the sales price of goods or on a per unit or other basis, in theory to discourage consumption of the taxed goods or services. Excise tax may be required to be paid by the manufacturer at wholesale sale, or may be collected from the customer at retail sale. Excise taxes are imposed at the federal and state levels on a variety of goods, including alcohol, tobacco, tires, gasoline, diesel fuel, coal, firearms, telephone service, air transportation, unregistered bonds, and many other goods and services. Some jurisdictions require that tax stamps be affixed to goods to demonstrate payment of the tax.\n\n\n== Property taxes ==\n\nMost jurisdictions below the state level in the United States impose a tax on interests in real property (land, buildings, and permanent improvements). Some jurisdictions also tax some types of business personal property. Rules vary widely by jurisdiction. Many overlapping jurisdictions (counties, cities, school districts) may have authority to tax the same property. Few states impose a tax on the value of property.\nProperty tax is based on fair market value of the subject property. The amount of tax is determined annually based on the market value of each property on a particular date, and most jurisdictions require redeterminations of value periodically. The tax is computed as the determined market value times an assessment ratio times the tax rate. Assessment ratios and tax rates vary widely among jurisdictions, and may vary by type of property within a jurisdiction. Where a property has recently been sold between unrelated sellers, such sale establishes fair market value. In other (i.e., most) cases, the value must be estimated. Common estimation techniques include comparable sales, depreciated cost, and an income approach. Property owners may also declare a value, which is subject to change by the tax assessor.\n\n\n=== Types of property taxed ===\nProperty taxes are most commonly applied to real estate and business property. Real property generally includes all interests considered under that state's law to be ownership interests in land, buildings, and improvements. Ownership interests include ownership of title as well as certain other rights to property. Automobile and boat registration fees are a subset of this tax. Other nonbusiness goods are generally not subject to property tax, though Virginia maintains a unique personal property tax on all motor vehicles, including non-business vehicles.\n\n\n=== Assessment and collection ===\nThe assessment process varies by state, and sometimes within a state. Each taxing jurisdiction determines values of property within the jurisdiction and then determines the amount of tax to assess based on the value of the property. Tax assessors for taxing jurisdictions are generally responsible for determining property values. The determination of values and calculation of tax is generally performed by an official referred to as a tax assessor. Property owners have rights in each jurisdiction to declare or contest the value so determined. Property values generally must be coordinated among jurisdictions, and such coordination is often performed by equalization.\nOnce value is determined, the assessor typically notifies the last known property owner of the value determination. After values are settled, property tax bills or notices are sent to property owners. Payment times and terms vary widely. If a property owner fails to pay the tax, the taxing jurisdiction has various remedies for collection, in many cases including seizure and sale of the property. Property taxes constitute a lien on the property to which transfers are also subject. Mortgage companies often collect taxes from property owners and remit them on behalf of the owner.\n\n\n== Customs duties ==\nThe United States imposes tariffs or customs duties on imports of goods. The duty is levied at the time of import and is paid by the importer of record. Customs duties vary by country of origin and product. Goods from many countries are exempt from duty under various trade agreements. Certain types of goods are exempt from duty regardless of source. Customs rules differ from other import restrictions. Failure to properly comply with customs rules can result in seizure of goods and criminal penalties against involved parties. United States Customs and Border Protection (\"CBP\") enforces customs rules.\n\n\n=== Import of goods ===\n\nGoods may be imported to the United States subject to import restrictions. Importers of goods may be subject to tax (\"customs duty\" or \"tariff\") on the imported value of the goods. \"Imported goods are not legally entered until after the shipment has arrived within the port of entry, delivery of the merchandise has been authorized by CBP, and estimated duties have been paid.\" Importation and declaration and payment of customs duties is done by the importer of record, which may be the owner of the goods, the purchaser, or a licensed customs broker. Goods may be stored in a bonded warehouse or a Foreign-Trade Zone in the United States for up to five years without payment of duties. Goods must be declared for entry into the U.S. within 15 days of arrival or prior to leaving a bonded warehouse or foreign trade zone. Many importers participate in a voluntary self-assessment program with CBP. Special rules apply to goods imported by mail. All goods imported into the United States are subject to inspection by CBP. Some goods may be temporarily imported to the United States under a system similar to the ATA Carnet system. Examples include laptop computers used by persons traveling in the U.S. and samples used by salesmen.\n\n\n=== Origin ===\nRates of tax on transaction values vary by country of origin. Goods must be individually labeled to indicate country of origin, with exceptions for specific types of goods. Goods are considered to originate in the country with the highest rate of duties for the particular goods unless the goods meet certain minimum content requirements. Extensive modifications to normal duties and classifications apply to goods originating in Canada or Mexico under the North American Free Trade Agreement.\n\n\n=== Classification ===\nAll goods that are not exempt are subject to duty computed according to the Harmonized Tariff Schedule published by CBP and the U.S. International Trade Commission. This lengthy schedule provides rates of duty for each class of goods. Most goods are classified based on the nature of the goods, though some classifications are based on use.\n\n\n=== Duty rate ===\nCustoms duty rates may be expressed as a percentage of value or dollars and cents per unit. Rates based on value vary from zero to 20% in the 2011 schedule. Rates may be based on relevant units for the particular type of goods (per ton, per kilogram, per square meter, etc.). Some duties are based in part on value and in part on quantity.\nWhere goods subject to different rates of duty are commingled, the entire shipment may be taxed at the highest applicable duty rate.\n\n\n=== Procedures ===\nImported goods are generally accompanied by a bill of lading or air waybill describing the goods. For purposes of customs duty assessment, they must also be accompanied by an invoice documenting the transaction value. The goods on the bill of lading and invoice are classified and duty is computed by the importer or CBP. The amount of this duty is payable immediately, and must be paid before the goods can be imported. Most assessments of goods are now done by the importer and documentation filed with CBP electronically.\nAfter duties have been paid, CBP approves the goods for import. They can then be removed from the port of entry, bonded warehouse, or Free-Trade Zone.\nAfter duty has been paid on particular goods, the importer can seek a refund of duties if the goods are exported without substantial modification. The process of claiming a refund is known as duty drawback.\n\n\n=== Penalties ===\nCertain civil penalties apply for failures to follow CBP rules and pay duty. Goods of persons subject to such penalties may be seized and sold by CBP. In addition, criminal penalties may apply for certain offenses. Criminal penalties may be as high as twice the value of the goods plus twenty years in jail.\n\n\n=== Foreign-Trade Zones ===\nForeign-Trade Zones are secure areas physically in the United States but legally outside the customs territory of the United States. Such zones are generally near ports of entry. They may be within the warehouse of an importer. Such zones are limited in scope and operation based on approval of the Foreign-Trade Zones Board. Goods in a Foreign-Trade Zone are not considered imported to the United States until they leave the Zone. Foreign goods may be used to manufacture other goods within the zone for export without payment of customs duties.\n\n\n== Estate and gift taxes ==\n\nEstate and gift taxes in the United States are imposed by the federal and some state governments. The estate tax is an excise tax levied on the right to pass property at death. It is imposed on the estate, not the beneficiary. Some states impose an inheritance tax on recipients of bequests. Gift taxes are levied on the giver (donor) of property where the property is transferred for less than adequate consideration. An additional generation-skipping transfer (GST) tax is imposed by the federal and some state governments on transfers to grandchildren (or their descendants).\n\nThe federal gift tax is applicable to the donor, not the recipient, and is computed based on cumulative taxable gifts, and is reduced by prior gift taxes paid. The federal estate tax is computed on the sum of taxable estate and taxable gifts, and is reduced by prior gift taxes paid. These taxes are computed as the taxable amount times a graduated tax rate (up to 35% in 2011). The estate and gift taxes are also reduced by a \"unified credit\" equivalent to an exclusion ($5 million in 2011). Rates and exclusions have varied, and the benefits of lower rates and the credit have been phased out during some years.\nTaxable gifts are certain gifts of U.S. property by nonresident aliens, most gifts of any property by citizens or residents, in excess of an annual exclusion ($13,000 for gifts made in 2011) per donor per donee. Taxable estates are certain U.S. property of non-resident alien decedents, and most property of citizens or residents. For aliens, residence for estate tax purposes is primarily based on domicile, but U.S. citizens are taxed regardless of their country of residence. U.S. real estate and most tangible property in the U.S. are subject to estate and gift tax whether the decedent or donor is resident or nonresident, citizen or alien.\nThe taxable amount of a gift is the fair market value of the property in excess of consideration received at the date of gift. The taxable amount of an estate is the gross fair market value of all rights considered property at the date of death (or an alternative valuation date) (\"gross estate\"), less liabilities of the decedent, costs of administration (including funeral expenses) and certain other deductions. State estate taxes are deductible, with limitations, in computing the federal taxable estate. Bequests to charities reduce the taxable estate.\nGift tax applies to all irrevocable transfers of interests in tangible or intangible property. Estate tax applies to all property owned in whole or in part by a citizen or resident at the time of his or her death, to the extent of the interest in the property. Generally, all types of property are subject to estate tax. Whether a decedent has sufficient interest in property for the property to be subject to gift or estate tax is determined under applicable state property laws. Certain interests in property that lapse at death (such as life insurance) are included in the taxable estate.\nTaxable values of estates and gifts are the fair market value. For some assets, such as widely traded stocks and bonds, the value may be determined by market listings. The value of other property may be determined by appraisals, which are subject to potential contest by the taxing authority. Special use valuation applies to farms and closely held businesses, subject to limited dollar amount and other conditions. Monetary assets, such as cash, mortgages, and notes, are valued at the face amount, unless another value is clearly established.\nLife insurance proceeds are included in the gross estate. The value of a right of a beneficiary of an estate to receive an annuity is included in the gross estate. Certain transfers during lifetime may be included in the gross estate. Certain powers of a decedent to control the disposition of property by another are included in the gross estate.\nThe taxable estate of a married decedent is reduced by a deduction for all property passing to the decedent's spouse. Certain terminable interests are included. Other conditions may apply.\nDonors of gifts in excess of the annual exclusion must file gift tax returns on IRS Form 709 and pay the tax. Executors of estates with a gross value in excess of the unified credit must file an estate tax return on IRS Form 706 and pay the tax from the estate. Returns are required if the gifts or gross estate exceed the exclusions. Each state has its own forms and filing requirements. Tax authorities may examine and adjust gift and estate tax returns.\n\n\n== Licenses and occupational taxes ==\nMany jurisdictions within the United States impose taxes or fees on the privilege of carrying on a particular business or maintaining a particular professional certification. These licensing or occupational taxes may be a fixed dollar amount per year for the licensee, an amount based on the number of practitioners in the firm, a percentage of revenue, or any of several other bases. Persons providing professional or personal services are often subject to such fees. Common examples include accountants, attorneys, barbers, casinos, dentists, doctors, auto mechanics, plumbers, and stock brokers. In addition to the tax, other requirements may be imposed for licensure.\nAll 50 states impose vehicle license fee. Generally, the fees are based on type and size of vehicle and are imposed annually or biannually. All states and the District of Columbia also impose a fee for a driver's license, which generally must be renewed with payment of fee every few years.\n\n\n=== User fees ===\nFees are often imposed by governments for use of certain facilities or services. Such fees are generally imposed at the time of use. Multi-use permits may be available. For example, fees are imposed for use of national or state parks, for requesting and obtaining certain rulings from the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS), for the use of certain highways (called \"tolls\" or toll roads), for parking on public streets, and for the use of public transit.\n\n\n== Tax administration ==\n\nTaxes in the United States are administered by hundreds of tax authorities. At the federal level there are three tax administrations. Most domestic federal taxes are administered by the Internal Revenue Service, which is part of the Department of the Treasury. Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms taxes are administered by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB). Taxes on imports (customs duties) are administered by U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP). TTB is also part of the Department of the Treasury and CBP belongs to the Department of Homeland Security.Organization of state and local tax administrations varies widely. Every state maintains a tax administration. A few states administer some local taxes in whole or part. Most localities also maintain a tax administration or share one with neighboring localities.\n\n\n=== Federal ===\n\n\n==== Internal Revenue Service ====\n\nThe Internal Revenue Service administers all U.S. federal tax laws on domestic activities, except those taxes administered by TTB. IRS functions include:\n\nProcessing federal tax returns (except TTB returns), including those for Social Security and other federal payroll taxes\nProviding assistance to taxpayers in completing tax returns\nCollecting all taxes due related to such returns\nEnforcement of tax laws through examination of returns and assessment of penalties\nProviding an appeals mechanism for federal tax disputes\nReferring matters to the Justice Department for prosecution\nPublishing information about U.S. federal taxes, including forms, publications, and other materials\nProviding written guidance in the form of rulings binding on the IRS for the public and for particular taxpayersThe IRS maintains several Service Centers at which tax returns are processed. Taxpayers generally file most types of tax returns by mail with these Service Centers, or file electronically. The IRS also maintains a National Office in Washington, DC, and numerous local offices providing taxpayer services and administering tax examinations.\n\n\n===== Examination =====\nTax returns filed with the IRS are subject to examination and adjustment, commonly called an IRS audit. Only a small percentage of returns (about 1% of individual returns in IRS FY 2008) are examined each year. The selection of returns uses a variety of methods based on IRS experiences. On examination, the IRS may request additional information from the taxpayer by mail, in person at IRS local offices, or at the business location of the taxpayer. The taxpayer is entitled to representation by an attorney, Certified Public Accountant (CPA), or enrolled agent, at the expense of the taxpayer, who may make representations to the IRS on behalf of the taxpayer.\nTaxpayers have certain rights in an audit. Upon conclusion of the audit, the IRS may accept the tax return as filed or propose adjustments to the return. The IRS may also assess penalties and interest. Generally, adjustments must be proposed within three years of the due date of the tax return. Certain circumstances extend this time limit, including substantial understatement of income and fraud. The taxpayer and the IRS may agree to allow the IRS additional time to conclude an audit. If the IRS proposes adjustments, the taxpayer may agree to the adjustment, appeal within the IRS, or seek judicial determination of the tax.\n\n\n===== Published and private rulings =====\nIn addition to enforcing tax laws, the IRS provides formal and informal guidance to taxpayers. While often referred to as IRS Regulations, the regulations under the Internal Revenue Code are issued by the Department of Treasury. IRS guidance consists of:\n\nRevenue Rulings, Revenue Procedures, and various IRS pronouncements applicable to all taxpayers and published in the Internal Revenue Bulletin, which are binding on the IRS,\nPrivate letter rulings on specific issues, applicable only to the taxpayer who applied for the ruling,\nIRS Publications providing informal instruction to the public on tax matters,\nIRS forms and instructions,\nA comprehensive web site, and\nInformal (nonbinding) advice by telephone.\n\n\n==== Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau ====\n\nThe Alcohol and Tobacco Tax Trade Bureau (TTB), a division of the Department of the Treasury, enforces federal excise tax laws related to alcohol, tobacco, and firearms. TTB has six divisions, each with discrete functions:\n\nRevenue Center: processes tax returns and issues permits, and related activities\nRisk Management: internally develops guidelines and monitors programs\nTax Audit: verifies filing and payment of taxes\nTrade Investigations: investigating arm for non-tobacco items\nTobacco Enforcement Division: enforcement actions for tobacco\nAdvertising, Labeling, and Formulation Division: implements various labeling and ingredient monitoringCriminal enforcement related to TTB is done by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, a division of the Justice Department.\n\n\n==== Customs and Border Protection ====\n\nU.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP), an agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security, collects customs duties and regulates international trade. It has a workforce of over 58,000 employees covering over 300 official ports of entry to the United States. CBP has authority to seize and dispose of cargo in the case of certain violations of customs rules.\n\n\n=== State administrations ===\nEvery state in the United States has its own tax administration, subject to the rules of that state's law and regulations. For example, the California Franchise Tax Board. These are referred to in most states as the Department of Revenue or Department of Taxation. The powers of the state taxing authorities vary widely. Most enforce all state level taxes but not most local taxes. However, many states have unified state-level sales tax administration, including for local sales taxes.\nState tax returns are filed separately with those tax administrations, not with the federal tax administrations. Each state has its own procedural rules, which vary widely.\n\n\n=== Local administrations ===\nMost localities within the United States administer most of their own taxes. In many cases, there are multiple local taxing jurisdictions with respect to a particular taxpayer or property. For property taxes, the taxing jurisdiction is typically represented by a tax assessor/collector whose offices are located at the taxing jurisdiction's facilities.\n\n\n== Legal basis ==\nThe United States Constitution provides that Congress \"shall have the power to lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts, and Excises ... but all Duties, Imposts, and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States.\" Prior to amendment, it provided that \"No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be Laid unless in proportion to the Census ...\" The 16th Amendment provided that \"Congress shall have the power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.\" The 10th Amendment provided that \"powers not delegated to the United States by this Constitution, nor prohibited to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.\"\nCongress has enacted numerous laws dealing with taxes since adoption of the Constitution. Those laws are now codified as Title 19, Customs Duties, Title 26, Internal Revenue Code, and various other provisions. These laws specifically authorize the United States Secretary of the Treasury to delegate various powers related to levy, assessment and collection of taxes.\nState constitutions uniformly grant the state government the right to levy and collect taxes. Limitations under state constitutions vary widely.\nVarious fringe individuals and groups have questioned the legitimacy of United States federal income tax. These arguments are varied, but have been uniformly rejected by the Internal Revenue Service and by the courts and ruled to be frivolous.\n\n\n== Policy issues ==\n\nCommentators Benjamin Page, Larry Bartels and Jason Seawright contend that Federal tax policy in relation to regulation and reform in the United States tends to favor wealthy Americans. They assert that political influence is a legal right the wealthy can exercise by contributing funds to lobby for their policy preference.\nEach major type of tax in the United States has been used by some jurisdiction at some time as a tool of social policy. Both liberals and conservatives have called for more progressive taxes in the U.S. Page, Bartels and Seawright assert that although members of the government favor a move toward progressive taxes, due to budget deficits upper class citizens are not yet willing to make a push for the change. Tax cuts were provided during the Bush administration, and were extended in 2010, making federal income taxes less progressive.\n\n\n=== Tax evasion ===\n\nThe Internal Revenue Service estimated that in 2001, the tax gap was $345 billion. The tax gap is the difference between the amount of tax legally owed and the amount actually collected by the government. The tax gap in 2006 was estimated to be $450 billion. The tax gap two years later in 2008 was estimated to be in the range of $450\u2013$500 billion and unreported income was estimated to be approximately $2 trillion. Therefore, 18\u201319 percent of total reportable income was not properly reported to the IRS.\n\n\n== Economics ==\n\nAccording to a 2011 study, the U.S. economy would become approximately $1.6 trillion larger or $5,200 wealthier per person, after a simplification of the complex U.S. tax system.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nBefore 1776, the American Colonies were subject to taxation by Great Britain and also imposed local taxes. Property taxes were imposed in the Colonies as early as 1634. In 1673, the English Parliament imposed a tax on exports from the American Colonies, and with it created the first tax administration in what would become the United States. Other tariffs and taxes were imposed by Parliament. Most of the colonies and many localities adopted property taxes.\nUnder Article VIII of the Articles of Confederation, the United States government did not have the power to tax. All such power lay with the states. The United States Constitution, adopted in 1787, authorized the federal government to lay and collect taxes, but required that some types of tax revenues be given to the states in proportion to population. Tariffs were the principal federal tax through the 1800s.\nBy 1796, state and local governments in fourteen of the 15 states taxed land. Delaware taxed the income from property. The War of 1812 required a federal sales tax on specific luxury items due to its costs. However, internal taxes were dropped in 1817 in favor of import tariffs that went to the federal government. By the American Civil War, the principle of taxation of property at a uniform rate had developed, and many of the states relied on property taxes as a major source of revenue. However, the increasing importance of intangible property, such as corporate stock, caused the states to shift to other forms of taxation in the 1900s.\nIncome taxes in the form of \"faculty\" taxes were imposed by the colonies. These combined income and property tax characteristics, and the income element persisted after 1776 in a few states. Several states adopted income taxes in 1837. Wisconsin adopted a corporate and individual income tax in 1911, and was the first to administer the tax with a state tax administration.\nThe first federal income tax was adopted as part of the Revenue Act of 1861. The tax lapsed after the American Civil War. Subsequently enacted income taxes were held to be unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. because they did not apportion taxes on property by state population. In 1913, the Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified, permitting the federal government to levy an income tax on both property and labor.\n\nThe federal income tax enacted in 1913 included corporate and individual income taxes. It defined income using language from prior laws, incorporated in the Sixteenth Amendment, as \"all income from whatever source derived\". The tax allowed deductions for business expenses, but few non-business deductions. In 1918 the income tax law was expanded to include a foreign tax credit and more comprehensive definitions of income and deduction items. Various aspects of the present system of definitions were expanded through 1926, when U.S. law was organized as the United States Code. Income, estate, gift, and excise tax provisions, plus provisions relating to tax returns and enforcement, were codified as Title 26, also known as the Internal Revenue Code. This was reorganized and somewhat expanded in 1954, and remains in the same general form.\nFederal taxes were expanded greatly during World War I. In 1921, Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon engineered a series of significant income tax cuts under three presidents. Mellon argued that tax cuts would spur growth. Taxes were raised again in the latter part of the Great Depression, and during World War II. Income tax rates were reduced significantly during the Johnson, Nixon, and Reagan presidencies. Significant tax cuts for corporations and all individuals were enacted during the second Bush presidency.\nIn 1986, Congress adopted, with little modification, a major expansion of the income tax portion of the IRS Code proposed in 1985 by the U.S. Treasury Department under President Reagan. The thousand-page Tax Reform Act of 1986 significantly lowered tax rates, adopted sweeping expansions of international rules, eliminated the lower individual tax rate for capital gains, added significant inventory accounting rules, and made substantial other expansions of the law.\nFederal income tax rates have been modified frequently. Tax rates were changed in 34 of the 97 years between 1913 and 2010. The rate structure has been graduated since the 1913 act.\n\nThe first individual income tax return Form 1040 under the 1913 law was four pages long. In 1915, some Congressmen complained about the complexity of the form. In 1921, Congress considered but did not enact replacement of the income tax with a national sales tax.\nBy the 1920s, many states had adopted income taxes on individuals and corporations. Many of the state taxes were simply based on the federal definitions. The states generally taxed residents on all of their income, including income earned in other states, as well as income of nonresidents earned in the state. This led to a long line of Supreme Court cases limiting the ability of states to tax income of nonresidents.\nThe states had also come to rely heavily on retail sales taxes. However, as of the beginning of World War II, only two cities (New York and New Orleans) had local sales taxes.The Federal Estate Tax was introduced in 1916, and Gift Tax in 1924. Unlike many inheritance taxes, the Gift and Estate taxes were imposed on the transferor rather than the recipient. Many states adopted either inheritance taxes or estate and gift taxes, often computed as the amount allowed as a deduction for federal purposes. These taxes remained under 1% of government revenues through the 1990s.All governments within the United States provide tax exemption for some income, property, or persons. These exemptions have their roots both in tax theory, federal and state legislative history, and the United States Constitution.\n\n\n== See also ==\nInternal Revenue Service\nList of countries by tax rates\nList of countries by tax revenue as percentage of GDP\nTariffs in United States history\nTax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017\nTax resistance in the United States\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nGovernment sources:\n\nIRS Publication 17, Your Federal Income Tax\nU.S. Customs and Border Protection booklet Importing into the United States\nIRS website\nLinks to state websites\nCustoms and Border Patrol website\nAlcohol and Tobacco Tax websiteLaw & regulations:\n\nFederal tax law, 26 USC\nCode of Federal Regulations, 26 CFRStandard texts (most updated annually):\n\nFox, Stephen C., Income Tax in the USA, 2013 edition ISBN 978-0-9851-8233-5\nHoffman, William H. Jr.; et al., South-Western Federal Taxation, 2013 edition ISBN 978-0-324-66050-0\nPratt, James W.; Kulsrud, William N.; et al, Federal Taxation\", 2013 edition ISBN 978-1-1334-9623-6 (cited above as Pratt).\nWhittenberg, Gerald; Altus-Buller, Martha; and Gill, Stephen, Income Tax Fundamentals 2013, ISBN 978-1-1119-7251-6\nHellerstein, Jerome R., and Hellerstein, Walter, State and Local Taxation: Cases and Materials, 2005, ISBN 978-0-314-15376-0Reference works:\n\nMinarik, Joseph J. (2008). \"Taxation\".  In David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (2nd ed.). Library of Economics and Liberty. ISBN 978-0865976658. OCLC 237794267.\nCCH U.S. Master Tax Guide, 2010 ISBN 978-0-8080-2169-8\nRIA Federal Tax Handbook 2010 ISBN 978-0-7811-0417-3Popular publications (annual):\n\nJ.K. Lasser's Your Income Tax for 2010 ISBN 978-0-470-44711-6\n\n\n== External links ==\nTariffs applied by the United States as provided by ITC's Market Access Map, an online database of customs tariffs and market requirements.", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/%28117th%29_US_House_of_Representatives.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/117th_United_States_Senate.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Average_Effective_Sales_Tax_of_the_50_States_%282007%29.gif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Average_county_property_taxes_in_the_United_States.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Composition_of_Ohio_State_Revenue_%282007%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Distribution_of_U.S._Federal_Taxes_2000.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Effective_Payroll_Tax_rate_for_Different_Income_Percentiles_%282010%29.gif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Estate_Tax_Returns_as_a_Percentage_of_Adult_Deaths%2C_1982_-_2010.gif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Federal_Capital_Gains_Tax_Collections_1954-2009_history_chart.pdf", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Federal_Receipts_by_Source.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Federal_taxes_by_type.pdf", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Government_Revenue_and_spending_GDP.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Historical_Marginal_Tax_Rate_for_Highest_and_Lowest_Income_Earners.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Logo_of_the_Internal_Revenue_Service.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Payroll_tax_history.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Progressive_effective_tax_burden.pdf", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Share_of_Total_Income_and_Taxes_Paid_by_Income_Group_in_2011.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Tax_Revenue_as_Share_of_GDP_for_OECD_Countries_in_2009.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Tax_revenue_as_a_percentage_of_GDP_%281985-2014%29.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Taxes_revenue_by_source_chart_history.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Total_State_Government_Tax_Revenue_By_Type.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Total_government_spending_on_all_levels_%28United_States%29.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/U.S.-income-taxes-out-of-total-taxes.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/U.S._Federal_Receipts_-_FY_2007.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/U.S._Federal_Tax_Receipts_as_a_Percentage_of_GDP_1945%E2%80%932015.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/US_Effective_Corporate_Tax_Rate_1947-2011_v2.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/US_Share_of_Income_Taxes_Paid_by_Income_Level_v1.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/US_federal_effective_tax_rates_by_income_percentile_and_component.gif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/65/Income_tax_%2717-%2718.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/af/Irs_taxable_income.jpg"], "summary": "The United States of America has separate federal, state, and local governments with taxes imposed at each of these levels. Taxes are levied on income, payroll, property, sales, capital gains, dividends, imports, estates and gifts, as well as various fees. In 2010, taxes collected by federal, state, and municipal governments amounted to 24.8% of GDP. In the OECD, only Chile and Mexico are taxed less as a share of their GDP.Taxes fall much more heavily on labor income than on capital income. Divergent taxes and subsidies for different forms of income and spending can also constitute a form of indirect taxation of some activities over others. For example, individual spending on higher education can be said to be \"taxed\" at a high rate, compared to other forms of personal expenditure which are formally recognized as investments.\nTaxes are imposed on net income of individuals and corporations by the federal, most state, and some local governments. Citizens and residents are taxed on worldwide income and allowed a credit for foreign taxes. Income subject to tax is determined under tax accounting rules, not financial accounting principles, and includes almost all income from whatever source. Most business expenses reduce taxable income, though limits apply to a few expenses. Individuals are permitted to reduce taxable income by personal allowances and certain non-business expenses, including home mortgage interest, state and local taxes, charitable contributions, and medical and certain other expenses incurred above certain percentages of income. State rules for determining taxable income often differ from federal rules. Federal marginal tax rates vary from 10% to 37% of taxable income. State and local tax rates vary widely by jurisdiction, from 0% to 13.30% of income, and many are graduated. State taxes are generally treated as a deductible expense for federal tax computation, although the 2017 tax law imposed a $10,000 limit on the state and local tax (\"SALT\") deduction, which raised the effective tax rate on medium and high earners in high tax states. Prior to the SALT deduction limit, the average deduction exceeded $10,000 in most of the Midwest, and exceeded $11,000 in most of the Northeastern United States, as well as California and Oregon. The states impacted the most by the limit were the tri-state area (NY, NJ, and CT) and California; the average SALT deduction in those states was greater than $17,000 in 2014.The United States is one of two countries in the world that taxes its non-resident citizens on worldwide income, in the same manner and rates as residents; the other is Eritrea. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of imposition of such a tax in the case of Cook v. Tait.Payroll taxes are imposed by the federal and all state governments. These include Social Security and Medicare taxes imposed on both employers and employees, at a combined rate of 15.3% (13.3% for 2011 and 2012). Social Security tax applies only to the first $132,900 of wages in 2019. There is an additional Medicare tax of 0.9% on wages above $200,000. Employers must withhold income taxes on wages. An unemployment tax and certain other levies apply to employers. Payroll taxes have dramatically increased as a share of federal revenue since the 1950s, while corporate income taxes have fallen as a share of revenue. (Corporate profits have not fallen as a share of GDP).\nProperty taxes are imposed by most local governments and many special purpose authorities based on the fair market value of property. School and other authorities are often separately governed, and impose separate taxes. Property tax is generally imposed only on realty, though some jurisdictions tax some forms of business property. Property tax rules and rates vary widely with annual median rates ranging from 0.2% to 1.9% of a property's value depending on the state.Sales taxes are imposed by most states and some localities on the price at retail sale of many goods and some services. Sales tax rates vary widely among jurisdictions, from 0% to 16%, and may vary within a jurisdiction based on the particular goods or services taxed. Sales tax is collected by the seller at the time of sale, or remitted as use tax by buyers of taxable items who did not pay sales tax.\nThe United States imposes tariffs or customs duties on the import of many types of goods from many jurisdictions. These tariffs or duties must be paid before the goods can be legally imported. Rates of duty vary from 0% to more than 20%, based on the particular goods and country of origin.\nEstate and gift taxes are imposed by the federal and some state governments on the transfer of property inheritance, by will, or by lifetime donation. Similar to federal income taxes, federal estate and gift taxes are imposed on worldwide property of citizens and residents and allow a credit for foreign taxes."}, "Experimental_literature": {"links": ["James Boswell", "Oulipo", "Norman Mailer", "Microtonal music", "Angry Penguins", "Ego-Futurism", "Expressionism", "Lists of writers", "Mir iskusstva", "Ztwo thirteen: Exit", "No wave", "Media ", "Post-rock", "The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman", "Futurist", "Per B\u00e4ckstr\u00f6m", "Vorticism", "Avant-funk", "Fauvism", "Mark Danielewski", "Minimalism", "Rick Moody", "Musique concr\u00e8te", "Color Field", "La reina de Am\u00e9rica", "Novella", "Conceptual writing", "Cin\u00e9ma pur", "Surrealist", "Symbolism ", "Modernism", "The Mezzanine", "Literary criticism", "Spectral music", "Zaum", "Twelve-tone technique", "Music theatre", "Totalism", "Thomas Pynchon", "Structural film", "Glossary of literary terms", "Drama", "Invisible Cities", "Nouveau roman", "Avant-punk", "Serialism", "Neoteric", "Mythopoeia", "Oberiu", "Surrealism", "Theatre of the Absurd", "Performance art", "Andr\u00e9 Breton", "Russian symbolism", "Novel", "Post-modernism", "Comedy", "Philippe Soupault", "Samuel Johnson", "Outline of literature", "History of literature", "Industrial music", "Code poetry", "Tragedy", "Experimental film", "Marco Polo", "Hundred Thousand Billion Poems", "Literary modernism", "Play ", "Lezama Lima", "John Barth", "Art & Language", "Net-poetry", "Divisionism", "Denis Diderot", "Donald Barthelme", "House of Leaves", "Electronic literature", "Nicholson Baker", "Gabriel Garcia Marquez", "Isidore Isou", "Abstract expressionism", "Literature", "Process art", "Ernest Hemingway", "Ronald Sukenick", "List of literary awards", "Late modernism", "If on a winter's night a traveler", "Language poets", "Lyric poetry", "Rogue literature", "The Friday Book", "Life: A User's Manual", "Postmodern literature", "Critical theory", "The Collected Works of Billy the Kid: Left-Handed Poems", "Aleatoric music", "Infinite Jest", "Imaginism", "Sociology of literature", "Theatre of Cruelty", "Constructivism ", "Fascism", "Pop art", "Speculative fiction", "Concrete poetry", "Erotic literature", "Ezra Pound", "Rock in Opposition", "Literary magazine", "Avant-garde jazz", "Raymond Queneau", "Prose", "Avant-pop", "Mirror writing", "Julio Cort\u00e1zar", "Epic theatre", "Sound mass", "Gertrude Stein", "Grosvenor School", "Ars nova", "Futurism", "Postdramatic theatre", "Dada", "Lettrist", "Visual poetry", "Noise music", "Bizarro fiction", "Georges Perec", "Gravity's Rainbow", "Michael Ondaatje", "Beat generation", "Experimental pop", "Ulysses ", "Fran\u00e7ois Le Lionnais", "Kenneth Patchen", "Free improvisation", "Neoism", "Literary theory", "Suprematism", "Avant-garde metal", "Robert Coover", "Slam poetry", "Digital poetry", "Rayonism", "Experimental theatre", "Bernard Malamud", "Cut-up", "Ergodic literature", "Hypertext", "Kubla Khan", "Chivalric romance", "Electroacoustic music", "MOS:LEADLENGTH", "Neo-Dada", "Clarice Lispector", "The Cantos", "Situationist International", "Absurdism", "F.T. Marinetti", "Art Nouveau", "Multidimensional art", "Russian Futurism", "Avant-garde", "Fluxus", "Hungry generation", "Avant-garde music", "Cubism", "Modernist", "Poetry", "Magic realism", "William S. Burroughs", "Metafiction", "New Complexity", "Nonlinear ", "Dimitris Lyacos", "Experimental rock", "Second Viennese School", "De Stijl", "Lyrical abstraction", "Postminimalism", "Beat poetry", "Codework", "Dev\u011btsil", "Neo-impressionism", "Mail art", "Satire", "Minimalism ", "Epic poetry", "Nuyorican", "Jack Kerouac", "Hopscotch ", "Slipstream ", "Ars subtilior", "Futurism ", "Jonathan Bayliss", "Neue Slowenische Kunst", "Acmeist poetry", "William H. Gass", "Jorge Luis Borges", "'Pataphysics", "Giannina Braschi", "Atonality", "Virginia Woolf", "Cubo-Futurism", "Mario Vargas Llosa", "Dadaist", "Free jazz", "Neoavanguardia", "Primitivism", "Remodernist film", "Soviet Nonconformist Art", "David Foster Wallace", "Flarf poetry", "Jorge Majfud", "Latin American writers", "Conceptual art", "Absurdist fiction", "Lettrism", "Incoherents", "Minimal music", "Short story", "Electronic music", "Drop Art", "Haptic poetry", "Cyberpunk", "T. S. Eliot", "Asemic writing", "Vellum", "Juan Rulfo", "Laurence Sterne", "Proto-Cubism", "Neo-minimalism", "Social realism", "Computers", "Jacques the Fatalist and His Master", "List of poetry awards", "Robert Desnos", "Lists of books", "Modernist literature", "Impressionism", "Les Champs Magn\u00e9tiques", "Performance", "Adventure fiction", "Post-Impressionism", "History of modern literature", "Avant-prog", "Literary nonsense", "Ultraist movement", "Naked Lunch", "John Hawkes ", "Italo Calvino", "Drone music", "L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E", "Literary genre", "Postmodernism", "Tristan Tzara", "The Literature of Exhaustion", "Socialist realism", "Nouveau r\u00e9alisme", "Visions of Gerard", "Dogme ninety-five", "Bauhaus", "Antinovel", "James Joyce", "Tragicomedy", "Yass ", "Stochastic"], "content": "Experimental literature is a genre that is, according to Professor Warren Motte of the University of Colorado in his essay Experimental Writing, Experimental Reading, \"difficult to define with any sort of precision.\"  He says the \"writing is often invoked in an \"offhand manner\" and the focus is on \"form rather than content.\" It can be in written form of prose narrative or poetry, but the text may be set on the page  in differing configurations than that of normal prose paragraphs or in the classical stanza form of verse.  It may also be entwined with images of a real or abstract nature, with the use of art or photography. Furthermore, while experimental literature was handwritten on paper or vellum, the  digital age has seen an exponential leaning to the use of digital computer technologies.\n\n\n== Early history ==\nThe first text generally cited in this category is Laurence Sterne's The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1759). This text occurs so early in the standard history of the novel that one can't refer to its \"breaking\" conventions that had yet to solidify. But in its mockery of narrative, and its willingness to use such graphic elements as an all-black page to mourn the death of a character, Sterne's novel is considered a fundamental text for many post-World War II authors. However, Sterne's work was not without detractors even in its time; for instance, Samuel Johnson is quoted in Boswell as saying \"The merely odd does not last. Tristram Shandy did not last.\" Denis Diderot's Jacques the Fatalist and His Master, drew many elements from Tristam Shandy, a fact not concealed in the text, making it an early example of metafiction.\n\n\n== 20th-century history ==\nIn the 1910s, artistic experimentation became a prominent force, and various European and American writers began experimenting with the given forms. Tendencies that formed during this period later became parts of the modernist movement. The Cantos of Ezra Pound, the post-World War I work of T. S. Eliot, prose and plays by Gertrude Stein, were some of the most influential works of the time, though James Joyce's Ulysses is generally considered the most important work of the time. The novel ultimately influenced not only more experimental writers, such as Virginia Woolf, but also less experimental writers, such as Hemingway.\nThe historical avant-garde movements also contributed to the development of experimental literature in the early and middle 20th century. In the Dadaist movement, poet Tristan Tzara employed newspaper clippings and experimental typography in his manifestoes. The futurist author F.T. Marinetti espoused a theory of \"words in freedom\" across the page, exploding the boundaries of both conventional narrative and the layout of the book itself as shown in his \"novel\" Zang Tumb Tumb. The writers, poets, and artists associated with the surrealist movement employed a range of unusual techniques to evoke mystical and dream-like states in their poems, novels, and prose works. Examples include the collaboratively written texts Les Champs Magn\u00e9tiques (by Andr\u00e9 Breton and Philippe Soupault) and Sorrow for Sorrow, a \"dream novel\" produced under hypnosis by Robert Desnos.\nBy the end of the 1930s, the political situation in Europe had made Modernism appear to be an inadequate, aestheticized, even irresponsible response to the dangers of worldwide fascism, and literary experimentalism faded from public view for a period, kept alive through the 1940s only by isolated visionaries like Kenneth Patchen. In the 1950s, the Beat writers can be seen as a reaction against the hidebound quality of both the poetry and prose of its time, and such hovering, near-mystical works as Jack Kerouac's novel Visions of Gerard represented a new formal approach to the standard narrative of that era. American novelists such as John Hawkes started publishing novels in the late 1940s that played with the conventions of narrative.\nThe spirit of the European avant-gardes would be carried through the post-war generation as well. The poet Isidore Isou formed the Lettrist group, and produced manifestoes, poems, and films that explored the boundaries of the written and spoken word. The OULIPO (in French, Ouvroir de litt\u00e9rature potentielle, or \"Workshop of Potential Literature\") brought together writers, artists, and mathematicians to explore innovative, combinatoric means of producing texts. Founded by the author Raymond Queneau and mathematician Fran\u00e7ois Le Lionnais, the group included Italo Calvino and Georges Perec. Queneau's Cent Mille Millards de Po\u00e8mes uses the physical book itself to proliferate different sonnet combinations, while Perec's novel Life: A User's Manual is based on the Knight's Tour on a chessboard.\nThe 1960s brought a brief return of the glory days of modernism, and a first grounding of Post-modernism. Publicity owing to an obscenity trial against William S. Burroughs' Naked Lunch brought a wide awareness of and admiration for an extreme and uncensored freedom. Burroughs also pioneered a style known as cut-up, where newspapers or typed manuscripts were cut up and rearranged to achieve lines in the text. In the late 1960s, experimental movements became so prominent that even authors considered more conventional such as Bernard Malamud and Norman Mailer exhibited experimental tendencies. Metafiction was an important tendency in this period, exemplified most elaborately in the works of John Barth, Jonathan Bayliss, and Jorge Luis Borges. In 1967 Barth wrote the essay The Literature of Exhaustion, which is sometimes considered a manifesto of postmodernism. A major touchstone of this era was Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow, which eventually became a bestseller. Important authors in the short story form included Donald Barthelme, and, in both short and long forms, Robert Coover and Ronald Sukenick. While in 1968 William H. Gass's novel Willie Masters Lonesome Wife added challenging dimensions to reading as some of the pages are in mirror writing where the text can only be read if a mirror is held in an angle against the page.\nSome later well-known experimental writers of the 1970s and 1980s were Italo Calvino, Michael Ondaatje, and Julio Cort\u00e1zar. Calvino's most famous books are If on a winter's night a traveler, where some chapters depict the reader preparing to read a book titled If on a winter's night a traveler while others form the narrative and Invisible Cities, where Marco Polo explains his travels to Kubla Khan although they are merely accounts of the very city in which they are chatting. Ondaatje's The Collected Works of Billy the Kid uses a scrapbook style to tell its story while Cort\u00e1zar's Hopscotch can be read with the chapters in any order.\nArgentine Julio Cort\u00e1zar and the naturalized Brazilian writer Clarice Lispector, both Latin American writers who have created masterpieces in experimental literature of 20th and 21st century, mixing dreamscapes, journalism, and fiction; regional classics written in Spanish include the Mexican novel \"Pedro Paramo\" by Juan Rulfo, the Colombian family epic \"One Hundred Years of Solitude\" by Gabriel Garcia Marquez, the Peruvian political history \"The War of the End of the World\" by Mario Vargas Llosa, the Puerto Rican Spanglish dramatic dialogue \"Yo-Yo Boing!\" by Giannina Braschi, and the Cuban revolutionary novel \"Paradise\" by Lezama Lima.Contemporary American authors David Foster Wallace, Giannina Braschi, and Rick Moody, combine some of the experimental form-play of the 1960s writers with a more emotionally deflating, irony, and a greater tendency towards accessibility and humor. Wallace's Infinite Jest is a maximalist work describing life at a tennis academy and a rehab facility; digressions often become plotlines, and the book ultimately features over 100 pages of footnotes. Other writers like Nicholson Baker were noted for their minimalism in novels such as The Mezzanine, about a man who rides an escalator for 140 pages. American author Mark Danielewski combined elements of a horror novel with formal academic writing and typographic experimentation in his novel House of Leaves.\nGreek author Dimitris Lyacos in Z213: Exit combines, in a kind of a modern-day palimpsest, the diary entries of two narrators in a heavily fragmented text, interspersed with excerpts from the biblical Exodus, to recount a journey along which the distinct realities of inner self and outside world gradually merge.\n\n\n== 21st-century history ==\nIn the early 21st century, many examples of experimental literature reflect the emergence of computers and other digital technologies, some of them actually using the medium on which they are reflecting. Such writing has been variously referred to electronic literature, hypertext, and codework. Others have focused on exploring the plurality of narrative point of views, like the Uruguayan American writer Jorge Majfud in La reina de Am\u00e9rica and La ciudad de la luna.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nB\u00e4ckstr\u00f6m, Per. V\u00e5rt brokigas ochellericke! Om experimentell poesi (Our Gaudy Andornot!. On Experimental Poetry), Lund: Ellerstr\u00f6m, 2010.\n\n\n== External links ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Liji2_no_bg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/The_Convergence_of_Two_Narrative_LInes_Ascending_-_Page_1.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg"], "summary": "Experimental literature is a genre that is, according to Professor Warren Motte of the University of Colorado in his essay Experimental Writing, Experimental Reading, \"difficult to define with any sort of precision.\"  He says the \"writing is often invoked in an \"offhand manner\" and the focus is on \"form rather than content.\" It can be in written form of prose narrative or poetry, but the text may be set on the page  in differing configurations than that of normal prose paragraphs or in the classical stanza form of verse.  It may also be entwined with images of a real or abstract nature, with the use of art or photography. Furthermore, while experimental literature was handwritten on paper or vellum, the  digital age has seen an exponential leaning to the use of digital computer technologies.\n\n"}, "Invisible_Cities": {"links": ["Structuralism", "The Cloven Viscount", "The Nonexistent Knight", "The Travels of Marco Polo", "The Decameron", "Under the Jaguar Sun", "If on a winter's night a traveler", "Union Station ", "Headphones", "Venice", "Yuan dynasty", "Mongol Empire", "Ren\u00e9 Magritte", "Italian language", "Death", "Culture", "Christopher Cerrone", "Travel literature", "Invisible Cities ", "Framing device", "Los Angeles Daily News", "The Baron in the Trees", "William Weaver", "Un re in ascolto", "Surrealism", "Our Ancestors", "Oulipo", "Site-specific theatre", "Marcovaldo", "The Castle of Crossed Destinies", "Italo Calvino", "Language", "The New York Times", "ISBN ", "Los Angeles Times", "Paperback", "Asia", "Difficult Loves", "Wired ", "LCC ", "Kublai Khan", "Memory", "Giulio Einaudi", "twenty fourteen Pulitzer Prize", "Time", "The Crow Comes Last", "Yuval Sharon", "Pulitzer Prize for Music", "Marco Polo", "OCLC ", "T zero", "The Path to the Nest of Spiders", "Hardcover", "Dewey Decimal Classification", "International trade", "Roland Barthes", "Nebula Award for Best Novel", "Six Memos for the Next Millennium", "Mr. Palomar", "Los Angeles", "Italian ", "Italian Folktales", "Cosmicomics", "Prose poetry", "Human condition", "The Complete Cosmicomics"], "content": "Invisible Cities (Italian: Le citt\u00e0 invisibili) is a novel by Italian writer Italo Calvino. It was published in Italy in 1972 by Giulio Einaudi Editore.\n\n\n== Description ==\nThe book explores imagination and the imaginable through the descriptions of cities by an explorer, Marco Polo. The book is framed as a conversation between the elderly and busy emperor Kublai Khan, who constantly has merchants coming to describe the state of his expanding and vast empire, and Polo. The majority of the book consists of brief prose poems describing 55 fictitious cities that are narrated by Polo, many of which can be read as parables or meditations on culture, language, time, memory, death, or the general nature of human experience. \nShort dialogues between Kublai and Polo are interspersed every five to ten cities discussing these topics. These interludes between the two characters are no less poetically constructed than the cities, and form a framing device that plays with the natural complexity of language and stories. In one key exchange in the middle of the book, Kublai prods Polo to tell him of the one city he has never mentioned directly\u2014his hometown. Polo's response: \"Every time I describe a city I am saying something about Venice.\"\n\n\n== Historical background ==\nInvisible Cities deconstructs an archetypal example of the travel literature genre, The Travels of Marco Polo, which depicts the journey of the famed Venetian merchant across Asia and in Yuan China (Mongol Empire). The original 13th-century travelogue shares with Calvino's novel the brief, often fantastic accounts of the cities Polo claimed to have visited, along with descriptions of the city's inhabitants, notable imports and exports, and whatever interesting tales Polo had heard about the region. \n\n\n== Structure ==\nOver the nine chapters, Marco describes a total of fifty-five cities, all women's names. The cities are divided into eleven thematic groups of five each:\n\nCities & Memory\nCities & Desire\nCities & Signs\nThin Cities\nTrading Cities\nCities & Eyes\nCities & Names\nCities & the Dead\nCities & the Sky\nContinuous Cities\nHidden CitiesHe moves back and forth between the groups, while moving down the list, in a rigorous mathematical structure. The table below lists the cities in order of appearance, along with the group they belong to:\n\nIn each of the nine chapters, there is an opening section and a closing section, narrating dialogues between the Khan and Marco. The descriptions of the cities lie between these two sections.\nThe matrix of eleven column themes and fifty-five subchapters (ten rows in chapters 1 and 9, five in all others) shows some interesting properties. Each column has five entries, rows only one, so there are fifty-five cities in all. The matrix of cities has a central element (Baucis). The pattern of cities is symmetric with respect to inversion about that center. Equivalently, it is symmetric against 180 degree rotations about Baucis.  Inner chapters (2-8 inclusive) have diagonal cascades of five cities (e.g. Maurila through Euphemia in chapter 2).  These five-city cascades are displaced by one theme column to the right as one proceeds to the next chapter. In order that the cascade sequence terminate (the book of cities is not infinite!) Calvino, in chapter 9, truncates the diagonal cascades in steps: Laudomia through Raissa is a cascade of four cities, followed by cascades of three, two, and one, necessitating ten cities in the final chapter.  The same pattern is used in reverse in chapter 1 as the diagonal cascade of cities is born. This strict adherence to a mathematical pattern is characteristic of the Oulipo literary group to which Calvino belonged.\n\n\n== Awards ==\nThe book was nominated for the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1975.\n\n\n== Opera ==\nInvisible Cities (and in particular the chapters about Isidora, Armilla, and Adelma) is the basis for an opera by composer Christopher Cerrone, first produced by The Industry in October 2013 as an experimental production at Union Station in Los Angeles. In this site-specific production directed by Yuval Sharon, the performers, including eleven musicians, eight singers, and eight dancers, were located in (or moved through) different parts of the train station, while the station remained open and operating as usual. The performance could be heard by about 200 audience members, who wore wireless headphones and were allowed to move through the station at will.  An audio recording of the opera was released in November 2014. The opera was named a finalist for the 2014 Pulitzer Prize for Music.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nRoland Barthes\nOulipo\nStructuralism\nSurrealism\nThe Decameron\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nthe Invisible Cities become visible\nExcerpts from Invisible Cities\nReview by Jeannette Winterson\nItalo Calvino sparks obsessions\nErasing the Invisible Cities - essay by John Welsh, University of Virginia\nFabulous Calvino by Gore Vidal in The New York Review of Books (Subscription Required)\nCalvino's Urban Allegories by Franco Ferrucci in The New York Times\nInvisible Cities Illustrated\nF\u00e4llt - Invisible Cities - Portraits of the world's cities painted with sound\nSilvestri, Paolo, \"After-word. 'Invisible cities': which (good-bad) man? For which (good-bad) polity?\", in P. Heritier, P. Silvestri (eds.), Good government, Governance and Human Complexity. Luigi Einaudi\u2019s Legacy and Contemporary Society, Leo Olschki, Firenze, 2012, pp. 313-332. https://ideas.repec.org/p/pra/mprapa/59535.html", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Book_collection.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/25/InvisibleCities.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg"], "summary": "Invisible Cities (Italian: Le citt\u00e0 invisibili) is a novel by Italian writer Italo Calvino. It was published in Italy in 1972 by Giulio Einaudi Editore."}, "Structuralism": {"links": ["Death of God", "Theodor W. 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It works to uncover the structures that underlie all the things that humans do, think, perceive, and feel. \n\nAlternatively, as summarized by philosopher Simon Blackburn, structuralism is:[T]he belief that phenomena of human life are not intelligible except through their interrelations. These relations constitute a structure, and behind local variations in the surface phenomena there are constant laws of abstract structure.Structuralism in Europe developed in the early 20th century, mainly in France and the Russian Empire, in the structural linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure and the subsequent Prague, Moscow, and Copenhagen schools of linguistics. As an intellectual movement, structuralism became the heir to existentialism. After World War II, an array of scholars in the humanities borrowed Saussure's concepts for use in their respective fields. French anthropologist Claude L\u00e9vi-Strauss was arguably the first such scholar, sparking a widespread interest in structuralism.The structuralist mode of reasoning has since been applied in a range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, psychology, literary criticism, economics, and architecture. Along with L\u00e9vi-Strauss, the most prominent thinkers associated with structuralism include linguist Roman Jakobson and psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan.\nBy the late 1960s, many of structuralism's basic tenets came under attack from a new wave of predominantly French intellectuals/philosophers such as historian Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser, and literary critic Roland Barthes. Though elements of their work necessarily relate to structuralism and are informed by it, these theorists eventually came to be referred to as post-structuralists. Many proponents of structuralism, such as Lacan, continue to influence continental philosophy and many of the fundamental assumptions of some of structuralism's post-structuralist critics are a continuation of structuralist thinking.\n\n\n== History and background ==\nStructuralism is an ambiguous term that refers to different schools of thought in different contexts. As such, the movement in humanities and social sciences called structuralism relates to sociology. Emile Durkheim based his sociological concept on 'structure' and 'function',  and from his work emerged the sociological approach of structural functionalism.Apart from Durkheim's use of the term structure, the semiological concept of Ferdinand de Saussure became fundamental for structuralism. Saussure conceived language and society as a system of relations. His linguistic approach was also a refutation of evolutionary linguistics.\nThroughout the 1940s and 1950s, existentialism, such as that propounded by Jean-Paul Sartre, was the dominant European intellectual movement. Structuralism rose to prominence in France in the wake of existentialism, particularly in the 1960s. The initial popularity of structuralism in France led to its spread across the globe. By the early 1960s, structuralism as a movement was coming into its own and some believed that it offered a single unified approach to human life that would embrace all disciplines.\nRussian functional linguist Roman Jakobson was a pivotal figure in the adaptation of structural analysis to disciplines beyond linguistics, including philosophy, anthropology, and literary theory. Jakobson was a decisive influence on anthropologist Claude L\u00e9vi-Strauss, by whose work the term structuralism first appeared in reference to social sciences. L\u00e9vi-Strauss' work in turn gave rise to the structuralist movement in France, also called French structuralism, influencing the thinking of other writers, most of whom disavowed themselves as being a part of this movement. This included such writers as Louis Althusser and psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, as well as the structural Marxism of Nicos Poulantzas. Roland Barthes and Jacques Derrida focused on how structuralism could be applied to literature.Accordingly, the so-called \"Gang of Four\" of structuralism is considered to be L\u00e9vi-Strauss, Lacan, Barthes, and Michel Foucault.\n\n\n=== Saussure ===\nThe origins of structuralism are connected with the work of Ferdinand de Saussure on linguistics along with the linguistics of the Prague and Moscow schools. In brief, Saussure's structural linguistics propounded three related concepts.\nSaussure argued for a distinction between langue (an idealized abstraction of language) and parole (language as actually used in daily life). He argued that a \"sign\" is composed of a \"signified\" (signifi\u00e9, i.e. an abstract concept or idea) and a \"signifier\" (signifiant, i.e. the perceived sound/visual image).\nBecause different languages have different words to refer to the same objects or concepts, there is no intrinsic reason why a specific signifier is used to express a given concept or idea. It is thus \"arbitrary.\"\nSigns gain their meaning from their relationships and contrasts with other signs. As he wrote, \"in language, there are only differences 'without positive terms.'\"\n\n\n=== L\u00e9vi-Strauss ===\nStructuralism rejected the concept of human freedom and choice, focusing instead on the way that human experience and behaviour is determined by various structures. The most important initial work on this score was L\u00e9vi-Strauss's 1949 volume The Elementary Structures of Kinship. L\u00e9vi-Strauss had known Roman Jakobson during their time together at the New School in New York during WWII and was influenced by both Jakobson's structuralism, as well as the American anthropological tradition. \nIn Elementary Structures, he examined kinship systems from a structural point of view and demonstrated how apparently different social organizations were different permutations of a few basic kinship structures. In the late 1950s, he published Structural Anthropology, a collection of essays outlining his program for structuralism.\n\n\n=== Lacan and Piaget ===\nBlending Freud and Saussure, French (post)structuralist Jacques Lacan applied structuralism to psychoanalysis. Similarly, Jean Piaget applied structuralism to the study of psychology, though in a different way. Piaget, who would better define himself as constructivist, considered structuralism as \"a method and not a doctrine,\" because, for him, \"there exists no structure without a construction, abstract or genetic.\"\n\n\n=== 'Third order' ===\nProponents of structuralism argue that a specific domain of culture may be understood by means of a structure that is modelled on language and is distinct both from the organizations of reality and those of ideas, or the imagination\u2014the \"third order.\" In Lacan's psychoanalytic theory, for example, the structural order of \"the Symbolic\" is distinguished both from \"the Real\" and \"the Imaginary;\" similarly, in Althusser's Marxist theory, the structural order of the capitalist mode of production is distinct both from the actual, real agents involved in its relations and from the ideological forms in which those relations are understood.\n\n\n=== Althusser ===\nAlthough French theorist Louis Althusser is often associated with structural social analysis, which helped give rise to \"structural Marxism,\" such association was contested by Althusser himself in the Italian foreword to the second edition of Reading Capital. In this foreword Althusser states the following:   \n\nDespite the precautions we took to distinguish ourselves from the 'structuralist' ideology\u2026, despite the decisive intervention of categories foreign to 'structuralism'\u2026, the terminology we employed was too close in many respects to the 'structuralist' terminology not to give rise to an ambiguity. With a very few exceptions\u2026our interpretation of Marx has generally been recognized and judged, in homage to the current fashion, as 'structuralist'.\u2026 We believe that despite the terminological ambiguity, the profound tendency of our texts was not attached to the 'structuralist' ideology.\n\n\n=== Assiter ===\nIn a later development, feminist theorist Alison Assiter enumerated four ideas common to the various forms of structuralism:\na structure determines the position of each element of a whole;\nevery system has a structure;\nstructural laws deal with co-existence rather than change; and\nstructures are the \"real things\" that lie beneath the surface or the appearance of meaning.\n\n\n== In linguistics ==\n\nIn Ferdinand de Saussure's Course in General Linguistics, the analysis focuses not on the use of language (parole, 'speech'), but rather on the underlying system of language (langue). This approach examines how the elements of language relate to each other in the present, synchronically rather than diachronically. Saussure argued that linguistic signs were composed of two parts:\n\na signifiant ('signifier'): the \"sound pattern\" of a word, either in mental projection\u2014e.g., as when one silently recites lines from signage, a poem to one's self\u2014or in actual, any kind of text, physical realization as part of a speech act.\na signifi\u00e9 '(signified'): the concept or meaning of the word.This differed from previous approaches that focused on the relationship between words and the things in the world that they designate.Although not fully developed by Saussure, other key notions in structural linguistics can be found in structural \"idealism.\" A structural idealism is a class of linguistic units (lexemes, morphemes, or even constructions) that are possible in a certain position in a given syntagm, or linguistic environment (such as a given sentence). The different functional role of each of these members of the paradigm is called 'value' (French: valeur).\n\n\n=== Prague School ===\nIn France, Antoine Meillet and \u00c9mile Benveniste continued Saussure's project, and members of the Prague school of linguistics such as Roman Jakobson and Nikolai Trubetzkoy conducted influential research. The clearest and most important example of Prague school structuralism lies in phonemics. Rather than simply compiling a list of which sounds occur in a language, the Prague school examined how they were related. They determined that the inventory of sounds in a language could be analysed as a series of contrasts. \nThus, in English, the sounds /p/ and /b/ represent distinct phonemes because there are cases (minimal pairs) where the contrast between the two is the only difference between two distinct words (e.g. 'pat' and 'bat'). Analyzing sounds in terms of contrastive features also opens up comparative scope\u2014for instance, it makes clear the difficulty Japanese speakers have differentiating /r/ and /l/ in English and other languages is because these sounds are not contrastive in Japanese. Phonology would become the paradigmatic basis for structuralism in a number of different fields.\nBased on the Prague school concept, Andr\u00e9 Martinet in France, J. R. Firth in the UK and Louis Hjelmslev in Denmark developed their own versions of structural and functional linguistics.\n\n\n== In anthropology ==\n\nAccording to structural theory in anthropology and social anthropology, meaning is produced and reproduced within a culture through various practices, phenomena, and activities that serve as systems of signification. \nA structuralist approach may study activities as diverse as food-preparation and serving rituals, religious rites, games, literary and non-literary texts, and other forms of entertainment to discover the deep structures by which meaning is produced and reproduced within the culture. For example, L\u00e9vi-Strauss analysed in the 1950s cultural phenomena including mythology, kinship (the alliance theory and the incest taboo), and food preparation. In addition to these studies, he produced more linguistically-focused writings in which he applied Saussure's distinction between langue and parole in his search for the fundamental structures of the human mind, arguing that the structures that form the \"deep grammar\" of society originate in the mind and operate in people unconsciously. L\u00e9vi-Strauss took inspiration from mathematics.Another concept used in structural anthropology came from the Prague school of linguistics, where Roman Jakobson and others analysed sounds based on the presence or absence of certain features (e.g., voiceless vs. voiced). L\u00e9vi-Strauss included this in his conceptualization of the universal structures of the mind, which he held to operate based on pairs of binary oppositions such as hot-cold, male-female, culture-nature, cooked-raw, or marriageable vs. tabooed women.\nA third influence came from Marcel Mauss (1872\u20131950), who had written on gift-exchange systems. Based on Mauss, for instance, L\u00e9vi-Strauss argued an alliance theory\u2014that kinship systems are based on the exchange of women between groups\u2014as opposed to the 'descent'-based theory described by Edward Evans-Pritchard and Meyer Fortes. While replacing Mauss at his Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes chair, the writings of L\u00e9vi-Strauss became widely popular in the 1960s and 1970s and gave rise to the term \"structuralism\" itself.\nIn Britain, authors such as Rodney Needham and Edmund Leach were highly influenced by structuralism. Authors such as Maurice Godelier and Emmanuel Terray combined Marxism with structural anthropology in France. In the United States, authors such as Marshall Sahlins and James Boon built on structuralism to provide their own analysis of human society. Structural anthropology fell out of favour in the early 1980s for a number of reasons. D'Andrade suggests that this was because it made unverifiable assumptions about the universal structures of the human mind. Authors such as Eric Wolf argued that political economy and colonialism should be at the forefront of anthropology. More generally, criticisms of structuralism by Pierre Bourdieu led to a concern with how cultural and social structures were changed by human agency and practice, a trend which Sherry Ortner has referred to as 'practice theory'.\nOne example is Douglas E. Foley's Learning Capitalist Culture (2010), in which he applied a mixture of structural and Marxist theories to his ethnographic fieldwork among high school students in Texas. Foley analyzed how they reach a shared goal through the lens of social solidarity when he observed \"Mexicanos\" and \"Anglo-Americans\" come together on the same football team to defeat the school's rivals. However, he also continually applies a marxist lens and states that he,\" wanted to wow peers with a new cultural marxist theory of schooling.\"Some anthropological theorists, however, while finding considerable fault with L\u00e9vi-Strauss's version of structuralism, did not turn away from a fundamental structural basis for human culture. The Biogenetic Structuralism group for instance argued that some kind of structural foundation for culture must exist because all humans inherit the same system of brain structures. They proposed a kind of neuroanthropology which would lay the foundations for a more complete scientific account of cultural similarity and variation by requiring an integration of cultural anthropology and neuroscience\u2014a program that theorists such as Victor Turner also embraced.\n\n\n== In literary criticism and theory ==\n\nIn literary theory, structuralist criticism relates literary texts to a larger structure, which may be a particular genre, a range of intertextual connections, a model of a universal narrative structure, or a system of recurrent patterns or motifs.The field of structuralist semiotics argues that there must be a structure in every text, which explains why it is easier for experienced readers than for non-experienced readers to interpret a text. Hence, everything that is written seems to be governed by specific rules, or a \"grammar of literature\", that one learns in educational institutions and that are to be unmasked.A potential problem for a structuralist interpretation is that it can be highly reductive; as scholar Catherine Belsey puts it: \"the structuralist danger of collapsing all difference.\" An example of such a reading might be if a student concludes the authors of West Side Story did not write anything \"really\" new, because their work has the same structure as Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. In both texts a girl and a boy fall in love (a \"formula\" with a symbolic operator between them would be \"Boy + Girl\") despite the fact that they belong to two groups that hate each other (\"Boy's Group - Girl's Group\" or \"Opposing forces\") and conflict is resolved by their deaths. Structuralist readings focus on how the structures of the single text resolve inherent narrative tensions. If a structuralist reading focuses on multiple texts, there must be some way in which those texts unify themselves into a coherent system. The versatility of structuralism is such that a literary critic could make the same claim about a story of two friendly families (\"Boy's Family + Girl's Family\") that arrange a marriage between their children despite the fact that the children hate each other (\"Boy - Girl\") and then the children commit suicide to escape the arranged marriage; the justification is that the second story's structure is an 'inversion' of the first story's structure: the relationship between the values of love and the two pairs of parties involved have been reversed.\nStructuralist literary criticism argues that the \"literary banter of a text\" can lie only in new structure, rather than in the specifics of character development and voice in which that structure is expressed. Literary structuralism often follows the lead of Vladimir Propp, Algirdas Julien Greimas, and Claude L\u00e9vi-Strauss in seeking out basic deep elements in stories, myths, and more recently, anecdotes, which are combined in various ways to produce the many versions of the ur-story or ur-myth.\nThere is considerable similarity between structural literary theory and Northrop Frye's archetypal criticism, which is also indebted to the anthropological study of myths. Some critics have also tried to apply the theory to individual works, but the effort to find unique structures in individual literary works runs counter to the structuralist program and has an affinity with New Criticism.\n\n\n== Interpretations and general criticisms ==\nStructuralism is less popular today than other approaches, such as post-structuralism and deconstruction. Structuralism has often been criticized for being ahistorical and for favouring deterministic structural forces over the ability of people to act. As the political turbulence of the 1960s and 1970s (particularly the student uprisings of May 1968) began affecting academia, issues of power and political struggle moved to the center of public attention.In the 1980s, deconstruction\u2014and its emphasis on the fundamental ambiguity of language rather than its logical structure\u2014became popular. By the end of the century, structuralism was seen as a historically important school of thought, but the movements that it spawned, rather than structuralism itself, commanded attention.Several social theorists and academics have strongly criticized structuralism or even dismissed it. French hermeneutic philosopher Paul Ric\u0153ur (1969) criticized L\u00e9vi-Strauss for overstepping the limits of validity of the structuralist approach, ending up in what Ric\u0153ur described as \"a Kantianism without a transcendental subject.\"\nAnthropologist Adam Kuper (1973) argued that:'Structuralism' came to have something of the momentum of a millennial movement and some of its adherents felt that they formed a secret society of the seeing in a world of the blind. Conversion was not just a matter of accepting a new paradigm. It was, almost, a question of salvation. Philip Noel Pettit (1975) called for an abandoning of \"the positivist dream which L\u00e9vi-Strauss dreamed for semiology,\" arguing that semiology is not to be placed among the natural sciences. Cornelius Castoriadis (1975) criticized structuralism as failing to explain symbolic mediation in the social world; he viewed structuralism as a variation on the \"logicist\" theme, arguing that, contrary to what structuralists advocate, language\u2014and symbolic systems in general\u2014cannot be reduced to logical organizations on the basis of the binary logic of oppositions.Critical theorist J\u00fcrgen Habermas (1985) accused structuralists like Foucault of being positivists; Foucault, while not an ordinary positivist per se, paradoxically uses the tools of science to criticize science, according to Habermas. (See Performative contradiction and Foucault\u2013Habermas debate.) Sociologist Anthony Giddens (1993) is another notable critic; while Giddens draws on a range of structuralist themes in his theorizing, he dismisses the structuralist view that the reproduction of social systems is merely \"a mechanical outcome.\"\n\n\n== See also ==\nAntihumanism\nEngaged theory\nGenetic structuralism\nHolism\nIsomorphism\nPost-structuralism\nRussian formalism\nStructuralist film theory\nStructuration theory\n\u00c9mile Durkheim\nStructural functionalism\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nAngermuller, Johannes. 2015. Why There Is No Poststructuralism in France: The Making of an Intellectual Generation. London: Bloomsbury.\nRoudinesco, \u00c9lisabeth. 2008. Philosophy in Turbulent Times: Canguilhem, Sartre, Foucault, Althusser, Deleuze, Derrida. New York: Columbia University Press.\n\n\n=== Primary sources ===\nAlthusser, Louis. Reading Capital.\nBarthes, Roland. S/Z.\nDeleuze, Gilles. 1973. \"\u00c0 quoi reconna\u00eet-on le structuralisme?\" Pp. 299\u2013335 in Histoire de la philosophie, Id\u00e9es, Doctrines. Vol. 8: Le XXe si\u00e8cle, edited by F. Ch\u00e2telet. Paris: Hachette\nde Saussure, Ferdinand. 1916. Course in General Linguistics.\nFoucault, Michel. The Order of Things.\nJakobson, Roman. Essais de linguistique g\u00e9n\u00e9rale.\nLacan, Jacques. The Seminars of Jacques Lacan.\nL\u00e9vi-Strauss, Claude. The Elementary Structures of Kinship.\n\u2014\u2014 1958. Structural Anthropology [Anthropologie structurale]\n\u2014\u2014 1964\u20131971. Mythologiques\nWilcken, Patrick, ed. Claude Levi-Strauss: The Father of Modern Anthropology.", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Pepsi_in_India.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Portale_Leonardo_da_Vinci.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Social_sciences.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg"], "summary": "In sociology, anthropology, archaeology, history, philosophy and linguistics, structuralism is a general theory of culture and methodology that implies that elements of human culture must be understood by way of their relationship to a broader system. It works to uncover the structures that underlie all the things that humans do, think, perceive, and feel. \n\nAlternatively, as summarized by philosopher Simon Blackburn, structuralism is:[T]he belief that phenomena of human life are not intelligible except through their interrelations. These relations constitute a structure, and behind local variations in the surface phenomena there are constant laws of abstract structure.Structuralism in Europe developed in the early 20th century, mainly in France and the Russian Empire, in the structural linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure and the subsequent Prague, Moscow, and Copenhagen schools of linguistics. As an intellectual movement, structuralism became the heir to existentialism. After World War II, an array of scholars in the humanities borrowed Saussure's concepts for use in their respective fields. French anthropologist Claude L\u00e9vi-Strauss was arguably the first such scholar, sparking a widespread interest in structuralism.The structuralist mode of reasoning has since been applied in a range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, psychology, literary criticism, economics, and architecture. Along with L\u00e9vi-Strauss, the most prominent thinkers associated with structuralism include linguist Roman Jakobson and psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan.\nBy the late 1960s, many of structuralism's basic tenets came under attack from a new wave of predominantly French intellectuals/philosophers such as historian Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser, and literary critic Roland Barthes. Though elements of their work necessarily relate to structuralism and are informed by it, these theorists eventually came to be referred to as post-structuralists. Many proponents of structuralism, such as Lacan, continue to influence continental philosophy and many of the fundamental assumptions of some of structuralism's post-structuralist critics are a continuation of structuralist thinking."}, "Urban_sociology": {"links": ["Herbert Spencer", "Positivism", "Urban culture", "J\u00fcrgen Habermas", "Outline of sociology", "Global studies", "Sociology of gender", "Psychology", "Symbolic capital", "Geisteswissenschaft", "Political history", "Science and technology studies", "Sociology of immigration", "Linguistics", "Dorothy E. Smith", "Social theory", "Human geography", "Social constructionism", "M. N. 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It is a normative discipline of sociology seeking to study the structures, environmental processes, changes and problems of an urban area and by doing so provide inputs for urban planning and policy making. In other words, it is the sociological study of cities and their role in the development of society.\nLike most areas of sociology, urban sociologists use statistical analysis, observation, social theory, interviews, and other methods to study a range of topics, including migration and demographic trends, economics, poverty, race relations and economic trends. Urban sociology is one of the oldest sub-disciplines of sociology dating back to the mid-nineteenth century.The philosophical foundations of modern urban sociology originate from the work of sociologists such as Karl Marx, Ferdinand T\u00f6nnies, \u00c9mile Durkheim, Max Weber and Georg Simmel who studied and theorized the economic, social and cultural processes of urbanization and its effects on social alienation, class formation, and the production or destruction of collective and individual identities.\nThese theoretical foundations were further expanded upon and analyzed by a group of sociologists and researchers who worked at the University of Chicago in the early twentieth century. In what became known as the Chicago School of sociology the work of Robert Park, Louis Wirth and Ernest Burgess on the inner city of Chicago revolutionized not only the purpose of urban research in sociology, but also the development of human geography through its use of quantitative and ethnographic research methods. The importance of the theories developed by the Chicago School within urban sociology have been critically sustained and critiqued but still remain one of the most significant historical advancements in understanding urbanization and the city within the social sciences. The discipline may draw from several fields, including cultural sociology, economic sociology, and political sociology.\n\n\n== Development and rise ==\n\nUrban sociology rose to prominence within North American academics through a group of sociologists and theorists at the University of Chicago from 1915 to 1940 in what became known as the Chicago School of Sociology. The Chicago School of Sociology combined sociological and anthropological theory with ethnographic fieldwork in order to understand how individuals interact within urban social systems. Unlike the primarily macro-based sociology that had marked earlier subfields, members of the Chicago School placed greater emphasis on micro-scale social interactions that sought to provide subjective meaning to how humans interact under structural, cultural and social conditions. The theory of symbolic interaction, the basis through which many methodologically-groundbreaking ethnographies were framed in this period, took primitive shape alongside urban sociology and shaped its early methodological leanings. Symbolic interaction was forged out of the writings of early micro-sociologists George Mead and Max Weber, and sought to frame how individuals interpret symbols in everyday interactions. With early urban sociologists framing the city as a 'superorganism', the concept of symbolic interaction aided in parsing out how individual communities contribute to the seamless functioning of the city itself.Scholars of the Chicago School originally sought to answer a single question: how did an increase in urbanism during the time of the Industrial Revolution contribute to the magnification of contemporary social problems? Sociologists centered on Chicago due to its 'tabula rasa' state, having expanded from a small town of 10,000 in 1860 to an urban metropolis of over two million in the next half-century. Along with this expansion came many of the era's emerging social problems \u2013 ranging from issues with concentrated homelessness and harsh living conditions to the low wages and long hours that characterized the work of the many newly arrived European immigrants. Furthermore, unlike many other metropolitan areas, Chicago did not expand outward at the edges as predicted by early expansionist theorists, but instead 'reformatted' the space available in a concentric ring pattern. As with many modern cities the business district occupied the city center and was surrounded by slum and blighted neighborhoods, which were further surrounded by workingmens' homes and the early forms of the modern suburbs. Urban theorists suggested that these spatially distinct regions helped to solidify and isolate class relations within the modern city, moving the middle class away from the urban core and into the privatized environment of the outer suburbs.Due to the high concentration of first-generation immigrant families in the inner city of Chicago during the early 20th century, many prominent early studies in urban sociology focused upon the transmission of immigrants' native culture roles and norms into new and developing environments. Political participation and the rise in inter-community organizations were also frequently covered in this period, with many metropolitan areas adopting census techniques that allowed for information to be stored and easily accessed by participating institutions such as the University of Chicago. Park, Burgess and McKenzie, professors at the University of Chicago and three of the earliest proponents of urban sociology, developed the Subculture Theories, which helped to explain the often-positive role of local institutions on the formation of community acceptance and social ties. When race relations break down and expansion renders one's community members anonymous, as was proposed to be occurring in this period, the inner city becomes marked by high levels of social disorganization that prevent local ties from being established and maintained in local political arenas.\nThe rise of urban sociology coincided with the expansion of statistical inference in the behavioural sciences, which helped ease its transition and acceptance in educational institutions along with other burgeoning social sciences. Micro-sociology courses at the University of Chicago were among the earliest and most prominent courses on urban sociological research in the United States.\n\n\n== Evolution of the discipline ==\n\nThe evolution and transition of sociological theory from the Chicago School began to emerge in the 1970s with the publication of Claude Fischer's (1975) \"Toward a Theory of Subculture Urbanism\" which incorporated Bourdieu's theories on social capital and symbolic capital within the invasion and succession framework of the Chicago School in explaining how cultural groups form, expand and solidify a neighbourhood. The theme of transition by subcultures and groups within the city was further expanded by Barry Wellman's (1979) \"The Community Question: The Intimate Networks of East Yorkers\" which determined the function and position of the individual, institution and community in the urban landscape in relation to their community. Wellman's categorization and incorporation of community focused theories as \"Community Lost\", \"Community Saved\", and \"Community Liberated\" which center around the structure of the urban community in shaping interactions between individuals and facilitating active participation in the local community are explained in detail below:\nCommunity lost: The earliest of the three theories, this concept was developed in the late 19th century to account for the rapid development of industrial patterns that seemingly caused rifts between the individual and their local community. Urbanites were claimed to hold networks that were \u201cimpersonal, transitory and segmental\u201d, maintaining ties in multiple social networks while at the same time lacking the strong ties that bound them to any specific group. This disorganization in turn caused members of urban communities to subsist almost solely on secondary affiliations with others, and rarely allowed them to rely on other members of the community for assistance with their needs.\nCommunity saved: A critical response to the community lost theory that developed during the 1960s, the community saved argument suggests that multistranded ties often emerge in sparsely-knit communities as time goes on, and that urban communities often possess these strong ties, albeit in different forms. Especially among low-income communities, individuals have a tendency to adapt to their environment and pool resources in order to protect themselves collectively against structural changes. Over time urban communities have tendencies to become \u201curban villages\u201d, where individuals possess strong ties with only a few individuals that connect them to an intricate web of other urbanities within the same local environment.\nCommunity liberated: A cross-section of the community lost and community saved arguments, the community liberated theory suggests that the separation of workplace, residence and familial kinship groups has caused urbanites to maintain weak ties in multiple community groups that are further weakened by high rates of residential mobility. However, the concentrated number of environments present in the city for interaction increase the likelihood of individuals developing secondary ties, even if they simultaneously maintain distance from tightly knit communities. Primary ties that offer the individual assistance in everyday life form out of sparsely-knit and spatially dispersed interactions, with the individual's access to resources dependent on the quality of the ties they maintain within their community.Along with the development of these theories, urban sociologists have increasingly begun to study the differences between the urban, rural and suburban environment within the last half-century. Consistent with the community liberated argument, researchers have in large part found that urban residents tend to maintain more spatially-dispersed networks of ties than rural or suburban residents. Among lower-income urban residents, the lack of mobility and communal space within the city often disrupts the formation of social ties and lends itself to creating an unintegrated and distant community space. While the high density of networks within the city weakens relations between individuals, it increases the likelihood that at least one individual within a network can provide the primary support found among smaller and more tightly knit networks.\nSince the 1970s, research into social networks has focused primarily on the types of ties developed within residential environments. Bonding ties, common of tightly knit neighborhoods, consist of connections that provide an individual with primary support, such as access to income or upward mobility among a neighborhood organization. Bridging ties, in contrast, are the ties that weakly connect strong networks of individuals together. A group of communities concerned about the placement of a nearby highway may only be connected through a few individuals that represent their views at a community board meeting, for instance.However, as theory surrounding social networks has developed, sociologists such as Alejandro Portes and the  Wisconsin model of sociological research began placing increased leverage on the importance of these weak ties. While strong ties are necessary for providing residents with primary services and a sense of community, weak ties bring together elements of different cultural and economic landscapes in solving problems affecting a great number of individuals. As theorist Eric Oliver notes, neighborhoods with vast social networks are also those that most commonly rely on heterogeneous support in problem solving, and are also the most politically active.As the suburban landscape developed during the 20th century and the outer city became a refuge for the wealthy and, later, the burgeoning middle class, sociologists and urban geographers such as Harvey Molotch, David Harvey and Neil Smith began to study the structure and revitalization of the most impoverished areas of the inner city. In their research, impoverished neighborhoods, which often rely on tightly knit local ties for economic and social support, were found to be targeted by developers for gentrification which displaced residents living within these communities. Political experimentation in providing these residents with semi-permanent housing and structural support \u2013 ranging from Section 8 housing to Community Development Block Grant programs- have in many cases eased the transition of low-income residents into stable housing and employment. Yet research covering the social impact of forced movement among these residents has noted the difficulties individuals often have with maintaining a level of economic comfort, which is spurred by rising land values and inter-urban competition between cities in as a means to attract capital investment. The interaction between inner-city dwellers and middle class passersby in such settings has also been a topic of study for urban sociologists.In a September, 2015 issue of \"City & Community(C&C),\" the article discusses future plans and discusses research needed for the coming future. The article proposes certain steps in order to react to urban trends, create a safer environment, and prepare for future urbanization. The steps include: publishing more C&C articles, more research towards segregation in metropolitan areas, focus on trends and patterns in segregation and poverty, decrease micro-level segregation, and research towards international urbanization changes. However, in a June, 2018 issue of C&C, Mike Owen Benediktsson argues that spatial inequality, the idea of a lack of resources through a specific space, would be problematic for the future of urban sociology. Problems in neighborhoods arise from political forms and issues. He argues that attention should be more on the relationship between spaces rather than expansion of more urban cities.\n\n\n== Criticism ==\nMany theories in urban sociology have been criticized, most prominently directed toward the ethnocentric approaches taken by many early theorists that lay groundwork for urban studies throughout the 20th century. Early theories that sought to frame the city as an adaptable \u201csuperorganism\u201d often disregarded the intricate roles of social ties within local communities, suggesting that the urban environment itself rather than the individuals living within it controlled the spread and shape of the city. For impoverished inner-city residents, the role of highway planning policies and other government-spurred initiatives instituted by the planner Robert Moses and others have been criticized as unsightly and unresponsive to residential needs. The slow development of empirically-based urban research reflects the failure of local urban governments to adapt and ease the transition of local residents to the short-lived industrialization of the city.Some modern social theorists have also been critical toward the apparent shortsightedness that urban sociologists have shown toward the role of culture in the inner city. William Julius Wilson has criticized theory developed throughout the middle of the twentieth century as relying primarily on structural roles of institutions, and not how culture itself affects common aspects of inner-city life such as poverty. The distance shown toward this topic, he argues, presents an incomplete picture of inner-city life. The urban sociological theory is viewed as one important aspect of sociology.\nThe concept of urban sociology as a whole has often been challenged and criticized by sociologists through time. Several different aspects from race, land, resources, etc. have broadened the idea. Manuel Castells questioned if urban sociology even exists and devoted 40 years worth of research in order to redefine and reorganize the concept. With the growing population and majority of Americans living in suburbs, Castells believes that most researchers focus their work of urban sociology around cities, neglecting the other major communities of suburbs, towns, and rural areas. He also believes that urban sociologists have over complicated the term of urban sociology and should possibly create a more clear and organized explanation to their studies, arguing that a \"Sociology of Settlements,\" would cover most issues around the term.Many urban sociologists focus behind the concept behind human overpopulation. Perry Burnett, who studied at the University of Southern Indiana, researched behind the idea of Urban sprawl and city optimization for human population. Some sociologists would criticize that urbanization could range issues from racial discrimination to high income taxes. Burnett would counter the idea that urban overpopulation could actually benefit the efficiency of cities. His work would equate optimal resources, incomes, households, etc. to display that larger and more city sizes would be more beneficial through more equal income and land distribution.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Further reading ===\nBerger, Alan S., The City: Urban Communities and Their Problems, Dubuque, Iowa : William C. Brown, 1978.\nBourdieu, P., Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, (trans) Nice, R., Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984.\nDurkheim, E., The Division of Labor in Society, (trans) Coser, L.A., New York: Free Press, 1997.\nFischer, C.S., \"Toward a Subculture Theory of Urbanism\". American Journal of Sociology, 80, pp. 1319\u20131341, 1975.\nHarvey, D., \"From Managerialism to Entrepreneurialism: The Transformation in Urban Governance in Late Capitalism\". Geografiska Annaler. Series B, Human Geography, 71, pp. 3\u201317, 1989.\nHutchison, R., Gottdiener M., and Ryan, M.T.: The New Urban Sociology. Westview Press, Google E-Book, 2014.\nMarx, K., A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, (trans) Stone, N.I., Chicago: Charles H. Kerr, 1911.\nMarx, K., Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Vol. 1, (trans) Fowkes, B., New York: Penguin, 1976.\nMolotch, H., \"The City as a Growth Machine: Toward a Political Economy of Place\". American Journal of Sociology, 82(2), pp. 309\u2013332, 1976.\nMolotch, H. and Logan, J., Urban Fortunes: The Political Economy of Place, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987.\nPortes, A., and Sensenbrenner, J., \"Embeddedness and immigration: notes on the social determinants of economic action\", American Journal of Sociology, 98, pp. 1320\u20131350, 1993.\nSimmel, G., The Sociology of Georg Simmel, (trans) Wolff, K.H., Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1950.\nSmith, N., The New Urban Frontier: Gentrification and The Revanchist City, London: Routledge, 1996.\nTonnies, F., Community and Society, (trans) Loomis, C.P, East Lansing: Michigan State Press, 1957.\nWeber, M., The City, (trans) Martindale, D., and Neuwirth, G., New York: The Free Press, 1958\nWeber, M., The Protestant Ethic and the \"Spirit\" of Capitalism and Other Writings, (trans) Baehr, P. and Wells, G.C., New York: Penguin, 2002.\nWellman, B., \"The Community Question: The Intimate Networks of East Yorkers\". American Journal of Sociology, 84(5), pp. 1201\u201331, 1979.\nWilson, W.J., When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor, New York: Knopf, 1996.\nWirth, L., \"Urbanism as a Way of Life\". American Journal of Sociology, 44(1), pp. 1\u201324, 1938.", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Social_sciences.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "Urban sociology is the sociological study of life and human interaction in metropolitan areas. It is a normative discipline of sociology seeking to study the structures, environmental processes, changes and problems of an urban area and by doing so provide inputs for urban planning and policy making. In other words, it is the sociological study of cities and their role in the development of society.\nLike most areas of sociology, urban sociologists use statistical analysis, observation, social theory, interviews, and other methods to study a range of topics, including migration and demographic trends, economics, poverty, race relations and economic trends. Urban sociology is one of the oldest sub-disciplines of sociology dating back to the mid-nineteenth century.The philosophical foundations of modern urban sociology originate from the work of sociologists such as Karl Marx, Ferdinand T\u00f6nnies, \u00c9mile Durkheim, Max Weber and Georg Simmel who studied and theorized the economic, social and cultural processes of urbanization and its effects on social alienation, class formation, and the production or destruction of collective and individual identities.\nThese theoretical foundations were further expanded upon and analyzed by a group of sociologists and researchers who worked at the University of Chicago in the early twentieth century. In what became known as the Chicago School of sociology the work of Robert Park, Louis Wirth and Ernest Burgess on the inner city of Chicago revolutionized not only the purpose of urban research in sociology, but also the development of human geography through its use of quantitative and ethnographic research methods. The importance of the theories developed by the Chicago School within urban sociology have been critically sustained and critiqued but still remain one of the most significant historical advancements in understanding urbanization and the city within the social sciences. The discipline may draw from several fields, including cultural sociology, economic sociology, and political sociology."}, "Roger_Zelazny": {"links": ["Steven Brust", "Isle of the Dead ", "Louise Simonson", "Pulp hero", "Lost Souls ", "Jim Henson", "Deity", "Aikido", "J. G. 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Fuji, by Hokusai", "Irv Novick", "Nebula Awards", "George Tuska", "Inkpot Award", "Jack Chalker", "Rowena Morrill", "Santa Fe, New Mexico", "The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction", "Seiun Award", "The Chronicles of Amber", "Bob Burden", "Andrzej Sapkowski", "...And Call Me Conrad", "Grant Morrison", "Lucius Shepard", "Cthulhu Mythos", "Ostracod", "Samuel R. Delany", "Michael Whelan", "The Mask of Loki", "The problem of universals", "Tom DeFalco", "Doorways in the Sand", "Jack Williamson", "Sign of the Unicorn", "Paul Chadwick", "Paul Norris", "Euclid, Ohio", "Zangband", "Dick Sprang", "Roger Zelazny bibliography", "Stan Sakai", "Eye of Cat", "Carol Lay", "Mort Drucker", "Walter Jon Williams", "George Gladir", "Metaphysics", "Crime fiction", "Zelazny ", "Baguazhang", "Joe Sinnott", "Sam Glanzman", "Karen Berger", "Brian W. Aldiss", "Dworkin Barimen", "Raymond Chandler", "Doi ", "Lord of the Fantastic", "Sheldon Moldoff", "Blood of Amber", "Irwin Hasen", "Gerald Hausman", "Todd McFarlane", "Dan Barry ", "Fantasy", "Immortality", "Chinese mythology", "Irish mythology", "Locus Publications", "Sign of Chaos", "Terry Brooks", "Greg Hildebrandt", "Roberta Gregory", "Oberon", "Don Maitz", "Locus Award", "Hugo Awards", "New Wave ", "Chronicles of Amber", "Steve Oliff", "Jerry Ordway", "Paul S. Newman", "Flashing Swords!", "The Logrus", "Arnold Drake", "Kelly McCullough", "Science fiction", "John Romita, Jr.", "Dan DeCarlo", "Catholic", "Freud", "Corwin of Amber", "Lawrence Watt-Evans", "Lynn Johnston", "ISNI ", "Nova ", "George R.R. Martin", "Naoko Takeuchi", "The Revenger's Tragedy", "Nick Cardy", "Mike Carlin", "Carol Kalish", "Library of Congress", "Michael Moorcock", "Dave McKean", "John Severin", "\u00c9p\u00e9e", "Nebula Award", "Ken Steacy", "Kurt Schaffenberger", "Steve Perry ", "Eddie Campbell", "Ferd Johnson", "Surrealism", "Apotheosis", "Mark Schultz ", "Gregory Benford", "Milo Manara", "Trumps of Doom", "Keith Giffen", "The Pattern ", "Jack of Shadows", "Alan Grant ", "John Varley ", "Greek mythology", "Dashiell Hammett", "Rumiko Takahashi", "Lord Demon", "Phoenix ", "Tor.com", "Hedy West", "Larry Gonick", "Bob Haney", "Latin", "Master of Arts", "Social Security Administration", "Tim Hildebrandt", "Chuck Cuidera", "The Courts of Chaos", "Trent Zelazny", "StwoCID ", "Jim Lee", "List of The Chronicles of Amber characters", "Cyril Tourneur", "Ray Harryhausen", "Don Martin ", "The Guns of Avalon", "Bachelor of Arts", "Fred Guardineer", "J. Michael Straczynski", "Permafrost ", "Judo", "Martin H. Greenberg", "The Hand of Oberon", "Hugo Award", "Hannes Bok", "Trove "], "content": "Roger Joseph Zelazny (May 13, 1937 \u2013 June 14, 1995) was an American poet and writer of fantasy and science fiction short stories and novels, best known for The Chronicles of Amber.  He won the Nebula Award three times (out of 14 nominations) and the Hugo Award six times (also out of 14 nominations), including two Hugos for novels:  the serialized novel ...And Call Me Conrad (1965), subsequently published under the title This Immortal (1966) and then the novel Lord of Light (1967).\n\n\n== Biography ==\nRoger Joseph Zelazny was born in Euclid, Ohio, the only child of Polish immigrant Joseph Frank \u017belazny and Irish-American Josephine Flora Sweet. In high school, he became the editor of the school newspaper and joined the Creative Writing Club.  In the fall of 1955, he began attending Western Reserve University and graduated with a B.A. in English in 1959.  He was accepted to Columbia University in New York and specialized in Elizabethan and Jacobean drama, graduating with an M.A. in 1962.  His M.A. thesis was entitled Two traditions and Cyril Tourneur: an examination of morality and humor comedy conventions in The Revenger's Tragedy.\nBetween 1962 and 1969 he worked for the U.S. Social Security Administration in Cleveland, Ohio, and then in Baltimore, Maryland, spending his evenings writing science fiction.   He deliberately progressed from short-shorts to novelettes to novellas and finally to novel-length works by 1965.  On May 1, 1969, he quit to become a full-time writer, and thereafter concentrated on writing novels in order to maintain his income. During this period, he was an active and vocal member of the Baltimore Science Fiction Society, whose members included writers Jack Chalker and Joe and Jack Haldeman among others.\nHis first fanzine appearance was part one of the story \"Conditional Benefit\" (Thurban 1 #3, 1953) and his first professional publication and sale was the fantasy short story \"Mr. Fuller's Revolt\" (Literary Calvalcade, 1954).  As a professional writer, his debut works were the simultaneous publication of \"Passion Play\" (Amazing, August 1962) and \"Horseman!\" (Fantastic, August 1962).  \"Passion Play\" was written and sold first.  His first story to attract major attention was \"A Rose for Ecclesiastes\", published in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, with cover art by Hannes Bok.\nRoger Zelazny was also a member of the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA), a loose-knit group of heroic fantasy authors founded in the 1960s, some of whose works were anthologized in Lin Carter's Flashing Swords! anthologies.\nZelazny died in 1995, aged 58, of kidney failure secondary to colorectal cancer.\n\n\n== Personal life ==\nZelazny was married twice, first to Sharon Steberl in 1964 (divorced, no children), and then to Judith Alene Callahan in 1966. Prior to this he was engaged to folk singer Hedy West for six months from 1961 to 1962. Roger and Judith had two sons, Devin and Trent (an author of crime fiction) and a daughter, Shannon. At the time of his death, Roger and Judith were separated and he was living with author Jane Lindskold.Raised as a Catholic by his parents, Zelazny later declared himself a lapsed Catholic and remained that way for the rest of his life. \"I did have a strong Catholic background, but I am not a Catholic. Somewhere in the past, I believe I answered in the affirmative once for strange and complicated reasons. But I am not a member of any organized religion.\"\n\n\n== Characteristic themes ==\nIn his stories, Roger Zelazny frequently portrayed characters from myth, depicted in the modern or a future world. Zelazny included many anachronisms, such as cigarette-smoking and references to modern drama, in his work. His crisp, minimalistic dialogue also seems to be somewhat influenced by the style of wisecracking hardboiled crime authors, such as Raymond Chandler or Dashiell Hammett. The tension between the ancient and the modern, surreal and familiar was what drove most of his work.\nA very frequent motif in Zelazny's work is immortality or people who (have) become gods (as well as gods who have turned into people). The mythological traditions his fiction borrowed from include:\n\nChinese mythology, in Lord Demon (with Jane Lindskold)\nEgyptian mythology, in Creatures of Light and Darkness\nGreek mythology, in ...And Call Me Conrad\nHindu mythology, in Lord of Light\nNavajo mythology, in Eye of Cat\nNorse mythology, in The Mask of Loki\nPsychoanalysis, Arthurian mythos, Norse mythology and Kabbalah, in The Dream MasterAdditionally, elements from Norse, Japanese and Irish mythology, Arthurian legend, and real history appear in The Chronicles of Amber. A Night in the Lonesome October involves the Cthulhu Mythos in a similar vein.\nAside from working with mythological themes, the most common recurring motif of Zelazny's is the \"absent father\" (or father-figure). Again, this occurs most notably in the Amber novels: in the first Amber series, the protagonist Corwin searches for his lost, god-like father Oberon; while in the second series, which focuses on Corwin's son Merlin (not to be confused with the Arthurian Merlin), it is Corwin himself who is strangely missing. This somewhat Freudian theme runs through almost every Zelazny novel to a smaller or larger degree. Roadmarks, Doorways in the Sand, Changeling, Madwand, A Dark Traveling; the short stories \"Dismal Light\", \"Godson\", \"The Keys to December\"; and the Alien Speedway series all feature main characters who are either searching for or have lost their fathers. Zelazny's father, Joseph, died unexpectedly in 1962 and never knew his son's successes as a writer; this event may have triggered Zelazny's unconscious and frequent use of the absent father motif.Two other personal characteristics that influenced his fiction were his expertise in martial arts and his addiction to tobacco. Zelazny became expert with the \u00e9p\u00e9e in college, and thus began a lifelong study of several different martial arts, including judo, aikido (which he later taught as well, having gained a black belt), t'ai chi, and pa kua. In turn, many of his characters ably and knowledgeably use similar skills whilst dispatching their opponents. Zelazny was also a passionate cigarette and pipe smoker (until he quit in the early '80s), so much so, that he made many of his protagonists heavy smokers as well. However, he quit in order to improve his cardiovascular fitness for the martial arts; once he had quit, characters in his later novels and short stories stopped smoking too.Another characteristic of Zelazny's writing is that many of his protagonists had sufficient familiarity with other languages to be able to quote French, German, Italian or Latin aphorisms when the occasion seemed appropriate (or even inappropriate), although Zelazny himself did not speak any of those languages.\nHe also often experimented with form in his stories. The novel Doorways in the Sand practices a flashback technique in which most chapters open with a scene, typically involving peril, not implied by the end of the previous chapter. Once the scene is established, the narrator backtracks to the events leading up to it, then follows through to the end of the chapter, whereupon the next chapter jumps ahead to another dramatic non-sequitur.\nIn Roadmarks, a novel about a road system that links all possible times, places and histories, the chapters that feature the protagonist are all titled \"One\". Other chapters, titled \"Two\", feature secondary characters, including original characters, pulp heroes, and real historical characters. The \"One\" storyline is fairly linear, whereas the \"Two\" storyline jumps around in time and sequence. After finishing the manuscript, Zelazny shuffled the \"Two\" chapters randomly among the \"One\" chapters in order to emphasize their non-linear nature relative to the storyline.Creatures of Light and Darkness, featuring characters in the personae of Egyptian gods, uses a narrative voice entirely in the present tense; the final chapter is structured as a play, and several chapters take the form of long poems.\nZelazny also tended to write a short fragment, not intended for publication, as a kind of backstory for a major character, as a way of giving that character a life independent of the particular novel being worked on. At least one \"fragment\" was published, the short story Dismal Light, originally a backstory for Isle of the Dead's Francis Sandow. Sandow himself figures little in Dismal Light, the main character being his son, who is delaying his escape from an unstable star system in order to force his distant father to come in and ask him personally. While Isle of the Dead has Sandow living a life of irresponsible luxury as an escape from his personal demons, \"Dismal Light\" anchors his character as one who will face up to his responsibilities, however reluctantly.\nAnother common stylistic approach in his novels is the use of mixed genres, whereby elements of each are combined freely and interchangeably. Jack of Shadows and Changeling, for example, revolve around the tensions between the two worlds of magic and technology. Lord of Light, perhaps one of his most famous works, is written in the classic style of a mythic fantasy, while it is established early in the book that the story itself takes place on a colonized planet.Many of Zelazny's works explore variations upon the idea that if there exists an infinite number of worlds, then every world that can be imagined must exist, somewhere. Powerful beings in many of his stories have the ability to travel to worlds that possess precisely the characteristics which that being wishes to experience.  (Zelazny characters with this ability include Thoth in Creatures of Light and Darkness, who teleports to these worlds; those with the royal blood of either Amber or Chaos in The Chronicles of Amber, who \"move through shadows\" to reach these worlds; the guardian families of A Dark Traveling, who move between realities using high-tech devices; and Red Dorakeen in Roadmarks, who reaches these worlds by driving along a magical highway.)  Many of these same characters wonder whether they are creating these special places anew, or are merely finding places which already exist (very much like \"the problem of universals\" in classical metaphysics). Usually each character who ponders this ultimately decides that the question is purely academic and therefore unanswerable.\n\n\n== Legacy ==\nZelazny's stories inspired other authors in his generation including Samuel R. Delany, whose novel Nova and many of his short stories were written \"partly in response to Zelazny\u2019s eruption into the field.\" In 1967 Algis Budrys listed Zelazny, Delany, J. G. Ballard, and Brian W. Aldiss as \"an earthshaking new kind of\" writers, and leaders of the New Wave. Neil Gaiman said Zelazny was the author who influenced him the most, with this influence particularly seen in Gaiman's literary style and the topics he writes about. Andrzej Sapkowski considered Zelazny his spiritual teacher, whose work inspired him to write his first novel.The anthology Lord of the Fantastic: Stories in Honor of Roger Zelazny, edited by Martin H. Greenberg, was released in 1998 and featured essays and stories in honor of Zelazny by Walter Jon Williams, Jack Williamson, John Varley, Gaiman, Gregory Benford and many other authors.The anthology Shadows & Reflections: A Roger Zelazny Tribute Anthology, edited by Trent Zelazny and Warren Lapine, was released in 2017 and featured two essays and fifteen stories set in universes Zelazny created. Contributors included George R.R. Martin, Shannon Zelazny, Zelazny, Steven Brust, Kelly McCullough, Jane Lindskold, Steve Perry, Gerald Hausman, Lawrence Watt-Evans,  and others.\n\n\n== Awards ==\nZelazny won at least 16 awards for particular works of fiction: six Hugo Awards, three Nebula Awards, two Locus Awards, one Prix Tour-Apollo Award, two Seiun Awards, and two Balrog Awards \u2013 very often Zelazny's works competed with each other for the same award.\n...And Call Me Conrad (published in book form as This Immortal) won the 1966 Hugo Award (novel), a tie with Dune by Frank Herbert.\n\"The Doors of His Face, the Lamps of His Mouth\" won the 1966 Nebula Award (novelette).\n\"He Who Shapes\" tied for the 1966 Nebula Award (novella)\nLord of Light won the 1968 Hugo Award (novel).\nIsle of the Dead won the 1972 Prix Tour-Apollo Award (novel).\nThis Immortal won the 1976 Seiun Award (foreign novel).\n\"Home Is the Hangman\" won both the 1976 Hugo Award and the 1976 Nebula Award (novella).\n\"The Last Defender of Camelot\" won the 1980 Balrog Award (short fiction).\n\"Unicorn Variation\" won the 1982 Hugo Award (novelette) and the 1984 Seiun Award (foreign short fiction).\nUnicorn Variations won the 1984 Locus Award (collection) and the 1984 Balrog Award (collection/anthology).\n\"24 Views of Mt. Fuji, by Hokusai\" won the 1986 Hugo Award (novella).\nTrumps of Doom won the 1986 Locus Award (fantasy novel).\n\"Permafrost\" won the 1987 Hugo Award (novelette).In addition, Zelazny was the Worldcon Guest of Honor at Discon II in Washington, D.C. in 1974, and won an Inkpot Award for lifetime achievement at Comic-Con International in 1993. \"A Rose for Ecclesiastes\" was included in Visions of Mars: First Library on Mars, a DVD taken on board the Phoenix Mars Lander in 2008.\n\n\n== Tributes ==\nThe ostracod Sclerocypris zelaznyi was named after him.\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nYoke, Carl (1979). Roger Zelazny: Starmont Reader's Guide 2. West Linn, Oregon: Starmont House.\nRepublished as Yoke, Carl B. (2007). Roger Zelazny. Borgo Press. ISBN 978-0916732134.\n\n\n=== Biographies and literary critiques ===\nKovacs, Christopher S. (February 2009). \"'...And Call Me Roger': The Early Literary Life of Roger Zelazny\". The New York Review of Science Fiction #246. 21 (6): 1, 8\u201319. Essay-length excerpt of full biography published in Collected Stories (next entry).\nKovacs, Christopher S. (2009). \"'...And Call Me Roger': The Literary Life of Roger Zelazny\". The Collected Stories of Roger Zelazny. 1\u20136. Boston: NESFA Press.\nKrulik, Theodore (1986). Roger Zelazny. New York: Ungar Publishing.\nLindskold, Jane M. (1993). Roger Zelazny. Twayne's United States Authors Series. New York: Twayne Publishers. ISBN 978-0805739534.\nYoke, Carl (1979). Roger Zelazny and Andre Norton: Proponents of Individualism. Ohio Authors. Columbus, Ohio: State University of Ohio.\n\n\n=== Bibliographies ===\nKovacs, Christopher S. (2010). The Ides of Octember: A Pictorial Bibliography of Roger Zelazny. The Collected Stories of Roger Zelazny. Boston: NESFA Press. ISBN 978-1886778924.\nKovacs, Christopher S. (2015). The Ides of Octember: A Pictorial Bibliography of Roger Zelazny. The Collected Stories of Roger Zelazny (2nd revised ed.). Boston: NESFA Press. ISBN 978-1-61037-309-8.\nLevack, Daniel J. H. (1983). Amber Dreams: A Roger Zelazny Bibliography. San Francisco: Greenwood. ISBN 0313276781.\nSanders, Joseph (1980). Roger Zelazny: A Primary and Secondary Bibliography. Boston: G. K. Hall and Co. ISBN 0816180814.\nStephens, Christopher P. (1991). A Checklist of Roger Zelazny. New York: Ultramarine Press. ISBN 0893662208.\nStephensen-Payne, Phil (1993). Roger Zelazny, Master of Amber: A Working Bibliography. Galactic Central Bibliographies Series #38. Borgo Press. ISBN 0809547368.\n\n\n== External links ==\nBibliography\n\nRoger Zelazny at the Internet Book List\nRoger Zelazny at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database\nRoger Zelazny at Library of Congress Authorities, with 81 catalog recordsOther\n\nRoger Zelazny at the Locus Index to SF Awards\nThe Annotated Amber\u2014explanations of some allusions\nFinding aid to the Roger Zelazny papers at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County library", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fe/Rogerzelazny.JPG"], "summary": "Roger Joseph Zelazny (May 13, 1937 \u2013 June 14, 1995) was an American poet and writer of fantasy and science fiction short stories and novels, best known for The Chronicles of Amber.  He won the Nebula Award three times (out of 14 nominations) and the Hugo Award six times (also out of 14 nominations), including two Hugos for novels:  the serialized novel ...And Call Me Conrad (1965), subsequently published under the title This Immortal (1966) and then the novel Lord of Light (1967)."}, "Kilogram": {"links": ["United States Congress", "Coherence ", "Federal Register", "Gram", "Celsius", "Kilogram-force", "Imperial units", "Gravimetry", "Non-SI units mentioned in the SI", "Milligram", "Gray ", "Statampere", "2005\u2013twenty nineteen definitions of the SI base units", "Remmius Palaemon", "Degree ", "Litre", "Second", "International Bureau of Weights and Measures", "Weight", "Abvolt", "Metric prefix", "Percy Williams Bridgman", "Wilhelm Eduard Weber", "Kilogramme des Archives", "Hour", "Slug ", "Antoine Lavoisier", "British National Corpus", "Astronomical unit", "Weights and Measures Acts of the United Kingdom", "French language", "Radian", "Hertz", "CIPM", "Tesla ", "Metric system", "Newton ", "Lux", "Pascal ", "Metrication", "CGPM", "Platinum-iridium alloy", "Avoirdupois", "Geoponica", "Office of Public Sector Information", "SI derived unit", "The Guardian", "Units of measurement in France before the French Revolution", "OL ", "Weber ", "PMID ", "Kelvin", "Pound ", "Alternating current", "Giovanni Giorgi", "Volt-ampere", "Electrical resistance and conductance", "National Institute of Standards and Technology", "Koine Greek", "ArXiv ", "KG ", "Power ", "SI prefix", "Gaspard Monge", "Ionizing radiation", "Minute and second of arc", "SI base unit", "International System of Units", "Bibcode ", "International Committee for Weights and Measures", "Meridian ", "Gal ", "Grain ", "Cit\u00e9 des Sciences et de l'Industrie", "Erg", "MKS system of units", "Speed of light", "Ampere", "George Johnstone Stoney", "Dimensional analysis", "Luminous intensity", "Hectare", "Metre", "Arthur E. Kennelly", "Greenhouse gas emissions", "Metrology", "Abohm", "Amount of substance", "Minute", "QES", "Steradian", "Grave ", "Henry ", "Claude Louis Berthollet", "Metres", "Krypton", "Abcoulomb", "Milligram ", "Doi ", "Statvolt", "Properties of water", "Statohm", "Foot ", "seventeen ninety-five in science", "CODATA twenty eighteen", "French Republican Calendar", "Alternative approaches to redefining the kilogram", "StwoCID ", "Neper", "International Electrotechnical Commission", "Mass versus weight", "Order of magnitude", "Coulomb", "Termium Plus", "Lorentz\u2013Heaviside units", "Mole ", "Decibel", "PMC ", "Kibble balance", "General Conference on Weights and Measures", "Candela", "Abampere", "Katal", "Sievert", "Electromagnetism", "Becquerel", "seventeen ninety-nine in science", "Orders of magnitude ", "ISBN ", "Parts per million", "Atomic mass unit", "Inertia", "Centimetre gram second system of units", "Gaussian units", "Joule", "Planck constant", "Carl Friedrich Gauss", "Milligram per cent", "Volt", "AC power", "Centimetre\u2013gram\u2013second system of units", "International yard and pound", "Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau", "Metre Convention", "Clipping ", "\u0394\u03bdCs", "Day", "Ohm", "Siemens ", "Watt", "Maxwell's equations", "Mass", "Standard gravity", "Oxford English Dictionary", "The Economist", "Tonne", "United States customary units", "Electronvolt", "Obolus", "Corpus of Contemporary American English", "Centimetre", "Conversion of units", "National Convention", "Farad", "Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations", "System of measurement", "International System of Electrical and Magnetic Units", "International Prototype of the Kilogram", "A Greek-English Lexicon", "Ounce", "twenty nineteen redefinition of the SI base units", "two thousand and five\u20132019 definitions of the SI base units", "Lumen ", "Kg"], "content": "The kilogram (also kilogramme) is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI), the metric system, having the unit symbol kg. It is a widely used measure in science, engineering and commerce worldwide, and is often simply called a kilo in everyday speech.\nThe kilogram was originally defined in 1795 as the mass of one litre of water. This definition was simple yet difficult to use in practice, due to the fact that the properties of the water are not defined. Modern superseding definitions of a kilogram are accurate to within 30 ppm of the mass of one litre of water. In 1799, the platinum Kilogramme des Archives replaced it as the standard of mass. In 1889, a cylinder of platinum-iridium, the International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK) became the standard of the unit of mass for the metric system, and remained so until 2019. The kilogram was the last of the SI units to be defined by a physical artefact.\nThe kilogram is now defined in terms of the second and the metre, based on fixed fundamental constants of nature. This allows a properly-equipped metrology laboratory to calibrate a mass measurement instrument such as a Kibble balance as the primary standard to determine an exact kilogram mass, although the IPK and other precision kilogram masses remain in use as secondary standards for all ordinary purposes.\n\n\n== Definition ==\nThe kilogram is defined in terms of three fundamental physical constants: The speed of light c, a specific atomic transition frequency \u0394\u03bdCs, and the Planck constant h. The formal definition is:\n\nThe kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015\u00d710\u221234 when expressed in the unit J\u22c5s, which is equal to kg\u22c5m2\u22c5s\u22121, where the metre and the second are defined in terms of c and \u0394\u03bdCs.This definition makes the kilogram consistent with the older definitions: the mass remains within 30 ppm of the mass of one litre of water.\n\n\n=== Timeline of previous definitions ===\n\n1793: The grave (the precursor of the kilogram) is defined as the mass of 1 litre (dm3) of water, which was determined to be 18841 grains.\n1795: the gram (1/1000 of a kilogram) was provisionally defined as the mass of one cubic centimetre of water at the melting point of ice.\n1799: The Kilogramme des Archives was manufactured as a prototype\n1875\u20131889: The Metre Convention is signed in 1875, leading to production of The International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK) in 1879 and its adoption in 1889. It had a mass equal to the mass of 1 dm3 of water under atmospheric pressure and at the temperature of its maximum density, which is approximately 4 \u00b0C.\n2019: The kilogram is defined in terms of the Planck constant as approved by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) on 16 November 2018.\n\n\n== Name and terminology ==\nThe kilogram is the only base SI unit with an SI prefix (kilo) as part of its name. The word kilogramme or kilogram is derived from the French kilogramme, which itself was a learned coinage, prefixing the Greek stem of \u03c7\u03af\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 khilioi \"a thousand\" to gramma, a Late Latin term for \"a small weight\", itself from Greek \u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1. \nThe word kilogramme was written into French law in 1795, in the Decree of 18 Germinal,\nwhich revised the provisional system of units introduced by the French National Convention two years earlier, where the gravet had been defined as weight (poids) of a cubic centimetre of water, equal to 1/1000 of a grave. In the decree of 1795, the term gramme thus replaced gravet, and kilogramme replaced grave.\nThe French spelling was adopted in Great Britain when the word was used for the first time in English in 1795, with the spelling kilogram being adopted in the United States. In the United Kingdom both spellings are used, with \"kilogram\" having become by far the more common. UK law regulating the units to be used when trading by weight or measure does not prevent the use of either spelling.In the 19th century the French word kilo, a shortening of kilogramme, was imported into the English language where it has been used to mean both kilogram and kilometre. While kilo as an alternative is acceptable, to The Economist for example, the Canadian government's Termium Plus system states that \"SI (International System of Units) usage, followed in scientific and technical writing\" does not allow its usage and it is described as \"a common informal name\" on Russ Rowlett's Dictionary of Units of Measurement. When the United States Congress gave the metric system legal status in 1866, it permitted the use of the word kilo as an alternative to the word kilogram, but in 1990 revoked the status of the word kilo.The SI system was introduced in 1960, and in 1970 the BIPM started publishing the SI Brochure, which contains all relevant decisions and recommendations by the CGPM concerning units. The SI Brochure states that \"It is not permissible to use abbreviations for unit symbols or unit names ...\".\n\n\n== Kilogram becoming a base unit: the role of units for electromagnetism ==\nAs it happens, it is mostly because of units for electromagnetism that the kilogram rather than the gram was eventually adopted as the base unit of mass in the SI. The relevant series of discussions and decisions started roughly in the 1850s and effectively concluded in 1946. Briefly, by the end of the 19th century, the 'practical units' for electric and magnetic quantities such as the ampere and the volt were well established in practical use (e.g. for telegraphy). Unfortunately, they were not coherent with the then-prevailing base units for length and mass, the centimeter and the gram. However, the 'practical units' also included some purely mechanical units; in particular, the product of the ampere and the volt gives a purely mechanical unit of power, the watt. It was noticed that the purely mechanical practical units such as the watt would be coherent in a system in which the base unit of length was the meter and the base unit of mass was the kilogram. In fact, given that nobody wanted to replace the second as the base unit of time, the metre and the kilogram are the only pair of base units of length and mass such that 1. the watt is a coherent unit of power, 2. the base units of length and time are integer-power-of-ten ratios to the metre and the gram (so that the system remains 'metric'), and 3. the sizes of the base units of length and mass are convenient for practical use. This would still leave out the purely electrical and magnetic units: while the purely mechanical practical units such as the watt are coherent in the metre-kilogram-second system, the explicitly electrical and magnetic units such as the volt, the ampere, etc. are not. The only way to also make those units coherent with the metre-kilogram-second system is to modify that system in a different way: one has to increase the number of fundamental dimensions from three (length, mass, and time) to four (the previous three, plus one purely electrical one).\n\n\n=== The state of units for electromagnetism at the end of the 19th century ===\nDuring the second half of the 19th century, the centimetre\u2013gram\u2013second system of units was becoming widely accepted for scientific work, treating the gram as the fundamental unit of mass and the kilogram as a decimal multiple of the base unit formed by using a metric prefix. However, as the century drew to a close, there was widespread dissatisfaction with the state of units for electricity and magnetism in the CGS system. To begin with, there were two obvious choices for absolute units. of electromagnetism: the \u2018electrostatic\u2019 (CGS-ESU) system and the \u2018electromagnetic\u2019 (CGS-EMU) system. But the main problem was that the sizes of coherent electric and magnetic units were not convenient in either of these systems; for example, the ESU unit of electrical resistance, which was later named the statohm, corresponds to about 9\u00d71011 ohm, while the EMU unit, which was later named the abohm, corresponds to 10\u22129 ohm.To circumvent this difficulty, a third set of units was introduced: the so-called practical units. The practical units were obtained as decimal multiples of coherent CGS-EMU units, chosen so that the resulting magnitudes were convenient for practical use and so that the practical units were, as far as possible, coherent with each other. The practical units included such units as the volt, the ampere, the ohm, etc., which were later incorporated in the SI system and which we use to this day. Indeed, the main reason the meter and the kilogram were later chosen to be the base units of length and mass was that they are the only combination of reasonably sized decimal multiples or submultiples of the meter and the gram that can in any way be made coherent with the volt, the ampere, etc.\nThe reason is that electrical quantities cannot be isolated from mechanical and thermal ones: they are connected by relations such as current \u00d7 electric potential difference = power. For this reason, the practical system also included coherent units for certain mechanical quantities. For example, the previous equation implies that ampere \u00d7 volt is a coherent derived practical unit of power; this unit was named the watt. The coherent unit of energy is then the watt times the second, which was named the joule. The joule and the watt also have convenient magnitudes and are decimal multiples of CGS coherent units for energy (the erg) and power (the erg per second). The watt is not coherent in the centimeter-gram-second system, but it is coherent in the meter-kilogram-second system\u2014and in no other system whose base units of length and mass are reasonably sized decimal multiples or submultiples of the meter and the gram.\nHowever, unlike the watt and the joule, the explicitly electrical and magnetic units (the volt, the ampere...) are not coherent even in the (absolute three-dimensional) meter-kilogram-second system. Indeed, one can work out what the base units of length and mass have to be in order for all the practical units to be coherent (the watt and the joule as well as the volt, the ampere, etc.). The values are 107 metres (one half of a meridian of the Earth, called a quadrant) and 10\u221211 grams (called an eleventh-gram).Therefore, the full absolute system of units in which the practical electrical units are coherent is the quadrant\u2013eleventh-gram\u2013second (QES) system. However, the extremely inconvenient magnitudes of the base units for length and mass made it so that no one seriously considered adopting the QES system. Thus, people working on practical applications of electricity had to use units for electrical quantities and for energy and power that were not coherent with the units they were using for e.g. length, mass, and force.\nMeanwhile, scientists developed yet another fully coherent absolute system, which came to be called the Gaussian system, in which the units for purely electrical quantities are taken from CGE-ESU, while the units for magnetic quantities are taken from the CGS-EMU. This system proved very convenient for scientific work and is still widely used. However, the sizes of its units remained either too large or too small\u2014by many orders of magnitude\u2014for practical applications.\nFinally, on top of all this, in both CGS-ESU and CGS-EMU as well as in the Gaussian system, Maxwell's equations are \u2018unrationalized', meaning that they contain various factors of 4\u03c0 that many workers found awkward. So yet another system was developed to rectify that: the \u2018rationalized\u2019 Gaussian system, usually called the Lorentz\u2013Heaviside system. This system is still used in some subfields of physics. However, the units in that system are related to Gaussian units by factors of \u221a4\u03c0 \u2248 3.5, which means that their magnitudes remained, like those of the Gaussian units, either far too large or far too small for practical applications.\n\n\n=== The Giorgi proposal ===\nIn 1901, Giovanni Giorgi proposed a new system of units that would remedy this state of affairs. He noted that the mechanical practical units such as the joule and the watt are coherent not only in the QES system, but also in the meter-kilogram-second (MKS) system. It was of course known that just adopting the meter and the kilogram as base units\u2014obtaining the three dimensional MKS system\u2014would not solve the problem: while the watt and the joule would be coherent, this would not be so for the volt, the ampere, the ohm, and the rest of the practical units for electric and magnetic quantities (the only three-dimensional absolute system in which all practical units are coherent is the QES system).\nBut Giorgi pointed out that the volt and the rest could be made coherent if one gave up on the idea that all physical quantities must be expressible in terms of dimensions of length, mass, and time, and admitted a fourth base dimension for electric quantities. Any practical electrical unit could be chosen as the new fundamental unit, independent from the meter, kilogram, and second. Likely candidates for the fourth independent unit included the coulomb, the ampere, the volt, and the ohm, but eventually the ampere proved to be the most convenient as far as metrology. Moreover, the freedom gained by making an electric unit independent from the mechanical units could be used to rationalize Maxwell's equations.\nThe idea that one should give up on having a purely \u2018absolute\u2019 system (i.e. one where only length, mass, and time are the base dimensions) was a departure from a viewpoint that seemed to underlie the early breakthroughs by Gauss and Weber (especially their famous \u2018absolute measurements' of Earth's magnetic field), and it took some time for the scientific community to accept it\u2014not least because many scientists clung to the notion that the dimensions of a quantity in terms of length, mass, and time somehow specify its \u2018fundamental physical nature\u2019.:24, 26\n\n\n=== Acceptance of the Giorgi system, leading to the MKSA system and the SI ===\nBy the 1920s, dimensional analysis had become much better understood and it was becoming widely accepted that the choice of both the number and of the identities of the fundamental dimensions should be dictated by convenience only and that there is nothing truly fundamental about the dimensions of a quantity. In 1935, Giorgi's proposal was adopted by the IEC as the Giorgi system. It is this system that has since then been called the MKS system,\nalthough \u2018MKSA\u2019 appears in careful usage. In 1946 the CIPM approved a proposal to adopt the ampere as the electromagnetic unit of the \"MKSA system\". In 1948 the CGPM commissioned the CIPM \"to make recommendations for a single practical system of units of measurement, suitable for adoption by all countries adhering to the Metre Convention\". This led to the launch of SI in 1960.\nTo summarize, the ultimate reason that the kilogram was chosen over the gram as the base unit of mass was, in one word, the volt-ampere. Namely, the combination of the meter and the kilogram was the only choice of base units of length and mass such that 1. the volt-ampere\u2014which is also called the watt and which is the unit of power in the practical system of electrical units\u2014is coherent, 2. the base units of length and mass are decimal multiples or submultiples of the meter and the gram, and 3. the base units of length and mass have convenient sizes.\nThe CGS and MKS systems co-existed during much of the early-to-mid 20th century, but as a result of the decision to adopt the \"Giorgi system\" as the international system of units in 1960, the kilogram is now the SI base unit for mass, while the definition of the gram is derived from that of the kilogram.\n\n\n== Redefinition based on fundamental constants ==\n\nThe replacement of the International Prototype of the Kilogram as the primary standard was motivated by evidence accumulated over a long period of time that the mass of the IPK and its replicas had been changing; the IPK had diverged from its replicas by approximately 50 micrograms since their manufacture late in the 19th century. This led to several competing efforts to develop measurement technology precise enough to warrant replacing the kilogram artefact with a definition based directly on physical fundamental constants. Physical standard masses such as the IPK and its replicas still serve as secondary standards.\nThe International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) approved a redefinition of the SI base units in November 2018 that defines the kilogram by defining the Planck constant to be exactly 6.62607015\u00d710\u221234 kg\u22c5m2\u22c5s\u22121, effectively defining the kilogram in terms of the second and the metre. The new definition took effect on 20 May 2019.Prior to the redefinition, the kilogram and several other SI units based on the kilogram were defined by a man-made metal artefact: the Kilogramme des Archives from 1799 to 1889, and the International Prototype of the Kilogram from 1889 to 2019.In 1960, the metre, previously similarly having been defined with reference to a single platinum-iridium bar with two marks on it, was redefined in terms of an invariant physical constant (the wavelength of a particular emission of light emitted by krypton, and later the speed of light) so that the standard can be independently reproduced in different laboratories by following a written specification.\nAt the 94th Meeting of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) in 2005, it was recommended that the same be done with the kilogram.In October 2010, the CIPM voted to submit a resolution for consideration at the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), to \"take note of an intention\" that the kilogram be defined in terms of the Planck constant, h (which has dimensions of energy times time, thus mass \u00d7 length2 / time) together with other physical constants. This resolution was accepted by the 24th conference of the CGPM in October 2011 and further discussed at the 25th conference in 2014. Although the Committee recognised that significant progress had been made, they concluded that the data did not yet appear sufficiently robust to adopt the revised definition, and that work should continue to enable the adoption at the 26th meeting, scheduled for 2018. Such a definition would theoretically permit any apparatus that was capable of delineating the kilogram in terms of the Planck constant to be used as long as it possessed sufficient precision, accuracy and stability. The Kibble balance is one way to do this.\nAs part of this project, a variety of very different technologies and approaches were considered and explored over many years. Some of these approaches were based on equipment and procedures that would enable the reproducible production of new, kilogram-mass prototypes on demand (albeit with extraordinary effort) using measurement techniques and material properties that are ultimately based on, or traceable to, physical constants. Others were based on devices that measured either the acceleration or weight of hand-tuned kilogram test masses and which expressed their magnitudes in electrical terms via special components that permit traceability to physical constants. All approaches depend on converting a weight measurement to a mass, and therefore require the precise measurement of the strength of gravity in laboratories. All approaches would have precisely fixed one or more constants of nature at a defined value.\n\n\n== SI multiples ==\n\nBecause SI prefixes may not be concatenated (serially linked) within the name or symbol for a unit of measure, SI prefixes are used with the unit gram, not kilogram, which already has a prefix as part of its name. For instance, one-millionth of a kilogram is 1 mg (one milligram), not 1 \u03bckg (one microkilogram).\n\nThe microgram is typically abbreviated \"mcg\" in pharmaceutical and nutritional supplement labelling, to avoid confusion, since the \"\u03bc\" prefix is not always well recognised outside of technical disciplines. (The expression \"mcg\" is also the symbol for an obsolete CGS unit of measure known as the \"millicentigram\", which is equal to 10 \u03bcg.)\nIn the United Kingdom, because serious medication errors have been made from the confusion between milligrams and micrograms when micrograms has been abbreviated, the recommendation given in the Scottish Palliative Care Guidelines is that doses of less than one milligram must be expressed in micrograms and that the word microgram must be written in full, and that it is never acceptable to use \"mcg\" or \"\u03bcg\".\nThe hectogram (100 g) is a very commonly used unit in the retail food trade in Italy, usually called an etto, short for ettogrammo, the Italian for hectogram.\nThe former standard spelling and abbreviation \"deka-\" and \"dk\" produced abbreviations such as \"dkm\" (dekametre) and \"dkg\" (dekagram). As of 2020, the abbreviation \"dkg\" (10 g) is still used in parts of central Europe in retail for some foods such as cheese and meat, e.g. here:.\nThe unit name megagram is rarely used, and even then typically only in technical fields in contexts where especially rigorous consistency with the SI standard is desired. For most purposes, the name tonne is instead used. The tonne and its symbol, \"t\", were adopted by the CIPM in 1879. It is a non-SI unit accepted by the BIPM for use with the SI. According to the BIPM, \"This unit is sometimes referred to as 'metric ton' in some English-speaking countries.\" The unit name megatonne or megaton (Mt) is often used in general-interest literature on greenhouse gas emissions, whereas the equivalent unit in scientific papers on the subject is often the teragram (Tg).\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nNIST Improves Accuracy of 'Watt Balance' Method for Defining the Kilogram\nThe UK's National Physical Laboratory (NPL): Are any problems caused by having the kilogram defined in terms of a physical artefact? (FAQ - Mass & Density)\nNPL: NPL Kibble balance\nMetrology in France: Watt balance\nAustralian National Measurement Institute: Redefining the kilogram through the Avogadro constant\nInternational Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM): Home page\nNZZ Folio: What a kilogram really weighs\nNPL: What are the differences between mass, weight, force and load?\nBBC: Getting the measure of a kilogram\nNPR: This Kilogram Has A Weight-Loss Problem, an interview with National Institute of Standards and Technology physicist Richard Steiner\nAvogadro and molar Planck constants for the redefinition of the kilogram\nRealization of the awaited definition of the kilogram\nSample, Ian (November 9, 2018). \"In the balance: scientists vote on first change to kilogram in a century\". The Guardian. Retrieved November 9, 2018.\n\n\n=== Videos ===\nThe BIPM YouTube channel\n\"The role of the Planck constant in physics\" - presentation at 26th CGPM meeting at Versailles, France, November 2018 when voting on superseding the IPK took place.", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/International_System_of_Units_Logo.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Poids_fonte_1_kg_01.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Prototype_kilogram_replica.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Unit_relations_in_the_new_SI.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Watt_balance%2C_large_view.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/61/Searchtool.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg"], "summary": "The kilogram (also kilogramme) is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI), the metric system, having the unit symbol kg. It is a widely used measure in science, engineering and commerce worldwide, and is often simply called a kilo in everyday speech.\nThe kilogram was originally defined in 1795 as the mass of one litre of water. This definition was simple yet difficult to use in practice, due to the fact that the properties of the water are not defined. Modern superseding definitions of a kilogram are accurate to within 30 ppm of the mass of one litre of water. In 1799, the platinum Kilogramme des Archives replaced it as the standard of mass. In 1889, a cylinder of platinum-iridium, the International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK) became the standard of the unit of mass for the metric system, and remained so until 2019. The kilogram was the last of the SI units to be defined by a physical artefact.\nThe kilogram is now defined in terms of the second and the metre, based on fixed fundamental constants of nature. This allows a properly-equipped metrology laboratory to calibrate a mass measurement instrument such as a Kibble balance as the primary standard to determine an exact kilogram mass, although the IPK and other precision kilogram masses remain in use as secondary standards for all ordinary purposes."}, "George_Washinton": {"links": ["Nova Scotia in the American Revolution", "Boston campaign", "Daniel J. Boorstin", "Native Americans in the United States", "Daniel Parke Custis", "Court-martial", "Quebec Act", "Theodore Roosevelt", "Wade H. Haislip", "Loyalist ", "Hamilton ", "Israel Putnam", "Walter Butler ", "List of presidents of the United States on currency", "Beall-Air", "Yorktown campaign", "Cedar Lawn", "Treaty of New York ", "Presidency of Harry S. 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Truman presidency", "James Russell Lowell", "Louis Leb\u00e8gue Duportail", "Louis XVI", "Abolitionism in the United States", "American Philosophical Society", "Constitutional Convention ", "George Washington in the American Revolution", "Harriet Beecher Stowe", "Culper Ring", "Northamptonshire", "Augustine Washington Jr.", "Commander-in-chief", "Financial costs of the American Revolutionary War", "Townshend Acts", "Frederick County, Virginia", "Post-presidency of George Washington", "Massachusetts Circular Letter", "Transportation", "Anticlericalism and Freemasonry", "Navigation Acts", "Currency Act", "Ronald H. Griffith", "Hugh L. Scott", "John Spencer Bassett", "Abraham Lincoln", "Journal of the Early Republic", "John Hancock", "Presidency of Joe Biden", "David Brearley", "Triad ", "William Livingston", "Senior Officer of the United States Army", "Matthew Ridgway", "Washington's Birthday", "Edmund Gibson", "Fred Anderson ", "James Abercrombie "], "content": "George Washington (February 22, 1732 \u2013 December 14, 1799) was an American political leader, military general, statesman, and Founding Father of the United States, who served as the first president of the United States from 1789 to 1797. Washington led the Patriot forces to victory in the American Revolutionary War, and presided at the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which established the Constitution of the United States and a federal government for the United States. Washington has been called the \"Father of the Nation\" for his manifold leadership in the formative days of the country.\nWashington's first public office was serving as official Surveyor of Culpeper County, Virginia from 1749 to 1750. Subsequently, he received his initial military training (as well as a command with the Virginia Regiment) during the French and Indian War. He was later elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses and was named a delegate to the Continental Congress. Here he was appointed Commanding General of the Continental Army. With this title, he commanded American forces (allied with France) in the defeat and surrender of the British at the Siege of Yorktown during the American Revolutionary War. He resigned his commission after the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783.\nWashington played an indispensable role in adopting and ratifying the Constitution of the United States. He was then twice elected president by the Electoral College. He implemented a strong, well-financed national government while remaining impartial in a fierce rivalry between cabinet members Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. During the French Revolution, he proclaimed a policy of neutrality while sanctioning the Jay Treaty. He set enduring precedents for the office of president, including the title \"Mr. President\", and his Farewell Address is widely regarded as a pre-eminent statement on republicanism.\nWashington owned slaves, and, to preserve national unity, he supported measures passed by Congress to protect slavery. He later became troubled with the institution of slavery and freed his slaves in a 1799 will. He endeavored to assimilate Native Americans into the Anglo-American culture but combated indigenous resistance during instances of violent conflict. He was a member of the Anglican Church and the Freemasons, and he urged broad religious freedom in his roles as general and president. Upon his death, he was eulogized as \"first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen\". He has been memorialized by monuments, art, geographical locations, including the national capital, stamps, and currency, and many scholars and polls rank him among the greatest U.S. presidents. On March 13, 1978, Washington was militarily ranked General of the Armies, an honor that has only been awarded twice in the history of the United States.\n\n\n== Early life (1732\u20131752) ==\n\nThe Washington family was a wealthy Virginia planter family that had made its fortune through land speculation and the cultivation of tobacco. Washington's great-grandfather John Washington immigrated in 1656 from Sulgrave, Northamptonshire, England, to the English colony of Virginia where he accumulated 5,000 acres (2,000 ha) of land, including Little Hunting Creek on the Potomac River. George Washington was born on February 22, 1732, at Popes Creek in Westmoreland County, Virginia, and was the first of six children of Augustine and Mary Ball Washington. His father was a justice of the peace and a prominent public figure who had four additional children from his first marriage to Jane Butler. The family moved to Little Hunting Creek in 1735.  Three years later in 1738, they moved to Ferry Farm near Fredericksburg, Virginia on the Rappahannock River. When Augustine died in 1743, Washington inherited Ferry Farm and ten slaves; his older half-brother Lawrence inherited Little Hunting Creek and renamed it Mount Vernon.Washington did not have the formal education his elder brothers received at Appleby Grammar School in England, but he did learn mathematics, trigonometry, and land surveying. He was a talented draftsman and map-maker. By early adulthood he was writing with \"considerable force\" and \"precision\"; however, his writing displayed little wit or humor. In pursuit of admiration, status, and power, he tended to attribute his shortcomings and failures to someone else's ineffectuality.Washington often visited Mount Vernon and Belvoir, the plantation that belonged to Lawrence's father-in-law William Fairfax. Fairfax became Washington's patron and surrogate father, and Washington spent a month in 1748 with a team surveying Fairfax's Shenandoah Valley property. He received a surveyor's license the following year from the College of William & Mary. Even though Washington had not served the customary apprenticeship, Fairfax appointed him surveyor of Culpeper County, Virginia, and he appeared in Culpeper County to take his oath of office July 20, 1749. He subsequently familiarized himself with the frontier region, and though he resigned from the job in 1750, he continued to do surveys west of the Blue Ridge Mountains. By 1752 he had bought almost 1,500 acres (600 ha) in the Valley and owned 2,315 acres (937 ha).In 1751, Washington made his only trip abroad when he accompanied Lawrence to Barbados, hoping the climate would cure his brother's tuberculosis. Washington contracted smallpox during that trip, which immunized him but left his face slightly scarred. Lawrence died in 1752, and Washington leased Mount Vernon from his widow; he inherited it outright after her death in 1761.\n\n\n== Colonial military career (1752\u20131758) ==\nLawrence Washington's service as adjutant general of the Virginia militia inspired his half-brother George to seek a commission. Virginia's lieutenant governor, Robert Dinwiddie, appointed George Washington as a major and commander of one of the four militia districts. The British and French were competing for control of the Ohio Valley. While the British were constructing forts along the Ohio River, the French were doing the same\u2014constructing forts between the Ohio river and Lake Erie.In October 1753, Dinwiddie appointed Washington as a special envoy. He had sent George to demand French forces to vacate land that was being claimed by the British. Washington was also appointed to make peace with the Iroquois Confederacy, and to gather further intelligence about the French forces. Washington met with Half-King Tanacharison, and other Iroquois chiefs, at Logstown in order to secure their promise of support against the French. His party reached the Ohio River in November and were intercepted by a French patrol. The party was escorted to Fort Le Boeuf, where Washington was received in a friendly manner. He delivered the British demand to vacate to the French commander Saint-Pierre, but the French refused to leave. Saint-Pierre gave Washington his official answer in a sealed envelope after a few days' delay, as well as  food and extra winter clothing for his party's journey back to Virginia. Washington completed the precarious mission in 77 days, in difficult winter conditions, achieving a measure of distinction when his report was published in Virginia and in London.\n\n\n=== French and Indian War ===\n\nIn February 1754, Dinwiddie promoted Washington to lieutenant colonel and second-in-command of the 300-strong Virginia Regiment, with orders to confront French forces at the Forks of the Ohio. Washington set out for the Forks with half the regiment in April but soon learned a French force of 1,000 had begun construction of Fort Duquesne there. In May, having set up a defensive position at Great Meadows, he learned that the French had made camp seven miles (11 km) away; he decided to take the offensive.\n\nThe French detachment proved to be only about fifty men, so Washington advanced on May 28 with a small force of Virginians and Indian allies to ambush them. What took place, known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen or the \"Jumonville affair\", was disputed, but French forces were killed outright with muskets and hatchets. French commander Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, who carried a diplomatic message for the British to evacuate, was killed. French forces found Jumonville and some of his men dead and scalped and assumed Washington was responsible. Washington blamed his translator for not communicating the French intentions. Dinwiddie congratulated Washington for his victory over the French. This incident ignited the French and Indian War, which later became part of the larger Seven Years' War.The full Virginia Regiment joined Washington at Fort Necessity the following month with news that he had been promoted to command of the regiment and colonel upon the regimental commander's death. The regiment was reinforced by an independent company of a hundred South Carolinians led by Captain James Mackay, whose royal commission outranked that of Washington, and a conflict of command ensued. On July 3, a French force attacked with 900 men, and the ensuing battle ended in Washington's surrender. In the aftermath, Colonel James Innes took command of intercolonial forces, the Virginia Regiment was divided, and Washington was offered a captaincy which he refused, with the resignation of his commission.\n\nIn 1755, Washington served voluntarily as an aide to General Edward Braddock, who led a British expedition to expel the French from Fort Duquesne and the Ohio Country. On Washington's recommendation, Braddock split the army into one main column and a lightly equipped \"flying column\". Suffering from a severe case of dysentery, Washington was left behind, and when he rejoined Braddock at Monongahela the French and their Indian allies ambushed the divided army. Two-thirds of the British force became casualties, including the mortally wounded Braddock. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gage, Washington, still very ill, rallied the survivors and formed a rear guard, allowing the remnants of the force to disengage and retreat. During the engagement, he had two horses shot from under him, and his hat and coat were bullet-pierced. His conduct under fire redeemed his reputation among critics of his command in the Battle of Fort Necessity, but he was not included by the succeeding commander (Colonel Thomas Dunbar) in planning subsequent operations.The Virginia Regiment was reconstituted in August 1755, and Dinwiddie appointed Washington its commander, again with the rank of colonel. Washington clashed over seniority almost immediately, this time with John Dagworthy, another captain of superior royal rank, who commanded a detachment of Marylanders at the regiment's headquarters in Fort Cumberland. Washington, impatient for an offensive against Fort Duquesne, was convinced Braddock would have granted him a royal commission and pressed his case in February 1756 with Braddock's successor, William Shirley, and again in January 1757 with Shirley's successor, Lord Loudoun. Shirley ruled in Washington's favor only in the matter of Dagworthy; Loudoun humiliated Washington, refused him a royal commission, and agreed only to relieve him of the responsibility of manning Fort Cumberland.In 1758, the Virginia Regiment was assigned to the British Forbes Expedition to capture Fort Duquesne. Washington disagreed with General John Forbes' tactics and chosen route. Forbes nevertheless made Washington a brevet brigadier general and gave him command of one of the three brigades that would assault the fort. The French abandoned the fort and the valley before the assault was launched; Washington saw only a friendly-fire incident which left 14 dead and 26 injured. The war lasted another four years, but Washington resigned his commission and returned to Mount Vernon.Under Washington, the Virginia Regiment had defended 300 miles (480 km) of frontier against twenty Indian attacks in ten months. He increased the professionalism of the regiment as it increased from 300 to 1,000 men, and Virginia's frontier population suffered less than other colonies. Some historians have said this was Washington's \"only unqualified success\" during the war. Though he failed to realize a royal commission, he did gain self-confidence, leadership skills, and invaluable knowledge of British military tactics. The destructive competition Washington witnessed among colonial politicians fostered his later support of a strong central government.\n\n\n== Marriage, civilian, and political life (1755\u20131775) ==\n\nOn January 6, 1759, Washington, at age 26, married Martha Dandridge Custis, the 27-year-old widow of wealthy plantation owner Daniel Parke Custis. The marriage took place at Martha's estate; she was intelligent, gracious, and experienced in managing a planter's estate, and the couple created a happy marriage. They raised John Parke Custis (Jacky) and Martha Parke (Patsy) Custis, children from her previous marriage, and later Jacky's children Eleanor Parke Custis (Nelly) and George Washington Parke Custis (Washy). Washington's 1751 bout with smallpox is thought to have rendered him sterile, though it is equally likely that \"Martha may have sustained injury during the birth of Patsy, her final child, making additional births impossible.\" The couple lamented not having any children together. They moved to Mount Vernon, near Alexandria, where he took up life as a planter of tobacco and wheat and emerged as a political figure.The marriage gave Washington control over Martha's one-third dower interest in the 18,000-acre (7,300 ha) Custis estate, and he managed the remaining two-thirds for Martha's children; the estate also included 84 slaves. He became one of Virginia's wealthiest men, which increased his social standing.At Washington's urging, Governor Lord Botetourt fulfilled Dinwiddie's 1754 promise of land bounties to all-volunteer militia during the French and Indian War. In late 1770, Washington inspected the lands in the Ohio and Great Kanawha regions, and he engaged surveyor William Crawford to subdivide it. Crawford allotted 23,200 acres (9,400 ha) to Washington; Washington told the veterans that their land was hilly and unsuitable for farming, and he agreed to purchase 20,147 acres (8,153 ha), leaving some feeling they had been duped. He also doubled the size of Mount Vernon to 6,500 acres (2,600 ha) and increased its slave population to more than a hundred by 1775.Washington's political activities included supporting the candidacy of his friend George William Fairfax in his 1755 bid to represent the region in the Virginia House of Burgess.  This support led to a dispute which resulted in a physical altercation between Washington and another Virginia planter, William Payne. Washington defused the situation, including ordering officers from the Virginia Regiment to stand down. Washington apologized to Payne the following day at a tavern. Payne had been expecting to be challenged to a duel.As a respected military hero and large landowner, Washington held local offices and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, representing Frederick County in the House of Burgesses for seven years beginning in 1758. He plied the voters with beer, brandy, and other beverages, although he was absent while serving on the Forbes Expedition. He won the election with roughly 40 percent of the vote, defeating three other candidates with the help of several local supporters. He rarely spoke in his early legislative career, but he became a prominent critic of Britain's taxation policy and mercantilist policies towards the American colonies starting in the 1760s.\n\nBy occupation, Washington was a planter, and he imported luxuries and other goods from England, paying for them by exporting tobacco. His profligate spending combined with low tobacco prices left him \u00a31,800 in debt by 1764, prompting him to diversify his holdings. In 1765, because of erosion and other soil problems, he changed Mount Vernon's primary cash crop from tobacco to wheat and expanded operations to include corn flour milling and fishing. Washington also took time for leisure with fox hunting, fishing, dances, theater, cards, backgammon, and billiards.Washington soon was counted among the political and social elite in Virginia. From 1768 to 1775, he invited some 2,000 guests to his Mount Vernon estate, mostly those whom he considered \"people of rank\". He became more politically active in 1769, presenting legislation in the Virginia Assembly to establish an embargo on goods from Great Britain.Washington's step-daughter Patsy Custis suffered from epileptic attacks from age 12, and she died in his arms in 1773. The following day, he wrote to Burwell Bassett: \"It is easier to conceive, than to describe, the distress of this Family\". He canceled all business activity and remained with Martha every night for three months.\n\n\n=== Opposition to British Parliament ===\n\nWashington played a central role before and during the American Revolution. His disdain for the British military had begun when he was passed over for promotion into the Regular Army. Opposed to taxes imposed by the British Parliament on the Colonies without proper representation, he and other colonists were also angered by the Royal Proclamation of 1763 which banned American settlement west of the Allegheny Mountains and protected the British fur trade.Washington believed the Stamp Act of 1765 was an \"Act of Oppression\", and he celebrated its repeal the following year. In March 1766, Parliament passed the Declaratory Act asserting that Parliamentary law superseded colonial law. Washington helped lead widespread protests against the Townshend Acts passed by Parliament in 1767, and he introduced a proposal in May 1769 drafted by George Mason which called Virginians to boycott British goods; the Acts were mostly repealed in 1770.Parliament sought to punish Massachusetts colonists for their role in the Boston Tea Party in 1774 by passing the Coercive Acts, which Washington referred to as \"an invasion of our rights and privileges\". He said Americans must not submit to acts of tyranny since \"custom and use shall make us as tame and abject slaves, as the blacks we rule over with such arbitrary sway\". That July, he and George Mason drafted a list of resolutions for the Fairfax County committee which Washington chaired, and the committee adopted the Fairfax Resolves calling for a Continental Congress. On August 1, Washington attended the First Virginia Convention, where he was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress, September 5 to October 26, 1774, which he also attended. As tensions rose in 1774, he helped train county militias in Virginia and organized enforcement of the Continental Association boycott of British goods instituted by the Congress.The American Revolutionary War began on April 19, 1775, with the Battles of Lexington and Concord and the Siege of Boston. The colonists were divided over breaking away from British rule and split into two factions: Patriots who rejected British rule, and Loyalists who desired to remain subject to the King. General Thomas Gage was commander of British forces in America at the beginning of the war. Upon hearing the shocking news of the onset of war, Washington was \"sobered and dismayed\", and he hastily departed Mount Vernon on May 4, 1775, to join the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia.\n\n\n== Commander in chief (1775\u20131783) ==\n\nCongress created the Continental Army on June 14, 1775, and Samuel and John Adams nominated Washington to become its commander-in-chief. Washington was chosen over John Hancock because of his military experience and the belief that a Virginian would better unite the colonies. He was considered an incisive leader who kept his \"ambition in check\". He was unanimously elected commander in chief by Congress the next day.Washington appeared before Congress in uniform and gave an acceptance speech on June 16, declining a salary\u2014though he was later reimbursed expenses. He was commissioned on June 19 and was roundly praised by Congressional delegates, including John Adams, who proclaimed that he was the man best suited to lead and unite the colonies. Congress appointed Washington \"General & Commander in chief of the army of the United Colonies and of all the forces raised or to be raised by them\", and instructed him to take charge of the siege of Boston on June 22, 1775.Congress chose his primary staff officers, including Major General Artemas Ward, Adjutant General Horatio Gates, Major General Charles Lee, Major General Philip Schuyler, Major General Nathanael Greene, Colonel Henry Knox, and Colonel Alexander Hamilton. Washington was impressed by Colonel Benedict Arnold and gave him responsibility for launching an invasion of Canada. He also engaged French and Indian War compatriot Brigadier General Daniel Morgan. Henry Knox impressed Adams with ordnance knowledge, and Washington promoted him to colonel and chief of artillery.Washington initially opposed the enlistment of slaves into the Continental Army. Nevertheless, he later relented when the British issued proclamations such as Dunmore's Proclamation, which promised freedom to slaves of Patriot masters if they joined the British. On January 16, 1776, Congress allowed free blacks to serve in the militia. By the end of the war, one-tenth of Washington's army were blacks.\n\n\n=== Siege of Boston ===\n\nEarly in 1775, in response to the growing rebellious movement, London sent British troops, commanded by General Thomas Gage, to occupy Boston. They set up fortifications about the city, making it impervious to attack. Various local militias surrounded the city and effectively trapped the British, resulting in a standoff.As Washington headed for Boston, word of his march preceded him, and he was greeted everywhere; gradually, he became a symbol of the Patriot cause. Upon arrival on July 2, 1775, two weeks after the Patriot defeat at nearby Bunker Hill, he set up his Cambridge, Massachusetts headquarters and inspected the new army there, only to find an undisciplined and badly outfitted militia. After consultation, he initiated Benjamin Franklin's suggested reforms\u2014drilling the soldiers and imposing strict discipline, floggings, and incarceration. Washington ordered his officers to identify the skills of recruits to ensure military effectiveness, while removing incompetent officers. He petitioned Gage, his former superior, to release captured Patriot officers from prison and treat them humanely. In October 1775, King George III declared that the colonies were in open rebellion and relieved General Gage of command for incompetence, replacing him with General William Howe.In June 1775, Congress ordered an invasion of Canada. It was led by Benedict Arnold, who, despite Washington's strong objection, drew volunteers from the latter's force during the Siege of Boston. The move on Quebec failed, with the American forces being reduced to less than half and forced to retreat.The Continental Army, further diminished by expiring short-term enlistments, and by January 1776 reduced by half to 9,600 men, had to be supplemented with militia, and was joined by Knox with heavy artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga. When the Charles River froze over, Washington was eager to cross and storm Boston, but General Gates and others were opposed to untrained militia striking well-garrisoned fortifications. Washington reluctantly agreed to secure the Dorchester Heights, 100 feet above Boston, in an attempt to force the British out of the city. On March 9, under cover of darkness, Washington's troops brought up Knox's big guns and bombarded British ships in Boston harbor. On March 17, 9,000 British troops and Loyalists began a chaotic ten-day evacuation of Boston aboard 120 ships. Soon after, Washington entered the city with 500 men, with explicit orders not to plunder the city. He ordered vaccinations against smallpox to great effect, as he did later in Morristown, New Jersey. He refrained from exerting military authority in Boston, leaving civilian matters in the hands of local authorities.\n\n\n=== Battle of Long Island ===\n\nWashington then proceeded to New York City, arriving on April 13, 1776, and began constructing fortifications to thwart the expected British attack. He ordered his occupying forces to treat civilians and their property with respect, to avoid the abuses which Bostonian citizens suffered at the hands of British troops during their occupation. A plot to assassinate or capture him was discovered but thwarted, resulting in the arrest of 98 people involved or complicit (56 of which were from Long Island (Kings (Brooklyn) and Queens counties), including the Loyalist Mayor of New York David Mathews. Washington's bodyguard, Thomas Hickey, was hanged for mutiny and sedition. General Howe transported his resupplied army, with the British fleet, from Halifax to New York, knowing the city was key to securing the continent. George Germain, who ran the British war effort in England, believed it could be won with one \"decisive blow\". The British forces, including more than a hundred ships and thousands of troops, began arriving on Staten Island on July 2 to lay siege to the city. After the Declaration of Independence was adopted on July 4, Washington informed his troops in his general orders of July 9 that Congress had declared the united colonies to be \"free and independent states\".Howe's troop strength totaled 32,000 regulars and Hessians auxiliaries, and Washington's consisted of 23,000, mostly raw recruits and militia. In August, Howe landed 20,000 troops at Gravesend, Brooklyn, and approached Washington's fortifications, as George III proclaimed the rebellious American colonists to be traitors. Washington, opposing his generals, chose to fight, based upon inaccurate information that Howe's army had only 8,000-plus troops. In the Battle of Long Island, Howe assaulted Washington's flank and inflicted 1,500 Patriot casualties, the British suffering 400. Washington retreated, instructing General William Heath to acquisition river craft in the area. On August 30, General William Alexander held off the British and gave cover while the army crossed the East River under darkness to Manhattan Island without loss of life or materiel, although Alexander was captured.Howe, emboldened by his Long Island victory, dispatched Washington as \"George Washington, Esq.\" in futility to negotiate peace. Washington declined, demanding to be addressed with diplomatic protocol, as general and fellow belligerent, not as a \"rebel\", lest his men be hanged as such if captured. The Royal Navy bombarded the unstable earthworks on lower Manhattan Island. Washington, with misgivings, heeded the advice of Generals Greene and Putnam to defend Fort Washington. They were unable to hold it, and Washington abandoned it despite General Lee's objections, as his army retired north to the White Plains. Howe's pursuit forced Washington to retreat across the Hudson River to Fort Lee to avoid encirclement. Howe landed his troops on Manhattan in November and captured Fort Washington, inflicting high casualties on the Americans. Washington was responsible for delaying the retreat, though he blamed Congress and General Greene. Loyalists in New York considered Howe a liberator and spread a rumor that Washington had set fire to the city. Patriot morale reached its lowest when Lee was captured. Now reduced to 5,400 troops, Washington's army retreated through New Jersey, and Howe broke off pursuit, delaying his advance on Philadelphia, and set up winter quarters in New York.\n\n\n=== Crossing the Delaware, Trenton, and Princeton ===\n\nWashington crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, where Lee's replacement John Sullivan joined him with 2,000 more troops. The future of the Continental Army was in doubt for lack of supplies, a harsh winter, expiring enlistments, and desertions. Washington was disappointed that many New Jersey residents were Loyalists or skeptical about the prospect of independence.Howe split up his British Army and posted a Hessian garrison at Trenton to hold western New Jersey and the east shore of the Delaware, but the army appeared complacent, and Washington and his generals devised a surprise attack on the Hessians at Trenton, which he codenamed \"Victory or Death\". The army was to cross the Delaware River to Trenton in three divisions: one led by Washington (2,400 troops), another by General James Ewing (700), and the third by Colonel John Cadwalader (1,500). The force was to then split, with Washington taking the Pennington Road and General Sullivan traveling south on the river's edge.\n\nWashington first ordered a 60-mile search for Durham boats to transport his army, and he ordered the destruction of vessels that could be used by the British. He crossed the Delaware River on the night of December 25\u201326, 1776, and risked capture staking out the Jersey shoreline. His men followed across the ice-obstructed river in sleet and snow from McConkey's Ferry, with 40 men per vessel. The wind churned up the waters, and they were pelted with hail, but by 3:00 a.m. on December 26, they made it across with no losses. Henry Knox was delayed, managing frightened horses and about 18 field guns on flat-bottomed ferries. Cadwalader and Ewing failed to cross due to the ice and heavy currents, and a waiting Washington doubted his planned attack on Trenton. Once Knox arrived, Washington proceeded to Trenton to take only his troops against the Hessians, rather than risk being spotted returning his army to Pennsylvania.The troops spotted Hessian positions a mile from Trenton, so Washington split his force into two columns, rallying his men: \"Soldiers keep by your officers. For God's sake, keep by your officers.\" The two columns were separated at the Birmingham crossroads. General Nathanael Greene's column took the upper Ferry Road, led by Washington, and General John Sullivan's column advanced on River Road. (See map.) The Americans marched in sleet and snowfall. Many were shoeless with bloodied feet, and two died of exposure. At sunrise, Washington led them in a surprise attack on the Hessians, aided by Major General Knox and artillery. The Hessians had 22 killed (including Colonel Johann Rall), 83 wounded, and 850 captured with supplies.\n\nWashington retreated across the Delaware to Pennsylvania but returned to New Jersey on January 3, launching an attack on British regulars at Princeton, with 40 Americans killed or wounded and 273 British killed or captured. American Generals Hugh Mercer and John Cadwalader were being driven back by the British when Mercer was mortally wounded, then Washington arrived and led the men in a counterattack which advanced to within 30 yards (27 m) of the British line.Some British troops retreated after a brief stand, while others took refuge in Nassau Hall, which became the target of Colonel Alexander Hamilton's cannons. Washington's troops charged, the British surrendered in less than an hour, and 194 soldiers laid down their arms. Howe retreated to New York City where his army remained inactive until early the next year. Washington's depleted Continental Army took up winter headquarters in Morristown, New Jersey while disrupting British supply lines and expelling them from parts of New Jersey. Washington later said the British could have successfully counterattacked his encampment before his troops were dug in.The British still controlled New York, and many Patriot soldiers did not re-enlist or deserted after the harsh winter campaign. Congress instituted greater rewards for re-enlisting and punishments for desertion to effect greater troop numbers. Strategically, Washington's victories were pivotal for the Revolution and quashed the British strategy of showing overwhelming force followed by offering generous terms. In February 1777, word reached London of the American victories at Trenton and Princeton, and the British realized the Patriots were in a position to demand unconditional independence.\n\n\n=== Brandywine, Germantown, and Saratoga ===\n\nIn July 1777, British General John Burgoyne led the Saratoga campaign south from Quebec through Lake Champlain and recaptured Fort Ticonderoga intending to divide New England, including control of the Hudson River. However, General Howe in British-occupied New York blundered, taking his army south to Philadelphia rather than up the Hudson River to join Burgoyne near Albany. Meanwhile, Washington and Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette rushed to Philadelphia to engage Howe and were shocked to learn of Burgoyne's progress in upstate New York, where the Patriots were led by General Philip Schuyler and successor Horatio Gates. Washington's army of less experienced men were defeated in the pitched battles at Philadelphia.Howe outmaneuvered Washington at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777, and marched unopposed into the nation's capital at Philadelphia. A Patriot attack failed against the British at Germantown in October. Major General Thomas Conway prompted some members of Congress (referred to as the Conway Cabal) to consider removing Washington from command because of the losses incurred at Philadelphia. Washington's supporters resisted, and the matter was finally dropped after much deliberation. Once the plot was exposed, Conway wrote an apology to Washington, resigned, and returned to France.Washington was concerned with Howe's movements during the Saratoga campaign to the north, and he was also aware that Burgoyne was moving south toward Saratoga from Quebec. Washington took some risks to support Gates' army, sending reinforcements north with Generals Benedict Arnold, his most aggressive field commander, and Benjamin Lincoln. On October 7, 1777, Burgoyne tried to take Bemis Heights but was isolated from support by Howe. He was forced to retreat to Saratoga and ultimately surrendered after the Battles of Saratoga. As Washington suspected, Gates' victory emboldened his critics. Biographer John Alden maintains, \"It was inevitable that the defeats of Washington's forces and the concurrent victory of the forces in upper New York should be compared.\" The admiration for Washington was waning, including little credit from John Adams. British commander Howe resigned in May 1778, left America forever, and was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton.\n\n\n=== Valley Forge and Monmouth ===\n\nWashington's army of 11,000 went into winter quarters at Valley Forge north of Philadelphia in December 1777. They suffered between 2,000 and 3,000 deaths in the extreme cold over six months, mostly from disease and lack of food, clothing, and shelter. Meanwhile, the British were comfortably quartered in Philadelphia, paying for supplies in pounds sterling, while Washington struggled with a devalued American paper currency. The woodlands were soon exhausted of game, and by February, lowered morale and increased desertions ensued.Washington made repeated petitions to the Continental Congress for provisions. He received a congressional delegation to check the Army's conditions and expressed the urgency of the situation, proclaiming: \"Something must be done. Important alterations must be made.\" He recommended that Congress expedite supplies, and Congress agreed to strengthen and fund the army's supply lines by reorganizing the commissary department. By late February, supplies began arriving.\n\nBaron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben's incessant drilling soon transformed Washington's recruits into a disciplined fighting force, and the revitalized army emerged from Valley Forge early the following year. Washington promoted Von Steuben to Major General and made him chief of staff.In early 1778, the French responded to Burgoyne's defeat and entered into a Treaty of Alliance with the Americans. The Continental Congress ratified the treaty in May, which amounted to a French declaration of war against Britain.The British evacuated Philadelphia for New York that June, and Washington summoned a war council of American and French Generals. He chose a partial attack on the retreating British at the Battle of Monmouth; the British were commanded by Howe's successor General Henry Clinton. Generals Charles Lee and Lafayette moved with 4,000 men, without Washington's knowledge, and bungled their first attack on June 28. Washington relieved Lee and achieved a draw after an expansive battle. At nightfall, the British continued their retreat to New York, and Washington moved his army outside the city. Monmouth was Washington's last battle in the North; he valued the safety of his army more than towns with little value to the British.\n\n\n=== West Point espionage ===\n\nWashington became \"America's first spymaster\" by designing an espionage system against the British. In 1778, Major Benjamin Tallmadge formed the Culper Ring at Washington's direction to covertly collect information about the British in New York. Washington had disregarded incidents of disloyalty by Benedict Arnold, who had distinguished himself in many battles.During mid-1780, Arnold began supplying British spymaster John Andr\u00e9 with sensitive information intended to compromise Washington and capture West Point, a key American defensive position on the Hudson River. Historians have noted as possible reasons for Arnold's treachery his anger at losing promotions to junior officers, or repeated slights from Congress. He was also deeply in debt, profiteering from the war, and disappointed by Washington's lack of support during his eventual court-martial.\n\nArnold repeatedly asked for command of West Point, and Washington finally agreed in August. Arnold met Andr\u00e9 on September 21, giving him plans to take over the garrison. Militia forces captured Andr\u00e9 and discovered the plans, but Arnold escaped to New York. Washington recalled the commanders positioned under Arnold at key points around the fort to prevent any complicity, but he did not suspect Arnold's wife Peggy. Washington assumed personal command at West Point and reorganized its defenses. Andr\u00e9's trial for espionage ended in a death sentence, and Washington offered to return him to the British in exchange for Arnold, but Clinton refused. Andr\u00e9 was hanged on October 2, 1780, despite his last request being to face a firing squad, to deter other spies.\n\n\n=== Southern theater and Yorktown ===\n\nIn late 1778, General Clinton shipped 3,000 troops from New York to Georgia and launched a Southern invasion against Savannah, reinforced by 2,000 British and Loyalist troops. They repelled an attack by Patriots and French naval forces, which bolstered the British war effort.In mid-1779, Washington attacked Iroquois warriors of the Six Nations to force Britain's Indian allies out of New York, from which they had assaulted New England towns. The Indian warriors joined with Loyalist rangers led by Walter Butler and viciously slew more than 200 frontiersmen in June, laying waste to the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania. In response, Washington ordered General John Sullivan to lead an expedition to effect \"the total destruction and devastation\" of Iroquois villages and take their women and children hostage. Those who managed to escape fled to Canada.Washington's troops went into quarters at Morristown, New Jersey during the winter of 1779\u20131780 and suffered their worst winter of the war, with temperatures well below freezing. New York Harbor was frozen over, snow and ice covered the ground for weeks, and the troops again lacked provisions.Clinton assembled 12,500 troops and attacked Charlestown, South Carolina in January 1780, defeating General Benjamin Lincoln who had only 5,100 Continental troops. The British went on to occupy the South Carolina Piedmont in June, with no Patriot resistance. Clinton returned to New York and left 8,000 troops commanded by General Charles Cornwallis. Congress replaced Lincoln with Horatio Gates; he failed in South Carolina and was replaced by Washington's choice of Nathaniel Greene, but the British already had the South in their grasp. Washington was reinvigorated, however, when Lafayette returned from France with more ships, men, and supplies, and 5,000 veteran French troops led by Marshal Rochambeau arrived at Newport, Rhode Island in July 1780. French naval forces then landed, led by Admiral Grasse, and Washington encouraged Rochambeau to move his fleet south to launch a joint land and naval attack on Arnold's troops.Washington's army went into winter quarters at New Windsor, New York in December 1780, and Washington urged Congress and state officials to expedite provisions in hopes that the army would not \"continue to struggle under the same difficulties they have hitherto endured\". On March 1, 1781, Congress ratified the Articles of Confederation, but the government that took effect on March 2 did not have the power to levy taxes, and it loosely held the states together.General Clinton sent Benedict Arnold, now a British Brigadier General with 1,700 troops, to Virginia to capture Portsmouth and conduct raids on Patriot forces from there; Washington responded by sending Lafayette south to counter Arnold's efforts. Washington initially hoped to bring the fight to New York, drawing off British forces from Virginia and ending the war there, but Rochambeau advised Grasse that Cornwallis in Virginia was the better target. Grasse's fleet arrived off the Virginia coast, and Washington saw the advantage. He made a feint towards Clinton in New York, then headed south to Virginia.\n\nThe Siege of Yorktown was a decisive allied victory by the combined forces of the Continental Army commanded by General Washington, the French Army commanded by the General Comte de Rochambeau, and the French Navy commanded by Admiral de Grasse, in the defeat of Cornwallis' British forces. On August 19, the march to Yorktown led by Washington and Rochambeau began, which is known now as the \"celebrated march\". Washington was in command of an army of 7,800 Frenchmen, 3,100 militia, and 8,000 Continentals. Not well experienced in siege warfare, Washington often deferred to the judgment of General Rochambeau and used his advice about how to proceed; however, Rochambeau never challenged Washington's authority as the battle's commanding officer.By late September, Patriot-French forces surrounded Yorktown, trapped the British army, and prevented British reinforcements from Clinton in the North, while the French navy emerged victorious at the Battle of the Chesapeake. The final American offensive was begun with a shot fired by Washington. The siege ended with a British surrender on October 19, 1781; over 7,000 British soldiers were made prisoners of war, in the last major land battle of the American Revolutionary War. Washington negotiated the terms of surrender for two days, and the official signing ceremony took place on October 19; Cornwallis claimed illness and was absent, sending General Charles O'Hara as his proxy. As a gesture of goodwill, Washington held a dinner for the American, French, and British generals, all of whom fraternized on friendly terms and identified with one another as members of the same professional military caste.After the surrender at Yorktown, a situation developed that threatened relations between the newly independent America and Britain. Following a series of retributive executions between Patriots and Loyalists, Washington, on May 18, 1782, wrote in a letter to General Moses Hazen that a British captain would be executed in retaliation for the execution of Joshua Huddy, a popular Patriot leader, who was hanged at the direction of the Loyalist Richard Lippincott. Washington wanted Lippincott himself to be executed but was rebuffed. Subsequently, Charles Asgill was chosen instead, by a drawing of lots from a hat. This was a violation of the 14th article of the Yorktown Articles of Capitulation, which protected prisoners of war from acts of retaliation. Later, Washington's feelings on matters changed and in a letter of November 13, 1782, to Asgill, he acknowledged Asgill's letter and situation, expressing his desire not to see any harm come to him. After much consideration between the Continental Congress, Alexander Hamilton, Washington, and appeals from the French Crown, Asgill was finally released, where Washington issued Asgill a pass that allowed his passage to New York.\n\n\n=== Demobilization and resignation ===\n\nAs peace negotiations started, the British gradually evacuated troops from Savannah, Charlestown, and New York by 1783, and the French army and navy likewise departed. The American treasury was empty, unpaid and mutinous soldiers forced the adjournment of Congress, and Washington dispelled unrest by suppressing the Newburgh Conspiracy in March 1783; Congress promised officers a five-year bonus. Washington submitted an account of $450,000 in expenses which he had advanced to the army. The account was settled, though it was allegedly vague about large sums and included expenses his wife had incurred through visits to his headquarters.Washington resigned as commander-in-chief once the Treaty of Paris was signed, and he planned to retire to Mount Vernon. The treaty was ratified in April 1783, and Hamilton's Congressional committee adapted the army for peacetime. Washington gave the Army's perspective to the committee in his Sentiments on a Peace Establishment. The Treaty was signed on September 3, 1783, and Great Britain officially recognized the independence of the United States. Washington then disbanded his army, giving an eloquent farewell address to his soldiers on November 2. On November 25, the British evacuated New York City, and Washington and Governor George Clinton took possession.Washington advised Congress in August 1783 to keep a standing army, create a \"national militia\" of separate state units, and establish a navy and a national military academy. He circulated his \"Farewell\" orders that discharged his troops, whom he called \"one patriotic band of brothers\". Before his return to Mount Vernon, he oversaw the evacuation of British forces in New York and was greeted by parades and celebrations, where he announced that Colonel Henry Knox had been promoted commander-in-chief.After leading the Continental Army for 8\u00bd years, Washington bade farewell to his officers at Fraunces Tavern in December 1783 and resigned his commission days later, refuting Loyalist predictions that he would not relinquish his military command. In a final appearance in uniform, he gave a statement to the Congress: \"I consider it an indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official life, by commending the interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence of them, to his holy keeping.\" Washington's resignation was acclaimed at home and abroad and showed a skeptical world that the new republic would not degenerate into chaos.\nThe same month, Washington was appointed president-general of the Society of the Cincinnati, a hereditary fraternity, and he served for the remainder of his life.\n\n\n== Early republic (1783\u20131789) ==\n\n\n=== Return to Mount Vernon ===\n\nWashington was longing to return home after spending just ten days at Mount Vernon out of 8+1\u20442 years of war. He arrived on Christmas Eve, delighted to be \"free of the bustle of a camp and the busy scenes of public life\". He was a celebrity and was f\u00eated during a visit to his mother at Fredericksburg in February 1784, and he received a constant stream of visitors wishing to pay their respects to him at Mount Vernon.Washington reactivated his interests in the Great Dismal Swamp and Potomac canal projects begun before the war, though neither paid him any dividends, and he undertook a 34-day, 680-mile (1090 km) trip to check on his land holdings in the Ohio Country. He oversaw the completion of the remodeling work at Mount Vernon, which transformed his residence into the mansion that survives to this day\u2014although his financial situation was not strong. Creditors paid him in depreciated wartime currency, and he owed significant amounts in taxes and wages. Mount Vernon had made no profit during his absence, and he saw persistently poor crop yields due to pestilence and poor weather. His estate recorded its eleventh year running at a deficit in 1787, and there was little prospect of improvement. Washington undertook a new landscaping plan and succeeded in cultivating a range of fast-growing trees and shrubs that were native to North America. He also began breeding mules after having been gifted a Spanish jack by King Charles III of Spain in 1784. There were few mules in the United States at that time, and he believed that properly bred mules would revolutionize agriculture and transportation.\n\n\n=== Constitutional Convention of 1787 ===\n\nBefore returning to private life in June 1783, Washington called for a strong union. Though he was concerned that he might be criticized for meddling in civil matters, he sent a circular letter to all the states, maintaining that the Articles of Confederation was no more than \"a rope of sand\" linking the states. He believed the nation was on the verge of \"anarchy and confusion\", was vulnerable to foreign intervention, and that a national constitution would unify the states under a strong central government. When Shays' Rebellion erupted in Massachusetts on August 29, 1786, over taxation, Washington was further convinced that a national constitution was needed. Some nationalists feared that the new republic had descended into lawlessness, and they met together on September 11, 1786, at Annapolis to ask Congress to revise the Articles of Confederation. One of their biggest efforts, however, was getting Washington to attend. Congress agreed to a Constitutional Convention to be held in Philadelphia in Spring 1787, and each state was to send delegates.On December 4, 1786, Washington was chosen to lead the Virginia delegation, but he declined on December 21. He had concerns about the legality of the convention and consulted James Madison, Henry Knox, and others. They persuaded him to attend it, however, as his presence might induce reluctant states to send delegates and smooth the way for the ratification process. On March 28, Washington told Governor Edmund Randolph that he would attend the convention but made it clear that he was urged to attend.\n\nWashington arrived in Philadelphia on May 9, 1787, though a quorum was not attained until Friday, May 25. Benjamin Franklin nominated Washington to preside over the convention, and he was unanimously elected to serve as president general. The convention's state-mandated purpose was to revise the Articles of Confederation with \"all such alterations and further provisions\" required to improve them, and the new government would be established when the resulting document was \"duly confirmed by the several states\". Governor Edmund Randolph of Virginia introduced Madison's Virginia Plan on May 27, the third day of the convention. It called for an entirely new constitution and a sovereign national government, which Washington highly recommended.Washington wrote Alexander Hamilton on July 10: \"I almost despair of seeing a favorable issue to the proceedings of our convention and do therefore repent having had any agency in the business.\" Nevertheless, he lent his prestige to the goodwill and work of the other delegates. He unsuccessfully lobbied many to support ratification of the Constitution, such as anti-federalist Patrick Henry; Washington told him \"the adoption of it under the present circumstances of the Union is in my opinion desirable\" and declared the alternative would be anarchy. Washington and Madison then spent four days at Mount Vernon evaluating the new government's transition.\n\n\n=== Chancellor of William & Mary ===\nIn 1788, the Board of Visitors of the College of William & Mary decided to re-establish the position of Chancellor, and elected Washington to the office on January 18. The College Rector Samuel Griffin wrote to Washington inviting him to the post, and in a letter dated April 30, 1788, Washington accepted the position of the 14th Chancellor of the College of William & Mary. He continued to serve in the post through his presidency until his death on December 14, 1799.\n\n\n=== First presidential election ===\n\nThe delegates to the Convention anticipated a Washington presidency and left it to him to define the office once elected. The state electors under the Constitution voted for the president on February 4, 1789, and Washington suspected that most republicans had not voted for him. The mandated March 4 date passed without a Congressional quorum to count the votes, but a quorum was reached on April 5. The votes were tallied the next day, and Congressional Secretary Charles Thomson was sent to Mount Vernon to tell Washington he had been elected president. Washington won the majority of every state's electoral votes; John Adams received the next highest number of votes and therefore became vice president. Washington had \"anxious and painful sensations\" about leaving the \"domestic felicity\" of Mount Vernon, but departed for New York City on April 16 to be inaugurated.\n\n\n== Presidency (1789\u20131797) ==\n\nWashington was inaugurated on April 30, 1789, taking the oath of office at Federal Hall in New York City. His coach was led by militia and a marching band and followed by statesmen and foreign dignitaries in an inaugural parade, with a crowd of 10,000. Chancellor Robert R. Livingston administered the oath, using a Bible provided by the Masons, after which the militia fired a 13-gun salute. Washington read a speech in the Senate Chamber, asking \"that Almighty Being who rules over the universe, who presides in the councils of nations\u2014and whose providential aids can supply every human defect, consecrate the liberties and happiness of the people of the United States\". Though he wished to serve without a salary, Congress insisted adamantly that he accept it, later providing Washington $25,000 per year to defray costs of the presidency.Washington wrote to James Madison: \"As the first of everything in our situation will serve to establish a precedent, it is devoutly wished on my part that these precedents be fixed on true principles.\" To that end, he preferred the title \"Mr. President\" over more majestic names proposed by the Senate, including \"His Excellency\" and \"His Highness the President\". His executive precedents included the inaugural address, messages to Congress, and the cabinet form of the executive branch.Washington had planned to resign after his first term, but the political strife in the nation convinced him he should remain in office. He was an able administrator and a judge of talent and character, and he regularly talked with department heads to get their advice. He tolerated opposing views, despite fears that a democratic system would lead to political violence, and he conducted a smooth transition of power to his successor. He remained non-partisan throughout his presidency and opposed the divisiveness of political parties, but he favored a strong central government, was sympathetic to a Federalist form of government, and leery of the Republican opposition.Washington dealt with major problems. The old Confederation lacked the powers to handle its workload and had weak leadership, no executive, a small bureaucracy of clerks, a large debt, worthless paper money, and no power to establish taxes. He had the task of assembling an executive department and relied on Tobias Lear for advice selecting its officers. Great Britain refused to relinquish its forts in the American West, and Barbary pirates preyed on American merchant ships in the Mediterranean at a time when the United States did not even have a navy.\n\n\n=== Cabinet and executive departments ===\n\nCongress created executive departments in 1789, including the State Department in July, the Department of War in August, and the Treasury Department in September. Washington appointed fellow Virginian Edmund Randolph as Attorney General, Samuel Osgood as Postmaster General, Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State, and Henry Knox as Secretary of War. Finally, he appointed Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury. Washington's cabinet became a consulting and advisory body, not mandated by the Constitution.Washington's cabinet members formed rival parties with sharply opposing views, most fiercely illustrated between Hamilton and Jefferson. Washington restricted cabinet discussions to topics of his choosing, without participating in the debate. He occasionally requested cabinet opinions in writing and expected department heads to agreeably carry out his decisions.\n\n\n=== Domestic issues ===\nWashington was apolitical and opposed the formation of parties, suspecting that conflict would undermine republicanism. His closest advisors formed two factions, portending the First Party System. Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton formed the Federalist Party to promote the national credit and a financially powerful nation. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson opposed Hamilton's agenda and founded the Jeffersonian Republicans. Washington favored Hamilton's agenda, however, and it ultimately went into effect\u2014resulting in bitter controversy.Washington proclaimed November 26 as a day of Thanksgiving to encourage national unity. \"It is the duty of all nations to acknowledge the providence of Almighty God, to obey His will, to be grateful for His benefits, and humbly to implore His protection and favor.\" He spent that day fasting and visiting debtors in prison to provide them with food and beer.In response to two antislavery petitions, Georgia and South Carolina objected and were threatening to \"blow the trumpet of civil war\". Washington and Congress responded with a series of pro-slavery measures: citizenship was denied to black immigrants; slaves were barred from serving in state militias; two more slave states (Kentucky in 1792, Tennessee in 1796) were admitted; and the continuation of slavery in federal territories south of the Ohio River was guaranteed. On February 12, 1793, Washington signed into law the Fugitive Slave Act, which overrode state laws and courts, allowing agents to cross state lines to capture and return escaped slaves. Many in the north decried the law believing the act allowed bounty hunting and the kidnappings of blacks. The Slave Trade Act of 1794, sharply limiting American involvement in the Atlantic slave trade, was also enacted.\n\n\n==== National Bank ====\n\nWashington's first term was largely devoted to economic concerns, in which Hamilton had devised various plans to address matters. The establishment of public credit became a primary challenge for the federal government. Hamilton submitted a report to a deadlocked Congress, and he, Madison, and Jefferson reached the Compromise of 1790 in which Jefferson agreed to Hamilton's debt proposals in exchange for moving the nation's capital temporarily to Philadelphia and then south near Georgetown on the Potomac River. The terms were legislated in the Funding Act of 1790 and the Residence Act, both of which Washington signed into law. Congress authorized the assumption and payment of the nation's debts, with funding provided by customs duties and excise taxes.Hamilton created controversy among Cabinet members by advocating establishing the First Bank of the United States. Madison and Jefferson objected, but the bank easily passed Congress. Jefferson and Randolph insisted that the new bank was beyond the authority granted by the constitution, as Hamilton believed. Washington sided with Hamilton and signed the legislation on February 25, and the rift became openly hostile between Hamilton and Jefferson.The nation's first financial crisis occurred in March 1792. Hamilton's Federalists exploited large loans to gain control of U.S. debt securities, causing a run on the national bank; the markets returned to normal by mid-April. Jefferson believed Hamilton was part of the scheme, despite Hamilton's efforts to ameliorate, and Washington again found himself in the middle of a feud.\n\n\n==== Jefferson\u2013Hamilton feud ====\n\nJefferson and Hamilton adopted diametrically opposed political principles. Hamilton believed in a strong national government requiring a national bank and foreign loans to function, while Jefferson believed the states and the farm element should primarily direct the government; he also resented the idea of banks and foreign loans. To Washington's dismay, the two men persistently entered into disputes and infighting. Hamilton demanded that Jefferson resign if he could not support Washington, and Jefferson told Washington that Hamilton's fiscal system would lead to the overthrow of the Republic. Washington urged them to call a truce for the nation's sake, but they ignored him.Washington reversed his decision to retire after his first term to minimize party strife, but the feud continued after his re-election. Jefferson's political actions, his support of Freneau's National Gazette, and his attempt to undermine Hamilton nearly led Washington to dismiss him from the cabinet; Jefferson ultimately resigned his position in December 1793, and Washington forsook him from that time on.The feud led to the well-defined Federalist and Republican parties, and party affiliation became necessary for election to Congress by 1794. Washington remained aloof from congressional attacks on Hamilton, but he did not publicly protect him, either. The Hamilton\u2013Reynolds sex scandal opened Hamilton to disgrace, but Washington continued to hold him in \"very high esteem\" as the dominant force in establishing federal law and government.\n\n\n==== Whiskey Rebellion ====\nIn March 1791, at Hamilton's urging, with support from Madison, Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits to help curtail the national debt, which took effect in July. Grain farmers strongly protested in Pennsylvania's frontier districts; they argued that they were unrepresented and were shouldering too much of the debt, comparing their situation to excessive British taxation before the Revolutionary War. On August 2, Washington assembled his cabinet to discuss how to deal with the situation. Unlike Washington, who had reservations about using force, Hamilton had long waited for such a situation and was eager to suppress the rebellion by using federal authority and force. Not wanting to involve the federal government if possible, Washington called on Pennsylvania state officials to take the initiative, but they declined to take military action. On August 7, Washington issued his first proclamation for calling up state militias. After appealing for peace, he reminded the protestors that, unlike the rule of the British crown, the Federal law was issued by state-elected representatives.Threats and violence against tax collectors, however, escalated into defiance against federal authority in 1794 and gave rise to the Whiskey Rebellion. Washington issued a final proclamation on September 25, threatening the use of military force to no avail. The federal army was not up to the task, so Washington invoked the Militia Act of 1792 to summon state militias. Governors sent troops, initially commanded by Washington, who gave the command to Light-Horse Harry Lee to lead them into the rebellious districts. They took 150 prisoners, and the remaining rebels dispersed without further fighting. Two of the prisoners were condemned to death, but Washington exercised his Constitutional authority for the first time and pardoned them.Washington's forceful action demonstrated that the new government could protect itself and its tax collectors. This represented the first use of federal military force against the states and citizens, and remains the only time an incumbent president has commanded troops in the field. Washington justified his action against \"certain self-created societies\", which he regarded as \"subversive organizations\" that threatened the national union. He did not dispute their right to protest, but he insisted that their dissent must not violate federal law. Congress agreed and extended their congratulations to him; only Madison and Jefferson expressed indifference.\n\n\n=== Foreign affairs ===\n\nIn April 1792, the French Revolutionary Wars began between Great Britain and France, and Washington declared America's neutrality. The revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Citizen Gen\u00eat to America, and he was welcomed with great enthusiasm. He created a network of new Democratic-Republican Societies promoting France's interests, but Washington denounced them and demanded that the French recall Gen\u00eat. The National Assembly of France granted Washington honorary French citizenship on August 26, 1792, during the early stages of the French Revolution. Hamilton formulated the Jay Treaty to normalize trade relations with Great Britain while removing them from western forts, and also to resolve financial debts remaining from the Revolution. Chief Justice John Jay acted as Washington's negotiator and signed the treaty on November 19, 1794; critical Jeffersonians, however, supported France. Washington deliberated, then supported the treaty because it avoided war with Britain, but was disappointed that its provisions favored Britain. He mobilized public opinion and secured ratification in the Senate but faced frequent public criticism.The British agreed to abandon their forts around the Great Lakes, and the United States modified the boundary with Canada. The government liquidated numerous pre-Revolutionary debts, and the British opened the British West Indies to American trade. The treaty secured peace with Britain and a decade of prosperous trade. Jefferson claimed that it angered France and \"invited rather than avoided\" war. Relations with France deteriorated afterward, leaving succeeding president John Adams with prospective war. James Monroe was the American Minister to France, but Washington recalled him for his opposition to the Treaty. The French refused to accept his replacement Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and the French Directory declared the authority to seize American ships two days before Washington's term ended. \n\n\n=== Native American affairs ===\n\nRon Chernow describes Washington as always trying to be even-handed in dealing with the Natives. He states that Washington hoped they would abandon their itinerant hunting life and adapt to fixed agricultural communities in the manner of white settlers. He also maintains that Washington never advocated outright confiscation of tribal land or the forcible removal of tribes and that he berated American settlers who abused natives, admitting that he held out no hope for pacific relations with the natives as long as \"frontier settlers entertain the opinion that there is not the same crime (or indeed no crime at all) in killing a native as in killing a white man.\"By contrast, Colin G. Calloway writes that \"Washington had a lifelong obsession with getting Indian land, either for himself or for his nation, and initiated policies and campaigns that had devastating effects in Indian country.\" \"The growth of the nation,\" Galloway has stated, \"demanded the dispossession of Indian people. Washington hoped the process could be bloodless and that Indian people would give up their lands for a \"fair\" price and move away. But if Indians refused and resisted, as they often did, he felt he had no choice but to \"extirpate\" them and that the expeditions he sent to destroy Indian towns were therefore entirely justified.\"During the Fall of 1789, Washington had to contend with the British refusing to evacuate their forts in the Northwest frontier and their concerted efforts to incite hostile Indian tribes to attack American settlers. The Northwest tribes under Miami chief Little Turtle allied with the British Army to resist American expansion, and killed 1,500 settlers between 1783 and 1790.Washington decided that \"The Government of the United States are determined that their Administration of Indian Affairs shall be directed entirely by the great principles of Justice and humanity\", and provided that treaties should negotiate their land interests. The administration regarded powerful tribes as foreign nations, and Washington even smoked a peace pipe and drank wine with them at the Philadelphia presidential house. He made numerous attempts to conciliate them; he equated killing indigenous peoples with killing whites and sought to integrate them into European-American culture. Secretary of War Henry Knox also attempted to encourage agriculture among the tribes.In the Southwest, negotiations failed between federal commissioners and raiding Indian tribes seeking retribution. Washington invited Creek Chief Alexander McGillivray and 24 leading chiefs to New York to negotiate a treaty and treated them like foreign dignitaries. Knox and McGillivray concluded the Treaty of New York on August 7, 1790, in Federal Hall, which provided the tribes with agricultural supplies and McGillivray with a rank of Brigadier General Army and a salary of $1,500.\n\nIn 1790, Washington sent Brigadier General Josiah Harmar to pacify the Northwest tribes, but Little Turtle routed him twice and forced him to withdraw. The Western Confederacy of tribes used guerrilla tactics and were an effective force against the sparsely manned American Army. Washington sent Major General Arthur St. Clair from Fort Washington on an expedition to restore peace in the territory in 1791. On November 4, St. Clair's forces were ambushed and soundly defeated by tribal forces with few survivors, despite Washington's warning of surprise attacks. Washington was outraged over what he viewed to be excessive Native American brutality and execution of captives, including women and children.St. Clair resigned his commission, and Washington replaced him with the Revolutionary War hero General Anthony Wayne. From 1792 to 1793, Wayne instructed his troops on Native American warfare tactics and instilled discipline which was lacking under St. Clair. In August 1794, Washington sent Wayne into tribal territory with authority to drive them out by burning their villages and crops in the Maumee Valley. On August 24, the American army under Wayne's leadership defeated the western confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, and the Treaty of Greenville in August 1795 opened up two-thirds of the Ohio Country for American settlement.\n\n\n=== Second term ===\nOriginally Washington had planned to retire after his first term, while many Americans could not imagine anyone else taking his place. After nearly four years as president, and dealing with the infighting in his own cabinet and with partisan critics, Washington showed little enthusiasm in running for a second term, while Martha also wanted him not to run. James Madison urged him not to retire, that his absence would only allow the dangerous political rift in his cabinet and the House, to worsen. Jefferson also pleaded with him not to retire and agreed to drop his attacks on Hamilton, or he would also retire if Washington did. Hamilton maintained that Washington's absence would be \"deplored as the greatest evil\" to the country at this time. Washington's close nephew George Augustine Washington, his manager at Mount Vernon, was critically ill and had to be replaced, further increasing Washington's desire to retire and return to Mount Vernon.When the election of 1792 neared, Washington did not publicly announce his presidential candidacy. Still, he silently consented to run to prevent a further political-personal rift in his cabinet. The Electoral College unanimously elected him president on February 13, 1793, and John Adams as vice president by a vote of 77 to 50. Washington, with nominal fanfare, arrived alone at his inauguration in his carriage. Sworn into office by Associate Justice William Cushing on March 4, 1793, in the Senate Chamber of Congress Hall in Philadelphia, Washington gave a brief address and then immediately retired to his Philadelphia presidential house, weary of office and in poor health.\n\nOn April 22, 1793, during the French Revolution, Washington issued his famous Neutrality Proclamation and was resolved to pursue \"a conduct friendly and impartial toward the belligerent Powers\" while he warned Americans not to intervene in the international conflict.  Although Washington recognized France's revolutionary government, he would eventually ask French minister to America Citizen Gen\u00eat be recalled over the Citizen Gen\u00eat Affair. Gen\u00eat was a diplomatic troublemaker who was openly hostile toward Washington's neutrality policy. He procured four American ships as privateers to strike at Spanish forces (British allies) in Florida while organizing militias to strike at other British possessions. However, his efforts failed to draw America into the foreign campaigns during Washington's presidency. On July 31, 1793 Jefferson submitted his resignation from Washington's cabinet. Washington signed the Naval Act of 1794 and commissioned the first six federal frigates to combat Barbary pirates.In January 1795, Hamilton, who desired more income for his family, resigned office and was replaced by Washington appointment Oliver Wolcott, Jr.. Washington and Hamilton remained friends. However, Washington's relationship with his Secretary of War Henry Knox deteriorated. Knox resigned office on the rumor he profited from construction contracts on U.S. Frigates.In the final months of his presidency, Washington was assailed by his political foes and a partisan press who accused him of being ambitious and greedy, while he argued that he had taken no salary during the war and had risked his life in battle. He regarded the press as a disuniting, \"diabolical\" force of falsehoods, sentiments that he expressed in his Farewell Address. At the end of his second term, Washington retired for personal and political reasons, dismayed with personal attacks, and to ensure that a truly contested presidential election could be held. He did not feel bound to a two-term limit, but his retirement set a significant precedent. Washington is often credited with setting the principle of a two-term presidency, but it was Thomas Jefferson who first refused to run for a third term on political grounds.\n\n\n=== Farewell Address ===\n\nIn 1796, Washington declined to run for a third term of office, believing his death in office would create an image of a lifetime appointment. The precedent of a two-term limit was created by his retirement from office. In May 1792, in anticipation of his retirement, Washington instructed James Madison to prepare a \"valedictory address\", an initial draft of which was entitled the \"Farewell Address\". In May 1796, Washington sent the manuscript to his Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton who did an extensive rewrite, while Washington provided final edits. On September 19, 1796, David Claypoole's American Daily Advertiser published the final version of the address.Washington stressed that national identity was paramount, while a united America would safeguard freedom and prosperity. He warned the nation of three eminent dangers: regionalism, partisanship, and foreign entanglements, and said the \"name of AMERICAN, which belongs to you, in your national capacity, must always exalt the just pride of patriotism, more than any appellation derived from local discriminations.\" Washington called for men to move beyond partisanship for the common good, stressing that the United States must concentrate on its own interests. He warned against foreign alliances and their influence in domestic affairs, and bitter partisanship and the dangers of political parties. He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, but advised against involvement in European wars. He stressed the importance of religion, asserting that \"religion and morality are indispensable supports\" in a republic. Washington's address favored Hamilton's Federalist ideology and economic policies.Washington closed the address by reflecting on his legacy:\n\nThough in reviewing the incidents of my Administration I am unconscious of intentional error, I am nevertheless too sensible of my defects not to think it probable that I may have committed many errors. Whatever they may be, I fervently beseech the Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend. I shall also carry with me the hope that my country will never cease to view them with indulgence, and that, after forty-five years of my life dedicated to its service with an upright zeal, the faults of incompetent abilities will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must soon be to the mansions of rest.\nAfter initial publication, many Republicans, including Madison, criticized the Address and believed it was an anti-French campaign document. Madison believed Washington was strongly pro-British. Madison also was suspicious of who authored the Address.In 1839, Washington biographer Jared Sparks maintained that Washington's \"... Farewell Address was printed and published with the laws, by order of the legislatures, as an evidence of the value they attached to its political precepts, and of their affection for its author.\" In 1972, Washington scholar James Flexner referred to the Farewell Address as receiving as much acclaim as Thomas Jefferson's Declaration of Independence and Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. In 2010, historian Ron Chernow reported the Farewell Address proved to be one of the most influential statements on Republicanism.\n\n\n== Retirement (1797\u20131799) ==\n\nWashington retired to Mount Vernon in March 1797 and devoted time to his plantations and other business interests, including his distillery. His plantation operations were only minimally profitable, and his lands in the west (Piedmont) were under Indian attacks and yielded little income, with the squatters there refusing to pay rent. He attempted to sell these but without success. He became an even more committed Federalist. He vocally supported the Alien and Sedition Acts and convinced Federalist John Marshall to run for Congress to weaken the Jeffersonian hold on Virginia.Washington grew restless in retirement, prompted by tensions with France, and he wrote to Secretary of War James McHenry offering to organize President Adams' army. In a continuation of the French Revolutionary Wars, French privateers began seizing American ships in 1798, and relations deteriorated with France and led to the \"Quasi-War\". Without consulting Washington, Adams nominated him for a lieutenant general commission on July 4, 1798, and the position of commander-in-chief of the armies. Washington chose to accept, replacing James Wilkinson, and he served as the commanding general from July 13, 1798 until his death 17 months later. He participated in planning for a provisional army, but he avoided involvement in details. In advising McHenry of potential officers for the army, he appeared to make a complete break with Jefferson's Democratic-Republicans: \"you could as soon scrub the blackamoor white, as to change the principles of a profest Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the government of this country.\" Washington delegated the active leadership of the army to Hamilton, a major general. No army invaded the United States during this period, and Washington did not assume a field command.Washington was thought to be rich because of the well-known \"glorified fa\u00e7ade of wealth and grandeur\" at Mount Vernon, but nearly all his wealth was in the form of land and slaves rather than ready cash. To supplement his income, he erected a distillery for substantial whiskey production. Historians estimate that the estate was worth about $1 million in 1799 dollars, equivalent to $15,249,000 in 2020. He bought land parcels to spur development around the new Federal City named in his honor, and he sold individual lots to middle-income investors rather than multiple lots to large investors, believing they would more likely commit to making improvements.\n\n\n=== Final days and death ===\n\nOn December 12, 1799, Washington inspected his farms on horseback. The weather was snowing with sleet. He returned home late for dinner. Washington kept his wet clothes on, not wanting to keep his guests waiting. He had a sore throat the next day. The weather was freezing and snowy. Washington marked trees for cutting. That evening, he complained of chest congestion but was still cheerful. On Saturday, he awoke to an inflamed throat and difficulty breathing, so he ordered estate overseer George Rawlins to remove nearly a pint of his blood, bloodletting being a common practice of the time. His family summoned Doctors James Craik, Gustavus Richard Brown, and Elisha C. Dick. (Dr. William Thornton arrived some hours after Washington died.)Dr. Brown thought Washington had quinsy; Dr. Dick thought the condition was a more serious \"violent inflammation of the throat\". They continued the process of bloodletting to approximately five pints, and Washington's condition deteriorated further. Dr. Dick proposed a tracheotomy, but the others were not familiar with that procedure and therefore disapproved. Washington instructed Brown and Dick to leave the room, while he assured Craik, \"Doctor, I die hard, but I am not afraid to go.\"Washington's death came more swiftly than expected. On his deathbed, he instructed his private secretary Tobias Lear to wait three days before his burial, out of fear of being entombed alive. According to Lear, he died peacefully between 10 and 11 p.m. on December 14, 1799, with Martha seated at the foot of his bed. His last words were \"'Tis well\", from his conversation with Lear about his burial. He was 67.\n\nCongress immediately adjourned for the day upon news of Washington's death, and the Speaker's chair was shrouded in black the next morning. The funeral was held four days after his death on December 18, 1799, at Mount Vernon, where his body was interred. Cavalry and foot soldiers led the procession, and six colonels served as the pallbearers. The Mount Vernon funeral service was restricted mostly to family and friends. Reverend Thomas Davis read the funeral service by the vault with a brief address, followed by a ceremony performed by various members of Washington's Masonic lodge in Alexandria, Virginia. Congress chose Light-Horse Harry Lee to deliver the eulogy. Word of his death traveled slowly; church bells rang in the cities, and many places of business closed. People worldwide admired Washington and were saddened by his death, and memorial processions were held in major cities of the United States. Martha wore a black mourning cape for one year, and she burned their correspondence to protect their privacy. Only five letters between the couple are known to have survived: two from Martha to George and three from him to her.The diagnosis of Washington's illness and the immediate cause of his death have been subjects of debate since the day he died. The published account of Drs. Craik and Brown stated that his symptoms had been consistent with cynanche trachealis (tracheal inflammation), a term of that period used to describe severe inflammation of the upper windpipe, including quinsy. Accusations have persisted since Washington's death concerning medical malpractice, with some believing he had been bled to death. Various modern medical authors have speculated that he died from a severe case of epiglottitis complicated by the given treatments, most notably the massive blood loss which almost certainly caused hypovolemic shock.\n\n\n== Burial, net worth, and aftermath ==\n\nWashington was buried in the old Washington family vault at Mount Vernon, situated on a grassy slope overspread with willow, juniper, cypress, and chestnut trees. It contained the remains of his brother Lawrence and other family members, but the decrepit brick vault needed repair, prompting Washington to leave instructions in his will for the construction of a new vault. Washington's estate at the time of his death was worth an estimated $780,000 in 1799, approximately equivalent to $14.3 million in 2010. Washington's peak net worth was $587.0 million, including his 300 slaves.In 1830, a disgruntled ex-employee of the estate attempted to steal what he thought was Washington's skull, prompting the construction of a more secure vault. The next year, the new vault was constructed at Mount Vernon to receive the remains of George and Martha and other relatives. In 1832, a joint Congressional committee debated moving his body from Mount Vernon to a crypt in the Capitol. The crypt had been built by architect Charles Bulfinch in the 1820s during the reconstruction of the burned-out capital, after the Burning of Washington by the British during the War of 1812. Southern opposition was intense, antagonized by an ever-growing rift between North and South; many were concerned that Washington's remains could end up on \"a shore foreign to his native soil\" if the country became divided, and Washington's remains stayed in Mount Vernon.On October 7, 1837, Washington's remains were placed, still in the original lead coffin, within a marble sarcophagus designed by William Strickland and constructed by John Struthers earlier that year. The sarcophagus was sealed and encased with planks, and an outer vault was constructed around it. The outer vault has the sarcophagi of both George and Martha Washington; the inner vault has the remains of other Washington family members and relatives.\n\n\n== Personal life ==\n\nWashington was somewhat reserved in personality, but he generally had a strong presence among others. He made speeches and announcements when required, but he was not a noted orator or debater. He was taller than most of his contemporaries; accounts of his height vary from 6 ft (1.83 m) to 6 ft 3.5 in (1.92 m) tall, he weighed between 210\u2013220 pounds (95\u2013100 kg) as an adult, and he was known for his great strength. He had grey-blue eyes and reddish-brown hair which he wore powdered in the fashion of the day. He had a rugged and dominating presence, which garnered respect from his peers.\nWashington frequently suffered from severe tooth decay and ultimately lost all his teeth but one. He had several sets of false teeth made, which he wore during his presidency\u2014none of which was made of wood, contrary to common lore. These dental problems left him in constant pain, for which he took laudanum. As a public figure, he relied upon the strict confidence of his dentist.Washington was a talented equestrian early in life. He collected thoroughbreds at Mount Vernon, and his two favorite horses were Blueskin and Nelson. Fellow Virginian Thomas Jefferson said Washington was \"the best horseman of his age and the most graceful figure that could be seen on horseback\"; he also hunted foxes, deer, ducks, and other game. He was an excellent dancer and attended the theater frequently. He drank in moderation but was morally opposed to excessive drinking, smoking tobacco, gambling, and profanity.\n\n\n=== Religion and Freemasonry ===\n\nWashington was descended from Anglican minister Lawrence Washington (his great-great-grandfather), whose troubles with the Church of England may have prompted his heirs to emigrate to America. Washington was baptized as an infant in April 1732 and became a devoted member of the Church of England (the Anglican Church). He served more than 20 years as a vestryman and churchwarden for Fairfax Parish and Truro Parish, Virginia. He privately prayed and read the Bible daily, and he publicly encouraged people and the nation to pray. He may have taken communion on a regular basis prior to the Revolutionary War, but he did not do so following the war, for which he was admonished by Pastor James Abercrombie.\n\nWashington believed in a \"wise, inscrutable, and irresistible\" Creator God who was active in the Universe, contrary to deistic thought. He referred to God by the Enlightenment terms Providence, the Creator, or the Almighty, and also as the Divine Author or the Supreme Being. He believed in a divine power who watched over battlefields, was involved in the outcome of war, was protecting his life, and was involved in American politics\u2014and specifically in the creation of the United States. Modern historian Ron Chernow has posited that Washington avoided evangelistic Christianity or hellfire-and-brimstone speech along with communion and anything inclined to \"flaunt his religiosity\". Chernow has also said Washington \"never used his religion as a device for partisan purposes or in official undertakings\". No mention of Jesus Christ appears in his private correspondence, and such references are rare in his public writings. He frequently quoted from the Bible or paraphrased it, and often referred to the Anglican Book of Common Prayer. There is debate on whether he is best classed as a Christian or a theistic rationalist\u2014or both.Washington emphasized religious toleration in a nation with numerous denominations and religions. He publicly attended services of different Christian denominations and prohibited anti-Catholic celebrations in the Army. He engaged workers at Mount Vernon without regard for religious belief or affiliation. While president, he acknowledged major religious sects and gave speeches on religious toleration. He was distinctly rooted in the ideas, values, and modes of thinking of the Enlightenment, but he harbored no contempt of organized Christianity and its clergy, \"being no bigot myself to any mode of worship\". In 1793, speaking to members of the New Church in Baltimore, Washington proclaimed, \"We have abundant reason to rejoice that in this Land the light of truth and reason has triumphed over the power of bigotry and superstition.\"Freemasonry was a widely accepted institution in the late 18th century, known for advocating moral teachings. Washington was attracted to the Masons' dedication to the Enlightenment principles of rationality, reason, and brotherhood. The American Masonic lodges did not share the anti-clerical perspective of the controversial European lodges. A Masonic lodge was established in Fredericksburg in September 1752, and Washington was initiated two months later at the age of 20 as one of its first Entered Apprentices. Within a year, he progressed through its ranks to become a Master Mason. Washington had high regard for the Masonic Order, but his personal lodge attendance was sporadic. In 1777, a convention of Virginia lodges asked him to be the Grand Master of the newly established Grand Lodge of Virginia, but he declined due to his commitments leading the Continental Army. After 1782, he frequently corresponded with Masonic lodges and members, and he was listed as Master in the Virginia charter of Alexandria Lodge No. 22 in 1788.\n\n\n== Slavery ==\n\nIn Washington's lifetime, slavery was deeply ingrained in the economic and social fabric of Virginia. Slavery was protected by law in all of the 13 colonies up until the American Revolutionary War.Washington owned and worked African slaves his entire adult life. He acquired them through inheritance, gained control of eighty-four dower slaves on his marriage to Martha, and purchased at least seventy-one slaves between 1752 and 1773. His early views on slavery were no different from any Virginia planter of the time. He demonstrated no moral qualms about the institution and referred to his slaves as \"a Species of Property\". From the 1760s his attitudes underwent a slow evolution. The first doubts were prompted by his transition from tobacco to grain crops, which left him with a costly surplus of slaves, causing him to question the system's economic efficiency. His growing disillusionment with the institution was spurred by the principles of the American Revolution and revolutionary friends such as Lafayette and Hamilton. Most historians agree the Revolution was central to the evolution of Washington's attitudes on slavery; \"After 1783\", Kenneth Morgan writes, \"...[Washington] began to express inner tensions about the problem of slavery more frequently, though always in private...\"The many contemporary reports of slave treatment at Mount Vernon are varied and conflicting. Historian Kenneth Morgan (2000) maintains that Washington was frugal on spending for clothes and bedding for his slaves, and only provided them with just enough food, and that he maintained strict control over his slaves, instructing his overseers to keep them working hard from dawn to dusk year-round.  However, historian Dorothy Twohig (2001) said: \"Food, clothing, and housing seem to have been at least adequate\". Washington faced growing debts involved with the costs of supporting slaves. He held an \"ingrained sense of racial superiority\" over African Americans but harbored no ill feelings toward them.Some slave families worked at different locations on the plantation but were allowed to visit one another on their days off. Washington's slaves received two hours off for meals during the workday, and given time off on Sundays and religious holidays. Washington frequently cared for ill or injured slaves personally, and he provided physicians and midwives and had his slaves inoculated for smallpox. In May 1796, Martha's personal and favorite slave Ona Judge escaped to Portsmouth. At Martha's behest, Washington attempted to capture Ona, using a Treasury agent, but this effort failed. In February 1797, Washington's personal slave Hercules escaped to Philadelphia and was never found.Some accounts report that Washington opposed flogging but at times sanctioned its use, generally as a last resort, on both men and women slaves. Washington used both reward and punishment to encourage discipline and productivity in his slaves. He tried appealing to an individual's sense of pride, gave better blankets and clothing to the \"most deserving\", and motivated his slaves with cash rewards. He believed \"watchfulness and admonition\" to be often better deterrents against transgressions but would punish those who \"will not do their duty by fair means\". Punishment ranged in severity from demotion back to fieldwork, through whipping and beatings, to permanent separation from friends and family by sale. Historian Ron Chernow maintains that overseers were required to warn slaves before resorting to the lash and required Washington's written permission before whipping, though his extended absences did not always permit this. Washington remained dependent on slave labor to work his farms and negotiated the purchase of more slaves in 1786 and 1787.In February 1786, Washington took a census of Mount Vernon and recorded 224 slaves.\nBy 1799, slaves at Mount Vernon totaled 317, including 143 children. Washington owned 124 slaves, leased 40, and held 153 for his wife's dower interest. Washington supported many slaves who were too young or too old to work, greatly increasing Mount Vernon's slave population and causing the plantation to operate at a loss.\n\n\n=== Abolition and emancipation ===\n\nBased on his letters, diary, documents, accounts from colleagues, employees, friends, and visitors, Washington slowly developed a cautious sympathy toward abolitionism that eventually ended with the emancipation of his own slaves. As president, he kept publicly silent on slavery, believing it was a nationally divisive issue that could destroy the union.During the American Revolutionary War, Washington began to change his views on slavery. In a 1778 letter to Lund Washington, he made clear his desire \"to get quit of Negroes\" when discussing the exchange of slaves for land he wanted to buy. The next year, he stated his intention not to separate families as a result of \"a change of masters\". During the 1780s, Washington privately expressed his support for the gradual emancipation of slaves. Between 1783 and 1786, he gave moral support to a plan proposed by Lafayette to purchase land and free slaves to work on it, but declined to participate in the experiment. Washington privately expressed support for emancipation to prominent Methodists Thomas Coke and Francis Asbury in 1785 but declined to sign their petition. In personal correspondence the next year, he made clear his desire to see the institution of slavery ended by a gradual legislative process, a view that correlated with the mainstream antislavery literature published in the 1780s that Washington possessed. He significantly reduced his purchases of slaves after the war but continued to acquire them in small numbers.\n\nIn 1788, Washington declined a suggestion from a leading French abolitionist, Jacques Brissot, to establish an abolitionist society in Virginia, stating that although he supported the idea, the time was not yet right to confront the issue. The historian Henry Wiencek (2003) believes, based on a remark that appears in the notebook of his biographer David Humphreys, that Washington considered making a public statement by freeing his slaves on the eve of his presidency in 1789. The historian Philip D. Morgan (2005) disagrees, believing the remark was a \"private expression of remorse\" at his inability to free his slaves. Other historians agree with Morgan that Washington was determined not to risk national unity over an issue as divisive as slavery. Washington never responded to any of the antislavery petitions he received, and the subject was not mentioned in either his last address to Congress or his Farewell Address.The first clear indication that Washington seriously intended to free his slaves appears in a letter written to his secretary, Tobias Lear, in 1794. Washington instructed Lear to find buyers for his land in western Virginia, explaining in a private coda that he was doing so \"to liberate a certain species of property which I possess, very repugnantly to my own feelings\". The plan, along with others Washington considered in 1795 and 1796, could not be realized because he failed to find buyers for his land, his reluctance to break up slave families, and the refusal of the Custis heirs to help prevent such separations by freeing their dower slaves at the same time.On July 9, 1799, Washington finished making his last will; the longest provision concerned slavery. All his slaves were to be freed after the death of his wife, Martha. Washington said he did not free them immediately because his slaves intermarried with his wife's dower slaves. He forbade their sale or transportation out of Virginia. His will provided that old and young freed people be taken care of indefinitely; younger ones were to be taught to read and write and placed in suitable occupations. Washington freed more than 160 slaves, including 25 he had acquired from his wife's brother in payment of a debt freed by graduation. He was among the few large slave-holding Virginians during the Revolutionary Era who emancipated their slaves.On January 1, 1801, one year after George Washington's death, Martha Washington signed an order freeing his slaves. Many of them, having never strayed far from Mount Vernon, were naturally reluctant to try their luck elsewhere; others refused to abandon spouses or children still held as dower slaves (the Custis estate) and also stayed with or near Martha. Following George Washington's instructions in his will, funds were used to feed and clothe the young, aged, and sickly slaves until the early 1830s.\n\n\n== Historical reputation and legacy ==\n\nWashington's legacy endures as one of the most influential in American history since he served as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, a hero of the Revolution, and the first president of the United States. Various historians maintain that he also was a dominant factor in America's founding, the Revolutionary War, and the Constitutional Convention. Revolutionary War comrade Light-Horse Harry Lee eulogized him as \"First in war\u2014first in peace\u2014and first in the hearts of his countrymen\". Lee's words became the hallmark by which Washington's reputation was impressed upon the American memory, with some biographers regarding him as the great exemplar of republicanism. He set many precedents for the national government and the presidency in particular, and he was called the \"Father of His Country\" as early as 1778.In 1885, Congress proclaimed Washington's birthday to be a federal holiday. Twentieth-century biographer Douglas Southall Freeman concluded, \"The great big thing stamped across that man is character.\" Modern historian David Hackett Fischer has expanded upon Freeman's assessment, defining Washington's character as \"integrity, self-discipline, courage, absolute honesty, resolve, and decision, but also forbearance, decency, and respect for others\".\n\nWashington became an international symbol for liberation and nationalism as the leader of the first successful revolution against a colonial empire. The Federalists made him the symbol of their party, but the Jeffersonians continued to distrust his influence for many years and delayed building the Washington Monument. Washington was elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences on January 31, 1781, before he had even begun his presidency. He was posthumously appointed to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States during the United States Bicentennial to ensure he would never be outranked; this was accomplished by the congressional joint resolution Public Law 94-479 passed on January 19, 1976, with an effective appointment date of July 4, 1976. On March 13, 1978, Washington was militarily promoted to the rank of General of the Armies.Parson Weems wrote a hagiographic biography in 1809 to honor Washington. Historian Ron Chernow maintains that Weems attempted to humanize Washington, making him look less stern, and to inspire \"patriotism and morality\" and to foster \"enduring myths\", such as Washington's refusal to lie about damaging his father's cherry tree. Weems' accounts have never been proven or disproven. Historian John Ferling, however, maintains that Washington remains the only founder and president ever to be referred to as \"godlike\", and points out that his character has been the most scrutinized by historians, past and present. Historian Gordon S. Wood concludes that \"the greatest act of his life, the one that gave him his greatest fame, was his resignation as commander-in-chief of the American forces.\" Chernow suggests that Washington was \"burdened by public life\" and divided by \"unacknowledged ambition mingled with self-doubt\". A 1993 review of presidential polls and surveys consistently ranked Washington number 4, 3, or 2 among presidents. A 2018 Siena College Research Institute survey ranked him number 1 among presidents.\n\n\n=== Memorials ===\n\nJared Sparks began collecting and publishing Washington's documentary record in the 1830s in Life and Writings of George Washington (12 vols., 1834\u20131837). The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745\u20131799 (1931\u20131944) is a 39-volume set edited by John Clement Fitzpatrick, whom the George Washington Bicentennial Commission commissioned. It contains more than 17,000 letters and documents and is available online from the University of Virginia.\n\n\n==== Universities ====\n\nNumerous universities, including George Washington University and Washington University in St. Louis, were named in honor of Washington.\n\n\n==== Places and monuments ====\n\nMany places and monuments have been named in honor of Washington, most notably the capital of the United States, Washington, D.C. The state of Washington is the only US state to be named after a president.\n\n\n==== Currency and postage ====\n\nGeorge Washington appears on contemporary U.S. currency, including the one-dollar bill, the Presidential one-dollar coin and the quarter-dollar coin (the Washington quarter). Washington and Benjamin Franklin appeared on the nation's first postage stamps in 1847. Washington has since appeared on many postage issues, more than any other person.\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nBritish Army during the American Revolutionary War\nList of American Revolutionary War battles\nList of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War\nTimeline of the American Revolution\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nElliot, Jonathan, ed. (1827). The Debates, Resolutions, and Other Proceedings, in Convention, on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution, Volumes 1\u20135. Published by editor. (Volume 1: Containing the debates in Massachusetts and New York)\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nCopies of the wills of General George Washington: the first president of the United States and of Martha Washington, his wife (1904), edited by E. R. Holbrook\nGeorge Washington Personal Manuscripts\nGeorge Washington Resources at the University of Virginia Library\nGeorge Washington's Speeches: Quote-search-tool\nOriginal Digitized Letters of George Washington Shapell Manuscript Foundation\nThe Papers of George Washington, subset of Founders Online from the National Archives\nWorks by George Washington at Project Gutenberg\nWashington & the American Revolution, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Carol Berkin, Simon Middleton & Colin Bonwick (In Our Time, June 24, 2004)\nWorks by George Washington at Biodiversity Heritage Library \nGuide to the George Washington Collection 1776\u20131792 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/1819_Passage_OfThe_Delaware_byThomasSully_MFABoston.jpeg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/2006_Quarter_Proof.png", 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"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/P_vip.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Red_Jacket_2.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/The_Capture_of_the_Hessians_at_Trenton_December_26_1776.jpeg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Washington_Monument_Dusk_Jan_2006.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"], "summary": "George Washington (February 22, 1732 \u2013 December 14, 1799) was an American political leader, military general, statesman, and Founding Father of the United States, who served as the first president of the United States from 1789 to 1797. Washington led the Patriot forces to victory in the American Revolutionary War, and presided at the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which established the Constitution of the United States and a federal government for the United States. Washington has been called the \"Father of the Nation\" for his manifold leadership in the formative days of the country.\nWashington's first public office was serving as official Surveyor of Culpeper County, Virginia from 1749 to 1750. Subsequently, he received his initial military training (as well as a command with the Virginia Regiment) during the French and Indian War. He was later elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses and was named a delegate to the Continental Congress. Here he was appointed Commanding General of the Continental Army. With this title, he commanded American forces (allied with France) in the defeat and surrender of the British at the Siege of Yorktown during the American Revolutionary War. He resigned his commission after the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783.\nWashington played an indispensable role in adopting and ratifying the Constitution of the United States. He was then twice elected president by the Electoral College. He implemented a strong, well-financed national government while remaining impartial in a fierce rivalry between cabinet members Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. During the French Revolution, he proclaimed a policy of neutrality while sanctioning the Jay Treaty. He set enduring precedents for the office of president, including the title \"Mr. President\", and his Farewell Address is widely regarded as a pre-eminent statement on republicanism.\nWashington owned slaves, and, to preserve national unity, he supported measures passed by Congress to protect slavery. He later became troubled with the institution of slavery and freed his slaves in a 1799 will. He endeavored to assimilate Native Americans into the Anglo-American culture but combated indigenous resistance during instances of violent conflict. He was a member of the Anglican Church and the Freemasons, and he urged broad religious freedom in his roles as general and president. Upon his death, he was eulogized as \"first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen\". He has been memorialized by monuments, art, geographical locations, including the national capital, stamps, and currency, and many scholars and polls rank him among the greatest U.S. presidents. On March 13, 1978, Washington was militarily ranked General of the Armies, an honor that has only been awarded twice in the history of the United States."}, "Tangent": {"links": ["", "History of calculus", "Rolle's theorem", "Shell integration", "The Method of Mechanical Theorems", "Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals", "Convex geometry", "Weierstrass substitution", "Disc integration", "Second derivative test", "Term test", "Integration Bee", "Natural logarithm", "Plane ", "MathWorld", "Geometry", "Integral of the secant function", "Leibniz integral rule", "Supporting hyperplane", "Mean value theorem", "Eric W. 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differentiation", "Steinmetz solid", "Chord ", "Algebraic curve", "Circle", "ISBN ", "Secant line", "Wikisource", "Ellipse", "Implicit and explicit functions", "Euclid", "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis", "Exponential function", "Integration by substitution", "Limit comparison test", "Directional derivative", "Osculating circle", "Arithmetico\u2013geometric sequence", "Tangent plane ", "Distance", "Differential geometry of curves", "Sum rule in differentiation", "Parametric equation", "seventeenth century", "Harmonic series ", "Euclidean space", "Extreme value theorem", "Manifold", "Straight line", "Trigonometric substitution", "Infinitesimal", "Linear equation", "Differential geometry of surfaces", "Jacobian matrix and determinant", "Leibniz", "Related rates", "Hessian matrix", "Inverse functions and differentiation", "Calculus", "Concave function", "Lists of integrals", "Parabola", "Radii", "Absolute value", "Ren\u00e9-Fran\u00e7ois de Sluse", "Archimedes", "Limit of a 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"Infinitesimal calculus", "Triangle"], "content": "In geometry, the tangent line (or simply tangent) to a plane curve at a given point is the straight line that \"just touches\" the curve at that point. Leibniz defined it as the line through a pair of infinitely close points on the curve. More precisely, a straight line is said to be a tangent of a curve y = f(x) at a point x = c if the line passes through the point (c, f(c)) on the curve and has slope f'(c), where f' is the derivative of f. A similar definition applies to space curves and curves in n-dimensional Euclidean space.\nAs it passes through the point where the tangent line and the curve meet, called the point of tangency, the tangent line is \"going in the same direction\" as the curve, and is thus the best straight-line approximation to the curve at that point.\nThe tangent line to a point on a differentiable curve can also be thought of as the graph of the affine function that best approximates the original function at the given point.Similarly, the tangent plane to a surface at a given point is the plane that \"just touches\" the surface at that point. The concept of a tangent is one of the most fundamental notions in differential geometry and has been extensively generalized; see Tangent space.\nThe word \"tangent\" comes from the Latin tangere, \"to touch\".\n\n\n== History ==\nEuclid makes several references to the tangent (\u1f10\u03c6\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7 ephaptom\u00e9n\u0113) to a circle in book III of the Elements  (c. 300 BC). In Apollonius' work Conics (c. 225 BC) he defines a tangent as being a line such that no other straight line could\nfall between it and the curve.\nArchimedes (c.\u2009 287 \u2013 c. \u2009212 BC) found the tangent to an Archimedean spiral by considering the path of a point moving along the curve.In the 1630s Fermat developed the technique of adequality to calculate tangents and other problems in analysis and used this to calculate tangents to the parabola. The technique of adequality is similar to taking the difference between \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        (\n        x\n        +\n        h\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f(x+h)}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        (\n        x\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f(x)}\n   and dividing by a power of \n  \n    \n      \n        h\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle h}\n  . Independently Descartes used his method of normals based on the observation that the radius of a circle is always normal to the circle itself.These methods led to the development of differential calculus in the 17th century. Many people contributed. Roberval discovered a general method of drawing tangents, by considering a curve as described by a moving point whose motion is the resultant of several simpler motions.Ren\u00e9-Fran\u00e7ois de Sluse and Johannes Hudde found algebraic algorithms for finding tangents. Further developments included those of John Wallis and Isaac Barrow, leading to the theory of Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz.\nAn 1828 definition of a tangent was \"a right line which touches a curve, but which when produced, does not cut it\". This old definition prevents inflection points from having any tangent. It has been dismissed and the modern definitions are equivalent to those of Leibniz, who defined the tangent line as the line through a pair of infinitely close points on the curve.\n\n\n== Tangent line to a curve ==\n\nThe intuitive notion that a tangent line \"touches\" a curve can be made more explicit by considering the sequence of straight lines (secant lines) passing through two points, A and B, those that lie on the function curve. The tangent at A is the limit when point B approximates or tends to A. The existence and uniqueness of the tangent line depends on a certain type of mathematical smoothness, known as \"differentiability.\" For example, if two circular arcs meet at a sharp point (a vertex) then there is no uniquely defined tangent at the vertex because the limit of the progression of secant lines depends on the direction in which \"point B\" approaches the vertex.\nAt most points, the tangent touches the curve without crossing it (though it may, when continued, cross the curve at other places away from the point of tangent). A point where the tangent (at this point) crosses the curve is called an inflection point. Circles, parabolas, hyperbolas and ellipses do not have any inflection point, but more complicated curves do have, like the graph of a cubic function, which has exactly one inflection point, or a sinusoid, which has two inflection points per each period of the sine.\nConversely, it may happen that the curve lies entirely on one side of a straight line passing through a point on it, and yet this straight line is not a tangent line. This is the case, for example, for a line passing through the vertex of a triangle and not intersecting it otherwise\u2014where the tangent line does not exist for the reasons explained above. In convex geometry, such lines are called supporting lines.\n\n\n=== Analytical approach ===\nThe geometrical idea of the tangent line as the limit of secant lines serves as the motivation for analytical methods that are used to find tangent lines explicitly. The question of finding the tangent line to a graph, or the tangent line problem, was one of the central questions leading to the development of calculus in the 17th century. In the second book of his Geometry, Ren\u00e9 Descartes said of the problem of constructing the tangent to a curve, \"And I dare say that this is not only the most useful and most general problem in geometry that I know, but even that I have ever desired to know\".\n\n\n==== Intuitive description ====\nSuppose that a curve is given as the graph of a function, y = f(x). To find the tangent line at the point p = (a, f(a)), consider another nearby point q = (a + h, f(a + h)) on the curve. The slope of the secant line passing through p and q is equal to the difference quotient\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              f\n              (\n              a\n              +\n              h\n              )\n              \u2212\n              f\n              (\n              a\n              )\n            \n            h\n          \n        \n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {f(a+h)-f(a)}{h}}.}\n  As the point q approaches p, which corresponds to making h smaller and smaller, the difference quotient should approach a certain limiting value k, which is the slope of the tangent line at the point p. If k is known, the equation of the tangent line can be found in the point-slope form:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        y\n        \u2212\n        f\n        (\n        a\n        )\n        =\n        k\n        (\n        x\n        \u2212\n        a\n        )\n        .\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle y-f(a)=k(x-a).\\,}\n  \n\n\n==== More rigorous description ====\nTo make the preceding reasoning rigorous, one has to explain what is meant by the difference quotient approaching a certain limiting value k. The precise mathematical formulation was given by Cauchy in the 19th century and is based on the notion of limit. Suppose that the graph does not have a break or a sharp edge at p and it is neither plumb nor too wiggly near p. Then there is a unique value of k such that, as h approaches 0, the difference quotient gets closer and closer to k, and the distance between them becomes negligible compared with the size of h, if h is small enough. This leads to the definition of the slope of the tangent line to the graph as the limit of the difference quotients for the function f. This limit is the derivative of the function f at x = a, denoted f \u2032(a). Using derivatives, the equation of the tangent line can be stated as follows:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        y\n        =\n        f\n        (\n        a\n        )\n        +\n        \n          f\n          \u2032\n        \n        (\n        a\n        )\n        (\n        x\n        \u2212\n        a\n        )\n        .\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle y=f(a)+f'(a)(x-a).\\,}\n  Calculus provides rules for computing the derivatives of functions that are given by formulas, such as the power function, trigonometric functions, exponential function, logarithm, and their various combinations. Thus, equations of the tangents to graphs of all these functions, as well as many others, can be found by the methods of calculus.\n\n\n==== How the method can fail ====\nCalculus also demonstrates that there are functions and points on their graphs for which the limit determining the slope of the tangent line does not exist. For these points the function f is non-differentiable. There are two possible reasons for the method of finding the tangents based on the limits and derivatives to fail: either the geometric tangent exists, but it is a vertical line, which cannot be given in the point-slope form since it does not have a slope, or the graph exhibits one of three behaviors that precludes a geometric tangent.\nThe graph y = x1/3 illustrates the first possibility:  here the difference quotient at a = 0 is equal to h1/3/h = h\u22122/3, which becomes very large as h approaches 0. This curve has a tangent line at the origin that is vertical.\nThe graph y = x2/3 illustrates another possibility: this graph has a cusp at the origin. This means that, when h approaches 0, the difference quotient at a = 0 approaches plus or minus infinity depending on the sign of x. Thus both branches of the curve are near to the half vertical line for which y=0, but none is near to the negative part of this line. Basically, there is no tangent at the origin in this case, but in some context one may consider this line as a tangent, and even, in algebraic geometry, as a double tangent.\nThe graph y = |x| of the absolute value function consists of two straight lines with different slopes joined at the origin. As a point q approaches the origin from the right, the secant line always has slope 1. As a point q approaches the origin from the left, the secant line always has slope \u22121. Therefore, there is no unique tangent to the graph at the origin. Having two different (but finite) slopes is called a corner.\nFinally, since differentiability implies continuity, the contrapositive states discontinuity implies non-differentiability. Any such jump or point discontinuity will have no tangent line. This includes cases where one slope approaches positive infinity while the other approaches negative infinity, leading to an infinite jump discontinuity\n\n\n=== Equations ===\nWhen the curve is given by y = f(x) then the slope of the tangent is \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              d\n              y\n            \n            \n              d\n              x\n            \n          \n        \n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {dy}{dx}},}\n  \nso by the point\u2013slope formula the equation of the tangent line at (X, Y) is\n\n  \n    \n      \n        y\n        \u2212\n        Y\n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              d\n              y\n            \n            \n              d\n              x\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        X\n        )\n        \u22c5\n        (\n        x\n        \u2212\n        X\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle y-Y={\\frac {dy}{dx}}(X)\\cdot (x-X)}\n  where (x, y) are the coordinates of any point on the tangent line, and where the derivative is evaluated at \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        =\n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x=X}\n  .When the curve is given by y = f(x), the tangent line's equation can also be found by using polynomial division to divide \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        \n        (\n        x\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f\\,(x)}\n   by \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        x\n        \u2212\n        X\n        \n          )\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (x-X)^{2}}\n  ; if the remainder is denoted by \n  \n    \n      \n        g\n        (\n        x\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle g(x)}\n  , then the equation of the tangent line is given by\n\n  \n    \n      \n        y\n        =\n        g\n        (\n        x\n        )\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle y=g(x).}\n  When the equation of the curve is given in the form  f(x, y) = 0 then the value of the slope can be found by implicit differentiation, giving\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              d\n              y\n            \n            \n              d\n              x\n            \n          \n        \n        =\n        \u2212\n        \n          \n            \n              \n                \u2202\n                f\n              \n              \n                \u2202\n                x\n              \n            \n            \n              \n                \u2202\n                f\n              \n              \n                \u2202\n                y\n              \n            \n          \n        \n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {dy}{dx}}=-{\\frac {\\frac {\\partial f}{\\partial x}}{\\frac {\\partial f}{\\partial y}}}.}\n  The equation of the tangent line at a point (X,Y) such that f(X,Y) = 0 is then\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              \u2202\n              f\n            \n            \n              \u2202\n              x\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        X\n        ,\n        Y\n        )\n        \u22c5\n        (\n        x\n        \u2212\n        X\n        )\n        +\n        \n          \n            \n              \u2202\n              f\n            \n            \n              \u2202\n              y\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        X\n        ,\n        Y\n        )\n        \u22c5\n        (\n        y\n        \u2212\n        Y\n        )\n        =\n        0.\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {\\partial f}{\\partial x}}(X,Y)\\cdot (x-X)+{\\frac {\\partial f}{\\partial y}}(X,Y)\\cdot (y-Y)=0.}\n  This equation remains true if \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              \u2202\n              f\n            \n            \n              \u2202\n              y\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        X\n        ,\n        Y\n        )\n        =\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {\\partial f}{\\partial y}}(X,Y)=0}\n   but \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              \u2202\n              f\n            \n            \n              \u2202\n              x\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        X\n        ,\n        Y\n        )\n        \u2260\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {\\partial f}{\\partial x}}(X,Y)\\neq 0}\n   (in this case the slope of the tangent is infinite). If \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              \u2202\n              f\n            \n            \n              \u2202\n              y\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        X\n        ,\n        Y\n        )\n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              \u2202\n              f\n            \n            \n              \u2202\n              x\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        X\n        ,\n        Y\n        )\n        =\n        0\n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {\\partial f}{\\partial y}}(X,Y)={\\frac {\\partial f}{\\partial x}}(X,Y)=0,}\n   the tangent line is not defined and the point (X,Y) is said to be singular.\n\nFor algebraic curves, computations may be simplified somewhat by converting to homogeneous coordinates. Specifically, let the homogeneous equation of the curve be g(x, y, z) = 0 where g is a homogeneous function of degree n. Then, if (X, Y, Z) lies on the curve, Euler's theorem implies\n\nIt follows that the homogeneous equation of the tangent line is\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              \u2202\n              g\n            \n            \n              \u2202\n              x\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        X\n        ,\n        Y\n        ,\n        Z\n        )\n        \u22c5\n        x\n        +\n        \n          \n            \n              \u2202\n              g\n            \n            \n              \u2202\n              y\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        X\n        ,\n        Y\n        ,\n        Z\n        )\n        \u22c5\n        y\n        +\n        \n          \n            \n              \u2202\n              g\n            \n            \n              \u2202\n              z\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        X\n        ,\n        Y\n        ,\n        Z\n        )\n        \u22c5\n        z\n        =\n        0.\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {\\partial g}{\\partial x}}(X,Y,Z)\\cdot x+{\\frac {\\partial g}{\\partial y}}(X,Y,Z)\\cdot y+{\\frac {\\partial g}{\\partial z}}(X,Y,Z)\\cdot z=0.}\n  The equation of the tangent line in Cartesian coordinates can be found by setting z=1 in this equation.To apply this to algebraic curves, write f(x, y) as\n\n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        =\n        \n          u\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          u\n          \n            n\n            \u2212\n            1\n          \n        \n        +\n        \u22ef\n        +\n        \n          u\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          u\n          \n            0\n          \n        \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f=u_{n}+u_{n-1}+\\dots +u_{1}+u_{0}\\,}\n  where each ur is the sum of all terms of degree r. The homogeneous equation of the curve is then\n\n  \n    \n      \n        g\n        =\n        \n          u\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          u\n          \n            n\n            \u2212\n            1\n          \n        \n        z\n        +\n        \u22ef\n        +\n        \n          u\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n        \n          z\n          \n            n\n            \u2212\n            1\n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          u\n          \n            0\n          \n        \n        \n          z\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        =\n        0.\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle g=u_{n}+u_{n-1}z+\\dots +u_{1}z^{n-1}+u_{0}z^{n}=0.\\,}\n  Applying the equation above and setting z=1 produces\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              \u2202\n              f\n            \n            \n              \u2202\n              x\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        X\n        ,\n        Y\n        )\n        \u22c5\n        x\n        +\n        \n          \n            \n              \u2202\n              f\n            \n            \n              \u2202\n              y\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        X\n        ,\n        Y\n        )\n        \u22c5\n        y\n        +\n        \n          \n            \n              \u2202\n              g\n            \n            \n              \u2202\n              z\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        X\n        ,\n        Y\n        ,\n        1\n        )\n        =\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {\\partial f}{\\partial x}}(X,Y)\\cdot x+{\\frac {\\partial f}{\\partial y}}(X,Y)\\cdot y+{\\frac {\\partial g}{\\partial z}}(X,Y,1)=0}\n  as the equation of the tangent line. The equation in this form is often simpler to use in practice since no further simplification is needed after it is applied.If the curve is given parametrically by\n\n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        =\n        x\n        (\n        t\n        )\n        ,\n        \n        y\n        =\n        y\n        (\n        t\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x=x(t),\\quad y=y(t)}\n  then the slope of the tangent is\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              d\n              y\n            \n            \n              d\n              x\n            \n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              \n                d\n                y\n              \n              \n                d\n                t\n              \n            \n            \n              \n                d\n                x\n              \n              \n                d\n                t\n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {dy}{dx}}={\\frac {\\frac {dy}{dt}}{\\frac {dx}{dt}}}}\n  giving the equation for the tangent line at \n  \n    \n      \n        \n        t\n        =\n        T\n        ,\n        \n        X\n        =\n        x\n        (\n        T\n        )\n        ,\n        \n        Y\n        =\n        y\n        (\n        T\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\,t=T,\\,X=x(T),\\,Y=y(T)}\n   as\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              d\n              x\n            \n            \n              d\n              t\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        T\n        )\n        \u22c5\n        (\n        y\n        \u2212\n        Y\n        )\n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              d\n              y\n            \n            \n              d\n              t\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        T\n        )\n        \u22c5\n        (\n        x\n        \u2212\n        X\n        )\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {dx}{dt}}(T)\\cdot (y-Y)={\\frac {dy}{dt}}(T)\\cdot (x-X).}\n  If \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              d\n              x\n            \n            \n              d\n              t\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        T\n        )\n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              d\n              y\n            \n            \n              d\n              t\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        T\n        )\n        =\n        0\n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {dx}{dt}}(T)={\\frac {dy}{dt}}(T)=0,}\n   the tangent line is not defined. However, it may occur that the tangent line exists and may be computed from an implicit equation of the curve.\n\n\n=== Normal line to a curve ===\nThe line perpendicular to the tangent line to a curve at the point of tangency is called the normal line to the curve at that point. The slopes of perpendicular lines have product \u22121, so if the equation of the curve is y = f(x) then slope of the normal line is\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \u2212\n        \n          \n            1\n            \n              \n                d\n                y\n              \n              \n                d\n                x\n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle -{\\frac {1}{\\frac {dy}{dx}}}}\n  and it follows that the equation of the normal line at (X, Y) is\n\n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        x\n        \u2212\n        X\n        )\n        +\n        \n          \n            \n              d\n              y\n            \n            \n              d\n              x\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        y\n        \u2212\n        Y\n        )\n        =\n        0.\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (x-X)+{\\frac {dy}{dx}}(y-Y)=0.}\n  Similarly, if the equation of the curve has the form f(x, y) = 0 then the equation of the normal line is given by\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              \u2202\n              f\n            \n            \n              \u2202\n              y\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        x\n        \u2212\n        X\n        )\n        \u2212\n        \n          \n            \n              \u2202\n              f\n            \n            \n              \u2202\n              x\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        y\n        \u2212\n        Y\n        )\n        =\n        0.\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {\\partial f}{\\partial y}}(x-X)-{\\frac {\\partial f}{\\partial x}}(y-Y)=0.}\n  If the curve is given parametrically by\n\n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        =\n        x\n        (\n        t\n        )\n        ,\n        \n        y\n        =\n        y\n        (\n        t\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x=x(t),\\quad y=y(t)}\n  then the equation of the normal line is\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              d\n              x\n            \n            \n              d\n              t\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        x\n        \u2212\n        X\n        )\n        +\n        \n          \n            \n              d\n              y\n            \n            \n              d\n              t\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        y\n        \u2212\n        Y\n        )\n        =\n        0.\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {dx}{dt}}(x-X)+{\\frac {dy}{dt}}(y-Y)=0.}\n  \n\n\n=== Angle between curves ===\n\nThe angle between two curves at a point where they intersect is defined as the angle between their tangent lines at that point. More specifically, two curves are said to be tangent at a point if they have the same tangent at a point, and orthogonal if their tangent lines are orthogonal.\n\n\n=== Multiple tangents at a point ===\n\nThe formulas above fail when the point is a singular point. In this case there may be two or more branches of the curve that pass through the point, each branch having its own tangent line. When the point is the origin, the equations of these lines can be found for algebraic curves by factoring the equation formed by eliminating all but the lowest degree terms from the original equation. Since any point can be made the origin by a change of variables (or by translating the curve) this gives a method for finding the tangent lines at any singular point.\nFor example, the equation of the lima\u00e7on trisectrix shown to the right is\n\n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        \n          x\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          y\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        \u2212\n        2\n        a\n        x\n        \n          )\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          a\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        (\n        \n          x\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          y\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        )\n        .\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (x^{2}+y^{2}-2ax)^{2}=a^{2}(x^{2}+y^{2}).\\,}\n  Expanding this and eliminating all but terms of degree 2 gives\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          a\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        (\n        3\n        \n          x\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        \u2212\n        \n          y\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        )\n        =\n        0\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle a^{2}(3x^{2}-y^{2})=0\\,}\n  which, when factored, becomes\n\n  \n    \n      \n        y\n        =\n        \u00b1\n        \n          \n            3\n          \n        \n        x\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle y=\\pm {\\sqrt {3}}x.}\n  So these are the equations of the two tangent lines through the origin.When the curve is not self-crossing, the tangent at a reference point may still not be uniquely defined because the curve is not differentiable at that point although it is differentiable elsewhere. In this case the left and right derivatives are defined as the limits of the derivative as the point at which it is evaluated approaches the reference point from respectively the left (lower values) or the right (higher values). For example, the curve y = |x | is not differentiable at x = 0: its left and right derivatives have respective slopes \u22121 and 1; the tangents at that point with those slopes are called the left and right tangents.Sometimes the slopes of the left and right tangent lines are equal, so the tangent lines coincide. This is true, for example, for the curve y = x 2/3, for which both the left and right derivatives at x = 0 are infinite; both the left and right tangent lines have equation x = 0.\n\n\n== Tangent circles ==\n\nTwo circles of non-equal radius, both in the same plane, are said to be tangent to each other if they meet at only one point. Equivalently, two circles, with radii of ri and centers at (xi, yi), for i = 1, 2 are said to be tangent to each other if\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            (\n            \n              \n                x\n                \n                  1\n                \n              \n              \u2212\n              \n                x\n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n            \n            )\n          \n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          \n            (\n            \n              \n                y\n                \n                  1\n                \n              \n              \u2212\n              \n                y\n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n            \n            )\n          \n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            (\n            \n              \n                r\n                \n                  1\n                \n              \n              \u00b1\n              \n                r\n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n            \n            )\n          \n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        .\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left(x_{1}-x_{2}\\right)^{2}+\\left(y_{1}-y_{2}\\right)^{2}=\\left(r_{1}\\pm r_{2}\\right)^{2}.\\,}\n  Two circles are externally tangent  if the distance between their centres is equal to the sum of their radii.\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            (\n            \n              \n                x\n                \n                  1\n                \n              \n              \u2212\n              \n                x\n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n            \n            )\n          \n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          \n            (\n            \n              \n                y\n                \n                  1\n                \n              \n              \u2212\n              \n                y\n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n            \n            )\n          \n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            (\n            \n              \n                r\n                \n                  1\n                \n              \n              +\n              \n                r\n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n            \n            )\n          \n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        .\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left(x_{1}-x_{2}\\right)^{2}+\\left(y_{1}-y_{2}\\right)^{2}=\\left(r_{1}+r_{2}\\right)^{2}.\\,}\n  Two circles are internally tangent  if the distance between their centres is equal to the difference between their radii.\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            (\n            \n              \n                x\n                \n                  1\n                \n              \n              \u2212\n              \n                x\n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n            \n            )\n          \n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          \n            (\n            \n              \n                y\n                \n                  1\n                \n              \n              \u2212\n              \n                y\n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n            \n            )\n          \n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            (\n            \n              \n                r\n                \n                  1\n                \n              \n              \u2212\n              \n                r\n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n            \n            )\n          \n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        .\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left(x_{1}-x_{2}\\right)^{2}+\\left(y_{1}-y_{2}\\right)^{2}=\\left(r_{1}-r_{2}\\right)^{2}.\\,}\n  \n\n\n== Surfaces ==\n\nThe tangent plane to a surface at a given point p is defined in an analogous way to the tangent line in the case of curves. It is the best approximation of the surface by a plane at p, and can be obtained as the limiting position of the planes passing through 3 distinct points on the surface close to p as these points converge to p.\n\n\n== Higher-dimensional manifolds ==\n\nMore generally, there is a k-dimensional tangent space at each point of a k-dimensional manifold in the n-dimensional Euclidean space.\n\n\n== See also ==\nNewton's method\nNormal (geometry)\nOsculating circle\nOsculating curve\nPerpendicular\nSubtangent\nSupporting line\nTangent cone\nTangential angle\nTangential component\nTangent lines to circles\nTangent vector\nMultiplicity (mathematics)#Behavior of a polynomial function near a multiple root\nAlgebraic curve#Tangent at a point\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Sources ==\nJ. Edwards (1892). Differential Calculus. London: MacMillan and Co. pp. 143 ff.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\"Tangent line\", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]\nWeisstein, Eric W. \"Tangent Line\". MathWorld.\nTangent to a circle With interactive animation\nTangent and first derivative \u2014 An interactive simulation", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/CIRCLE_LINES.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Graph_of_sliding_derivative_line.gif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Image_Tangent-plane.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Lima%C3%A7onTrisectrix.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Tangent_circles.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Tangent_to_a_curve.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "In geometry, the tangent line (or simply tangent) to a plane curve at a given point is the straight line that \"just touches\" the curve at that point. Leibniz defined it as the line through a pair of infinitely close points on the curve. More precisely, a straight line is said to be a tangent of a curve y = f(x) at a point x = c if the line passes through the point (c, f(c)) on the curve and has slope f'(c), where f' is the derivative of f. A similar definition applies to space curves and curves in n-dimensional Euclidean space.\nAs it passes through the point where the tangent line and the curve meet, called the point of tangency, the tangent line is \"going in the same direction\" as the curve, and is thus the best straight-line approximation to the curve at that point.\nThe tangent line to a point on a differentiable curve can also be thought of as the graph of the affine function that best approximates the original function at the given point.Similarly, the tangent plane to a surface at a given point is the plane that \"just touches\" the surface at that point. The concept of a tangent is one of the most fundamental notions in differential geometry and has been extensively generalized; see Tangent space.\nThe word \"tangent\" comes from the Latin tangere, \"to touch\".\n\n"}, "Algebraic_geometry": {"links": ["Jean-Pierre Serre", "Algebraic statistics", "Function field of an algebraic variety", "Formal scheme", "Mikhail Leonidovich Gromov", "Aryabhata", "Numerical analysis", "Daniel Pedoe", "Tesseract", "Affine geometry", "David A. 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Collins", "Regular point of an algebraic variety", "Oswald Veblen", "Parameshvara", "Real analysis", "Algorithm", "Ind-scheme", "Ring homomorphism", "Non-Archimedean geometry", "Spherical geometry", "Cubic equation", "List of geometers", "Miles Reid", "Analytic number theory", "Delian problem", "\u00c9lie Cartan", "Jacob Lurie", "Algebraically closed field", "Mathematical statistics", "American Mathematical Society", "Joe Harris ", "Straightedge and compass construction", "Cylinder ", "Algebraically closed", "Cylindrical algebraic decomposition", "Recreational mathematics", "Springer Science+Business Media", "Computational phylogenetics", "Mathematics and art", "Cambridge University Press", "Glossary of classical algebraic geometry", "Andr\u00e9 Weil", "ArXiv ", "Volume", "Singularity theory", "Quasicategory", "Differential equation", "GAGA", "Zero-dimensional space", "Curve", "Field ", "Theory of computation", "Affine variety", "Moduli space", "Algebraic geometry of projective spaces", "Higher category theory", "Finite geometry", "Kite ", "Rectangle", "Zero of a function", "Derived affine scheme", "Game theory", "Zariski topology", "Computational mathematics", "Noncommutative algebraic geometry", "Marseille", "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz", "Mathematical psychology", "Carlos Simpson", "Mathematical finance", "Hellenistic Greece", "Length", "Morphism of algebraic varieties", "Riemannian geometry", "Algebraic number theory", "Felix Klein", "Regular chain", "Rational variety", "Critical point ", "Prime ideal", "Projective geometry", "Coordinate geometry", "Elliptic-curve cryptography", "Diophantine equations", "Nasir al-Din al-Tusi", "JSTOR ", "Triangle", "Plane ", "Closure operator", "W. V. D. Hodge", "Dimension", "Ibn al-Haytham", "Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi", "List of algebraic surfaces", "Discrete geometry", "Multivariate polynomial", "B. L. van der Waerden", "Computational geometry", "Coordinate ring", "Maxim Kontsevich", "Three-dimensional space", "Homogeneous coordinate ring", "K\u0101ty\u0101yana", "Complex manifold", "Archimedes", "Transformation group", "Finite field", "Point ", "Hyperbola", "Galois connection", "Baudhayana", "Minggatu", "Sphere", "Information theory", "Scheme ", "Daniel Lazard", "Universal algebra", "Lemniscate of Bernoulli", "Nonlinear algebra", "Perpendicular", "Two-dimensional space", "Ideal ", "Bruno Buchberger", "Function inverse", "Abelian integral", "Gabrielle Vezzosi", "Image ", "Homotopy continuation", "Parametric equation", "Differentiable manifold", "Incidence geometry", "Resultant", "Maximal ideal", "Universal algebraic geometry", "Isaac Newton", "Plane algebraic curve", "Synthetic geometry", "Van der Waerden", "Computer science", "Alexander Grothendieck", "Point at infinity", "Polynomial function", "Franciscus Vieta", "Area of a circle", "Brahmagupta", "Allen Tannenbaum", "Operations research", "Trapezoid", "Rational number", "Homogeneous ideal", "Soliton", "P-adic number", "LCCN ", "Topological space", "Inflection point", "Homological algebra", "Equation solving", "Hypersphere", "Alicia Dickenstein", "Mathematical logic", "Robin Hartshorne", "Homogeneous polynomial", "Ordered field", "Parallel ", "Hyperbolic geometry", "Igor Shafarevich", "Solution set", "Mathematical optimization", "Absolute geometry", "Topology", "Rational mapping", "Cube", "Regular function", "Robotics", "Analytic function", "Rhomboid", "Order theory", "Complement ", "Mathematical singularity", "History of geometry", "Sijzi", "Dover", "Menaechmus", "Orthogonality", "Carl Friedrich Gauss", "Software", "Square", "Line at infinity", "Vertex ", "Domain of a function", "Artin stack", "University of Wisconsin\u2013Milwaukee", "Jean Dieudonn\u00e9", "Philosophy of mathematics", "Graph theory", "Nisnevich topology", "Resolution of singularities", "Virasena", "Area", "Algebraic stack", "Scheme theory", "David Mumford", "Oscar Zariski", "David Eisenbud", "Euclidean space", "Before Common Era", "B\u00e9zout's theorem", "Discrete mathematics", "Ibn al-Yasamin", "Birational isomorphism", "Renaissance", "WDQ ", "Atomic formula", "Italian school of algebraic geometry", "Mathematics", "Homological mirror symmetry", "Quillen model category", "Michael Atiyah", "Gerolamo Cardano", "Singular point of a curve", "Linear algebra", "Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem", "Similarity ", "Geometric algebra", "Faug\u00e8re's Ffour and F5 algorithms", "Line ", "Valuation theory", "Abelian variety", "Grothendieck", "Hilbert's sixteenth problem", "Non-Euclidean geometry", "Algebraic space", "Nikolai Durov", "Joseph Louis Lagrange", "Lists of mathematics topics", "Smooth function", "Zhang Heng", "N-sphere", "Grothendieck site", "Combinatorics", "Quadratic form", "Multivariate resultant"], "content": "Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics, classically studying zeros of multivariate polynomials. Modern algebraic geometry is based on the use of abstract algebraic techniques, mainly from commutative algebra, for solving  geometrical problems about these sets of zeros.\nThe fundamental objects of study in algebraic geometry are algebraic varieties, which are geometric manifestations of solutions of systems of polynomial equations. Examples of the most studied classes of algebraic varieties are: plane algebraic curves, which include lines, circles, parabolas, ellipses, hyperbolas, cubic curves like elliptic curves, and quartic curves like lemniscates and Cassini ovals. A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation. Basic questions involve the study of the points of special interest like the singular points, the inflection points and the points at infinity. More advanced questions involve the topology of the curve and relations between the curves given by different equations.\nAlgebraic geometry occupies a central place in modern mathematics and has multiple conceptual connections with such diverse fields as complex analysis, topology and number theory. Initially a study of systems of polynomial equations in several variables, the subject of algebraic geometry starts where equation solving leaves off, and it becomes even more important to understand the intrinsic properties of the totality of solutions of a system of equations, than to find a specific solution; this leads into some of the deepest areas in all of mathematics, both conceptually and in terms of technique.\nIn the 20th century, algebraic geometry split into several subareas.\n\nThe mainstream of algebraic geometry is devoted to the study of the complex points of the algebraic varieties and more generally to the points with coordinates in an algebraically closed field.\nReal algebraic geometry is the study of the real points of an algebraic variety.\nDiophantine geometry and, more generally, arithmetic geometry is the study of the points of an algebraic variety with coordinates in fields that are not algebraically closed and occur in algebraic number theory, such as the field of rational numbers, number fields, finite fields, function fields, and p-adic fields.\nA large part of singularity theory is devoted to the singularities of algebraic varieties.\nComputational algebraic geometry is an area that has emerged at the intersection of algebraic geometry and computer algebra, with the rise of computers. It consists mainly of algorithm design and software development for the study of properties of explicitly given algebraic varieties.Much of the development of the mainstream of algebraic geometry in the 20th century occurred within an abstract algebraic framework, with increasing emphasis being placed on \"intrinsic\" properties of algebraic varieties not dependent on any particular way of embedding the variety in an ambient coordinate space; this parallels developments in topology, differential and complex geometry. One key achievement of this abstract algebraic geometry is Grothendieck's scheme theory which allows one to use sheaf theory to study algebraic varieties in a way which is very similar to its use in the study of differential and analytic manifolds. This is obtained by extending the notion of point: In classical algebraic geometry, a point of an affine variety may be identified, through Hilbert's Nullstellensatz, with a maximal ideal of the coordinate ring, while the points of the corresponding affine scheme are all prime ideals of this ring. This means that a point of such a scheme may be either a usual point or a subvariety. This approach also enables a unification of the language and the tools of classical algebraic geometry, mainly concerned with complex points, and of algebraic number theory. Wiles' proof of the longstanding conjecture called Fermat's last theorem is an example of the power of this approach.\n\n\n== Basic notions ==\n\n\n=== Zeros of simultaneous polynomials ===\n\nIn classical algebraic geometry, the main objects of interest are the vanishing sets of collections of polynomials, meaning the set of all points that simultaneously satisfy one or more polynomial equations. For instance, the two-dimensional sphere of radius 1 in three-dimensional Euclidean space R3 could be defined as the set of all points (x,y,z) with\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          x\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          y\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          z\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        \u2212\n        1\n        =\n        0.\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}-1=0.\\,}\n  A \"slanted\" circle in R3 can be defined as the set of all points (x,y,z) which satisfy the two polynomial equations\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          x\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          y\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          z\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        \u2212\n        1\n        =\n        0\n        ,\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}-1=0,\\,}\n  \n\n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        +\n        y\n        +\n        z\n        =\n        0.\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x+y+z=0.\\,}\n  \n\n\n=== Affine varieties ===\n\nFirst we start with a field k. In classical algebraic geometry, this field was always the complex numbers C, but many of the same results are true if we assume only that k is algebraically closed. We consider the affine space of dimension n over k, denoted An(k) (or more simply An, when k is clear from the context). When one fixes a coordinate system, one may identify An(k) with kn. The purpose of not working with kn is to emphasize that one \"forgets\" the vector space structure that kn carries.\nA function f : An \u2192 A1 is said to be polynomial (or regular) if it can be written as a polynomial, that is, if there is a polynomial p in k[x1,...,xn] such that f(M) = p(t1,...,tn) for every point M with coordinates (t1,...,tn) in An. The property of a function to be polynomial (or regular) does not depend on the choice of a coordinate system in An.\nWhen a coordinate system is chosen, the regular functions on the affine n-space may be identified with the ring of polynomial functions in n variables over k. Therefore, the set of the regular functions on An is a ring, which is denoted k[An].\nWe say that a polynomial vanishes at a point if evaluating it at that point gives zero. Let S be a set of polynomials in k[An]. The vanishing set of S (or vanishing locus or zero set) is the set V(S) of all points in An where every polynomial in S vanishes. Symbolically,\n\n  \n    \n      \n        V\n        (\n        S\n        )\n        =\n        {\n        (\n        \n          t\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n        ,\n        \u2026\n        ,\n        \n          t\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        )\n        \u2223\n        p\n        (\n        \n          t\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n        ,\n        \u2026\n        ,\n        \n          t\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        )\n        =\n        0\n        \n           for all \n        \n        p\n        \u2208\n        S\n        }\n        .\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle V(S)=\\{(t_{1},\\dots ,t_{n})\\mid p(t_{1},\\dots ,t_{n})=0{\\text{ for all }}p\\in S\\}.\\,}\n  A subset of An which is V(S), for some S, is called an algebraic set. The V stands for variety (a specific type of algebraic set to be defined below).\nGiven a subset U of An, can one recover the set of polynomials which generate it? If U is any subset of An, define I(U) to be the set of all polynomials whose vanishing set contains U. The I stands for ideal: if two polynomials f and g both vanish on U, then f+g vanishes on U, and if h is any polynomial, then hf vanishes on U, so I(U) is always an ideal of the polynomial ring k[An].\nTwo natural questions to ask are:\n\nGiven a subset U of An, when is U = V(I(U))?\nGiven a set S of polynomials, when is S = I(V(S))?The answer to the first question is provided by introducing the Zariski topology, a topology on An whose closed sets are the algebraic sets, and which directly reflects the algebraic structure of k[An]. Then U = V(I(U)) if and only if U is an algebraic set or equivalently a Zariski-closed set. The answer to the second question is given by Hilbert's Nullstellensatz. In one of its forms, it says that I(V(S)) is the radical of the ideal generated by S. In more abstract language, there is a Galois connection, giving rise to two closure operators; they can be identified, and naturally play a basic role in the theory; the example is elaborated at Galois connection.\nFor various reasons we may not always want to work with the entire ideal corresponding to an algebraic set U. Hilbert's basis theorem implies that ideals in k[An] are always finitely generated.\nAn algebraic set is called irreducible if it cannot be written as the union of two smaller algebraic sets. Any algebraic set is a finite union of irreducible algebraic sets and this decomposition is unique. Thus its elements are called the irreducible components of the algebraic set. An irreducible algebraic set is also called a variety. It turns out that an algebraic set is a variety if and only if it may be defined as the vanishing set of a prime ideal of the polynomial ring.\nSome authors do not make a clear distinction between algebraic sets and varieties and use irreducible variety to make the distinction when needed.\n\n\n=== Regular functions ===\n\nJust as continuous functions are the natural maps on topological spaces and smooth functions are the natural maps on differentiable manifolds, there is a natural class of functions on an algebraic set, called regular functions or polynomial functions. A regular function on an algebraic set V contained in An is the restriction to V of a regular function on An. For an algebraic set defined on the field of the complex numbers, the regular functions are smooth and even analytic.\nIt may seem unnaturally restrictive to require that a regular function always extend to the ambient space, but it is very similar to the situation in a normal topological space, where the Tietze extension theorem guarantees that a continuous function on a closed subset always extends to the ambient topological space.\nJust as with the regular functions on affine space, the regular functions on V form a ring, which we denote by k[V]. This ring is called the coordinate ring of V.\nSince regular functions on V come from regular functions on An, there is a relationship between the coordinate rings. Specifically, if a regular function on V is the restriction of two functions f and g in k[An], then f \u2212 g is a polynomial function which is null on V and thus belongs to I(V). Thus k[V] may be identified with k[An]/I(V).\n\n\n=== Morphism of affine varieties ===\nUsing regular functions from an affine variety to A1, we can define regular maps from one affine variety to another. First we will define a regular map from a variety into affine space: Let V be a variety contained in An. Choose m regular functions on V, and call them f1, ..., fm. We define a regular map f from V to Am by letting f = (f1, ..., fm). In other words, each fi determines one coordinate of the range of f.\nIf V\u2032 is a variety contained in Am, we say that f is a regular map from V to V\u2032 if the range of f is contained in V\u2032.\nThe definition of the regular maps apply also to algebraic sets.\nThe regular maps are also called morphisms, as they make the collection of all affine algebraic sets into a category, where the objects are the affine algebraic sets and the morphisms are the regular maps. The affine varieties is a subcategory of the category of the algebraic sets.\nGiven a regular map g from V to V\u2032 and a regular function f of k[V\u2032], then f \u2218 g \u2208 k[V]. The map f \u2192 f \u2218 g is a ring homomorphism from k[V\u2032] to k[V]. Conversely, every ring homomorphism from k[V\u2032] to k[V] defines a regular map from V to V\u2032. This defines an equivalence of categories between the category of algebraic sets and the opposite category of the finitely generated reduced k-algebras. This equivalence is one of the starting points of scheme theory.\n\n\n=== Rational function and birational equivalence ===\n\nIn contrast to the preceding sections, this section concerns only varieties and not algebraic sets. On the other hand, the definitions extend naturally to projective varieties (next section), as an affine variety and its projective completion have the same field of functions.\nIf V is an affine variety, its coordinate ring is an integral domain and has thus a field of fractions which is denoted k(V) and called the field of the rational functions on V or, shortly, the function field of V. Its elements are the restrictions to V of the rational functions over the affine space containing V. The domain of a rational function f is not V but the complement of the subvariety (a hypersurface) where the denominator of f vanishes.\nAs with regular maps, one may define a rational map from a variety V to a variety V'. As with the regular maps, the rational maps from V to V' may be identified to the field homomorphisms from k(V') to k(V).\nTwo affine varieties are birationally equivalent if there are two rational functions between them which are inverse one to the other in the regions where both are defined. Equivalently, they are birationally equivalent if their function fields are isomorphic.\nAn affine variety is a rational variety if it is birationally equivalent to an affine space. This means that the variety admits a rational parameterization, that is a parametrization with rational functions. For example, the circle of equation \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          x\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          y\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        \u2212\n        1\n        =\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}-1=0}\n   is a rational curve, as it has the parametric equation\n\n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              2\n              \n              t\n            \n            \n              1\n              +\n              \n                t\n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x={\\frac {2\\,t}{1+t^{2}}}}\n  \n\n  \n    \n      \n        y\n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              1\n              \u2212\n              \n                t\n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n            \n            \n              1\n              +\n              \n                t\n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n            \n          \n        \n        \n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle y={\\frac {1-t^{2}}{1+t^{2}}}\\,,}\n  which may also be viewed as a rational map from the line to the circle.\nThe problem of resolution of singularities is to know if every algebraic variety is birationally equivalent to a variety whose projective completion is nonsingular (see also smooth completion). It was solved in the affirmative in characteristic 0 by Heisuke Hironaka in 1964 and is yet unsolved in finite characteristic.\n\n\n=== Projective variety ===\n\nJust as the formulas for the roots of second, third, and fourth degree polynomials suggest extending real numbers to the more algebraically complete setting of the complex numbers, many properties of algebraic varieties suggest extending affine space to a more geometrically complete projective space. Whereas the complex numbers are obtained by adding the number i, a root of the polynomial x2 + 1, projective space is obtained by adding in appropriate points \"at infinity\", points where parallel lines may meet.\nTo see how this might come about, consider the variety V(y \u2212 x2). If we draw it, we get a parabola. As x goes to positive infinity, the slope of the line from the origin to the point (x, x2) also goes to positive infinity. As x goes to negative infinity, the slope of the same line goes to negative infinity.\nCompare this to the variety V(y \u2212 x3). This is a cubic curve. As x goes to positive infinity, the slope of the line from the origin to the point (x, x3) goes to positive infinity just as before. But unlike before, as x goes to negative infinity, the slope of the same line goes to positive infinity as well; the exact opposite of the parabola. So the behavior \"at infinity\" of V(y \u2212 x3) is different from the behavior \"at infinity\" of V(y \u2212 x2).\nThe consideration of the projective completion of the two curves, which is their prolongation \"at infinity\" in the projective plane, allows us to quantify this difference: the point at infinity of the parabola is a regular point, whose tangent is the line at infinity, while the point at infinity of the cubic curve is a cusp. Also, both curves are rational, as they are parameterized by x, and the Riemann-Roch theorem implies that the cubic curve must have a singularity, which must be at infinity, as all its points in the affine space are regular.\nThus many of the properties of algebraic varieties, including birational equivalence and all the topological properties, depend on the behavior \"at infinity\" and so it is natural to study the varieties in projective space. Furthermore, the introduction of projective techniques made many theorems in algebraic geometry simpler and sharper: For example, B\u00e9zout's theorem on the number of intersection points between two varieties can be stated in its sharpest form only in projective space. For these reasons, projective space plays a fundamental role in algebraic geometry.\nNowadays, the projective space Pn of dimension n is usually defined as the set of the lines passing through a point, considered as the origin, in the affine space of dimension n + 1, or equivalently to the set of the vector lines in a vector space of dimension n + 1. When a coordinate system has been chosen in the space of dimension n + 1, all the points of a line have the same set of coordinates, up to the multiplication by an element of k. This defines the homogeneous coordinates of a point of Pn as a sequence of n + 1 elements of the base field k, defined up to the multiplication by a nonzero element of k (the same for the whole sequence).\nA polynomial in n + 1 variables vanishes at all points of a line passing through the origin if and only if it is homogeneous. In this case, one says that the polynomial vanishes at the corresponding point of Pn. This allows us to define a projective algebraic set in Pn as the set V(f1, ..., fk), where a finite set of homogeneous polynomials {f1, ..., fk}  vanishes. Like for affine algebraic sets, there is a bijection between the projective algebraic sets and the reduced homogeneous ideals which define them. The projective varieties are the projective algebraic sets whose defining ideal is prime. In other words, a projective variety is a projective algebraic set, whose homogeneous coordinate ring is an integral domain, the projective coordinates ring being defined as the quotient of the graded ring or the polynomials in n + 1 variables by the homogeneous (reduced) ideal defining the variety. Every projective algebraic set may be uniquely decomposed into a finite union of projective varieties.\nThe only regular functions which may be defined properly on a projective variety are the constant functions. Thus this notion is not used in projective situations. On the other hand, the field of the rational functions or function field  is a useful notion, which, similarly to the affine case, is defined as the set of the quotients of two homogeneous elements of the same degree in the homogeneous coordinate ring.\n\n\n== Real algebraic geometry ==\n\nReal algebraic geometry is the study of the real points of algebraic varieties.\nThe fact that the field of the real numbers is an ordered field cannot be ignored in such a study. For example, the curve of equation \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          x\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          y\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        \u2212\n        a\n        =\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}-a=0}\n   is a circle if \n  \n    \n      \n        a\n        >\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle a>0}\n  , but does not have any real point if \n  \n    \n      \n        a\n        <\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle a<0}\n  . It follows that real algebraic geometry is not only the study of the real algebraic varieties, but has been generalized to the study of the semi-algebraic sets, which are the solutions of systems of polynomial equations and polynomial inequalities. For example, a branch of the hyperbola of equation \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        y\n        \u2212\n        1\n        =\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle xy-1=0}\n   is not an algebraic variety, but is a semi-algebraic set defined by \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        y\n        \u2212\n        1\n        =\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle xy-1=0}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        >\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x>0}\n   or by \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        y\n        \u2212\n        1\n        =\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle xy-1=0}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        +\n        y\n        >\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x+y>0}\n  .\nOne of the challenging problems of real algebraic geometry is the unsolved Hilbert's sixteenth problem: Decide which respective positions are possible for the ovals of a nonsingular plane curve of degree 8.\n\n\n== Computational algebraic geometry ==\nOne may date the origin of computational algebraic geometry to meeting EUROSAM'79 (International Symposium on Symbolic and Algebraic Manipulation) held at Marseille, France in June 1979. At this meeting,\n\nDennis S. Arnon showed that George E. Collins's Cylindrical algebraic decomposition (CAD) allows the computation of the topology of semi-algebraic sets,\nBruno Buchberger presented the Gr\u00f6bner bases and his algorithm to compute them,\nDaniel Lazard presented a new algorithm for solving systems of homogeneous polynomial equations with a computational complexity which is essentially polynomial in the expected number of solutions and thus simply exponential in the number of the unknowns. This algorithm is strongly related with Macaulay's multivariate resultant.Since then, most results in this area are related to one or several of these items either by using or improving one of these algorithms, or by finding algorithms whose complexity is simply exponential in the number of the variables.\nA body of mathematical theory complementary to symbolic methods called numerical algebraic geometry has been developed over the last several decades.  The main computational method is homotopy continuation.  This supports, for example, a model of floating point computation for solving problems of algebraic geometry.\n\n\n=== Gr\u00f6bner basis ===\n\nA Gr\u00f6bner basis is a system of generators of a polynomial ideal whose computation allows the deduction of many properties of the affine algebraic variety defined by the ideal.\nGiven an ideal I defining an algebraic set V:\n\nV is empty (over an algebraically closed extension of the basis field), if and only if the Gr\u00f6bner basis for any monomial ordering is reduced to {1}.\nBy means of the Hilbert series one may compute the dimension and the degree of V from any Gr\u00f6bner basis of I for a monomial ordering refining the total degree.\nIf the dimension of V is 0, one may compute the points (finite in number) of V from any Gr\u00f6bner basis of I (see Systems of polynomial equations).\nA Gr\u00f6bner basis computation allows one to remove from V all irreducible components which are contained in a given hypersurface.\nA Gr\u00f6bner basis computation allows one to compute the Zariski closure of the image of V by the projection on the k first coordinates, and the subset of the image where the projection is not proper.\nMore generally Gr\u00f6bner basis computations allow one to compute the Zariski closure of the image and the critical points of a rational function of V into another affine variety.Gr\u00f6bner basis computations do not allow one to compute directly the primary decomposition of I nor the prime ideals defining the irreducible components of V, but most algorithms for this involve Gr\u00f6bner basis computation. The algorithms which are not based on Gr\u00f6bner bases use regular chains but may need Gr\u00f6bner bases in some exceptional situations.\nGr\u00f6bner bases are deemed to be difficult to compute. In fact they may contain, in the worst case, polynomials whose degree is doubly exponential in the number of variables and a number of polynomials which is also doubly exponential. However, this is only a worst case complexity, and the complexity bound of Lazard's algorithm of 1979 may frequently apply. Faug\u00e8re F5 algorithm realizes this complexity, as it may be viewed as an improvement of Lazard's 1979 algorithm. It follows that the best implementations allow one to compute almost routinely with algebraic sets of degree more than 100. This means that, presently, the difficulty of computing a Gr\u00f6bner basis is strongly related to the intrinsic difficulty of the problem.\n\n\n=== Cylindrical algebraic decomposition (CAD) ===\nCAD is an algorithm which was introduced in 1973 by G. Collins to implement with an acceptable complexity the Tarski\u2013Seidenberg theorem on quantifier elimination over the real numbers.\nThis theorem concerns the formulas of the first-order logic whose atomic formulas are polynomial equalities or inequalities between polynomials with real coefficients. These formulas are thus the formulas which may be constructed from the atomic formulas by the logical operators and (\u2227), or (\u2228), not (\u00ac), for all (\u2200) and exists (\u2203). Tarski's theorem asserts that, from such a formula, one may compute an equivalent formula without quantifier (\u2200, \u2203).\nThe complexity of CAD is doubly exponential in the number of variables. This means that CAD allows, in theory, to solve every problem of real algebraic geometry which may be expressed by such a formula, that is almost every problem concerning explicitly given varieties and semi-algebraic sets.\nWhile Gr\u00f6bner basis computation has doubly exponential complexity only in rare cases, CAD has almost always this high complexity. This implies that, unless if most polynomials appearing in the input are linear, it may not solve problems with more than four variables.\nSince 1973, most of the research on this subject is devoted either to improve CAD or to find alternative algorithms in special cases of general interest.\nAs an example of the state of art, there are efficient algorithms to find at least a point in every connected component of a semi-algebraic set, and thus to test if a semi-algebraic set is empty. On the other hand, CAD is yet, in practice, the best algorithm to count the number of connected components.\n\n\n=== Asymptotic complexity vs. practical efficiency ===\nThe basic general algorithms of computational geometry have a double exponential worst case complexity. More precisely, if d is the maximal degree of the input polynomials and n the number of variables, their complexity is at most \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          d\n          \n            \n              2\n              \n                c\n                n\n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle d^{2^{cn}}}\n   for some constant c, and, for some inputs, the complexity is at least \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          d\n          \n            \n              2\n              \n                \n                  c\n                  \u2032\n                \n                n\n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle d^{2^{c'n}}}\n   for another constant c\u2032.\nDuring the last 20 years of the 20th century, various algorithms have been introduced to solve specific subproblems with a better complexity. Most of these algorithms have a complexity \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          d\n          \n            O\n            (\n            \n              n\n              \n                2\n              \n            \n            )\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle d^{O(n^{2})}}\n  .Among these algorithms which solve a sub problem of the problems solved by Gr\u00f6bner bases, one may cite testing if an affine variety is empty and solving nonhomogeneous polynomial systems which have a finite number of solutions. Such algorithms are rarely implemented because, on most entries Faug\u00e8re's F4 and F5 algorithms have a better practical efficiency and probably a similar or better complexity (probably because the evaluation of the complexity of Gr\u00f6bner basis algorithms on a particular class of entries is a difficult task which has been done only in a few special cases).\nThe main algorithms of real algebraic geometry which solve a problem solved by CAD are related to the topology of semi-algebraic sets. One may cite counting the number of connected components, testing if two points are in the same components or computing a Whitney stratification of a real algebraic set. They have a complexity of\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          d\n          \n            O\n            (\n            \n              n\n              \n                2\n              \n            \n            )\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle d^{O(n^{2})}}\n  , but the constant involved by O notation is so high that using them to solve any nontrivial problem effectively solved by CAD, is impossible even if one could use all the existing computing power in the world. Therefore, these algorithms have never been implemented and this is an active research area to search for algorithms with have together a good asymptotic complexity and a good practical efficiency.\n\n\n== Abstract modern viewpoint ==\nThe modern approaches to algebraic geometry redefine and effectively extend the range of basic objects in various levels of generality to schemes, formal schemes, ind-schemes, algebraic spaces, algebraic stacks and so on. The need for this arises already from the useful ideas within theory of varieties, e.g. the formal functions of Zariski can be accommodated by introducing nilpotent elements in structure rings; considering spaces of loops and arcs, constructing quotients by group actions and developing formal grounds for natural intersection theory and deformation theory lead to some of the further extensions.\nMost remarkably, in the late 1950s, algebraic varieties were subsumed into Alexander Grothendieck's concept of a scheme. Their local objects are affine schemes or prime spectra which are locally ringed spaces which form a category which is antiequivalent to the category of commutative unital rings, extending the duality between the category of affine algebraic varieties over a field k, and the category of finitely generated reduced k-algebras. The gluing is along Zariski topology; one can glue within the category of locally ringed spaces, but also, using the Yoneda embedding, within the more abstract category of presheaves of sets over the category of affine schemes. The Zariski topology in the set theoretic sense is then replaced by a Grothendieck topology. Grothendieck introduced Grothendieck topologies having in mind more exotic but geometrically finer and more sensitive examples than the crude Zariski topology, namely the \u00e9tale topology, and the two flat Grothendieck topologies: fppf and fpqc; nowadays some other examples became prominent including Nisnevich topology. Sheaves can be furthermore generalized to stacks in the sense of Grothendieck, usually with some additional representability conditions leading to Artin stacks and, even finer, Deligne\u2013Mumford stacks, both often called algebraic stacks.\nSometimes other algebraic sites replace the category of affine schemes. For example, Nikolai Durov has introduced commutative algebraic monads as a generalization of local objects in a generalized algebraic geometry. Versions of a tropical geometry, of an absolute geometry over a field of one element and an algebraic analogue of Arakelov's geometry were realized in this setup.\nAnother formal generalization is possible to universal algebraic geometry in which every variety of algebras has its own algebraic geometry. The term variety of algebras should not be confused with algebraic variety.\nThe language of schemes, stacks and generalizations has proved to be a valuable way of dealing with geometric concepts and became cornerstones of modern algebraic geometry.\nAlgebraic stacks can be further generalized and for many practical questions like deformation theory and intersection theory, this is often the most natural approach. One can extend the Grothendieck site of affine schemes to a higher categorical site of derived affine schemes, by replacing the commutative rings with an infinity category of differential graded commutative algebras, or of simplicial commutative rings or a similar category with an appropriate variant of a Grothendieck topology. One can also replace presheaves of sets by presheaves of simplicial sets (or of infinity groupoids). Then, in presence of an appropriate homotopic machinery one can develop a notion of derived stack as such a presheaf on the infinity category of derived affine schemes, which is satisfying certain infinite categorical version of a sheaf axiom (and to be algebraic, inductively a sequence of representability conditions). Quillen model categories, Segal categories and quasicategories are some of the most often used tools to formalize this yielding the derived algebraic geometry, introduced by the school of Carlos Simpson, including Andre Hirschowitz, Bertrand To\u00ebn, Gabrielle Vezzosi, Michel Vaqui\u00e9 and others; and developed further by Jacob Lurie, Bertrand To\u00ebn, and Gabrielle Vezzosi. Another (noncommutative) version of derived algebraic geometry, using A-infinity categories has been developed from the early 1990s by Maxim Kontsevich and followers.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Before the 16th century ===\nSome of the roots of algebraic geometry date back to the work of the Hellenistic Greeks from the 5th century BC. The Delian problem, for instance, was to construct a length x so that the cube of side x contained the same volume as the rectangular box a2b for given sides a and b. Menaechmus (circa 350 BC) considered the problem geometrically by intersecting the pair of plane conics ay = x2 and xy = ab. In the 3rd century BC, Archimedes and Apollonius systematically studied additional problems on conic sections using coordinates. Medieval Muslim mathematicians, including Ibn al-Haytham in the 10th century AD, solved certain cubic equations by purely algebraic means and then interpreted the results geometrically. The Persian mathematician Omar Khayy\u00e1m (born 1048 AD) discovered a method for solving cubic equations by intersecting a parabola with a circle and seems to have been the first to conceive a general theory of cubic equations. A few years after Omar Khayy\u00e1m, Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi's Treatise on equations has been described by Roshdi Rashed as \"inaugurating the beginning of algebraic geometry\". This was criticized by Jeffrey Oaks, who claims that the study of curves by means of equations originated with Descartes in the seventeenth century.\n\n\n=== Renaissance ===\nSuch techniques of applying geometrical constructions to algebraic problems were also adopted by a number of Renaissance mathematicians such as Gerolamo Cardano and Niccol\u00f2 Fontana \"Tartaglia\" on their studies of the cubic equation. The geometrical approach to construction problems, rather than the algebraic one, was favored by most 16th and 17th century mathematicians, notably Blaise Pascal who argued against the use of algebraic and analytical methods in geometry. The French mathematicians Franciscus Vieta and later Ren\u00e9 Descartes and Pierre de Fermat revolutionized the conventional way of thinking about construction problems through the introduction of coordinate geometry. They were interested primarily in the properties of algebraic curves, such as those defined by Diophantine equations (in the case of Fermat), and the algebraic reformulation of the classical Greek works on conics and cubics (in the case of Descartes).\nDuring the same period, Blaise Pascal and G\u00e9rard Desargues approached geometry from a different perspective, developing the synthetic notions of projective geometry. Pascal and Desargues also studied curves, but from the purely geometrical point of view: the analog of the Greek ruler and compass construction. Ultimately, the analytic geometry of Descartes and Fermat won out, for it supplied the 18th century mathematicians with concrete quantitative tools needed to study physical problems using the new calculus of Newton and Leibniz. However, by the end of the 18th century, most of the algebraic character of coordinate geometry was subsumed by the calculus of infinitesimals of Lagrange and Euler.\n\n\n=== 19th and early 20th century ===\nIt took the simultaneous 19th century developments of non-Euclidean geometry and Abelian integrals in order to bring the old algebraic ideas back into the geometrical fold. The first of these new developments was seized up by Edmond Laguerre and Arthur Cayley, who attempted to ascertain the generalized metric properties of projective space. Cayley introduced the idea of homogeneous polynomial forms, and more specifically quadratic forms, on projective space. Subsequently, Felix Klein studied projective geometry (along with other types of geometry) from the viewpoint that the geometry on a space is encoded in a certain class of transformations on the space. By the end of the 19th century, projective geometers were studying more general kinds of transformations on figures in projective space. Rather than the projective linear transformations which were normally regarded as giving the fundamental Kleinian geometry on projective space, they concerned themselves also with the higher degree birational transformations. This weaker notion of congruence would later lead members of the 20th century Italian school of algebraic geometry to classify algebraic surfaces up to birational isomorphism.\nThe second early 19th century development, that of Abelian integrals, would lead Bernhard Riemann to the development of Riemann surfaces.\nIn the same period began the algebraization of the algebraic geometry through commutative algebra. The prominent results in this direction are Hilbert's basis theorem and Hilbert's Nullstellensatz, which are the basis of the connexion between algebraic geometry and commutative algebra, and Macaulay's multivariate resultant, which is the basis of elimination theory. Probably because of the size of the computation which is implied by multivariate resultants, elimination theory was forgotten during the middle of the 20th century until it was renewed by singularity theory and computational algebraic geometry.\n\n\n=== 20th century ===\nB. L. van der Waerden, Oscar Zariski and Andr\u00e9 Weil developed a foundation for algebraic geometry based on contemporary commutative algebra, including valuation theory and the theory of ideals. One of the goals was to give a rigorous framework for proving the results of Italian school of algebraic geometry. In particular, this school used systematically the notion of generic point without any precise definition, which was first given by these authors during the 1930s.\nIn the 1950s and 1960s, Jean-Pierre Serre and Alexander Grothendieck recast the foundations making use of sheaf theory. Later, from about 1960, and largely led by Grothendieck, the idea of schemes was worked out, in conjunction with a very refined apparatus of homological techniques. After a decade of rapid development the field stabilized in the 1970s, and new applications were made, both to number theory and to more classical geometric questions on algebraic varieties, singularities, moduli, and formal moduli.\nAn important class of varieties, not easily understood directly from their defining equations, are the abelian varieties, which are the projective varieties whose points form an abelian group. The prototypical examples are the elliptic curves, which have a rich theory. They were instrumental in the proof of Fermat's last theorem and are also used in elliptic-curve cryptography.\nIn parallel with the abstract trend of the algebraic geometry, which is concerned with general statements about varieties, methods for effective computation with concretely-given varieties have also been developed, which lead to the new area of computational algebraic geometry. One of the founding methods of this area is the theory of Gr\u00f6bner bases, introduced by Bruno Buchberger in 1965. Another founding method, more specially devoted to real algebraic geometry, is the cylindrical algebraic decomposition, introduced by George E. Collins in 1973.\nSee also: derived algebraic geometry.\n\n\n== Analytic geometry ==\nAn analytic variety is defined locally as the set of common solutions of several equations involving analytic functions. It is analogous to the included concept of real or complex algebraic variety. Any complex manifold is an analytic variety. Since analytic varieties may have singular points, not all analytic varieties are manifolds.\nModern analytic geometry is essentially equivalent to real and complex algebraic geometry, as has been shown by Jean-Pierre Serre in his paper GAGA, the name of which is French for Algebraic geometry and analytic geometry. Nevertheless, the two fields remain distinct, as the methods of proof are quite different and algebraic geometry includes also geometry in finite characteristic.\n\n\n== Applications ==\nAlgebraic geometry now finds applications in statistics, control theory, robotics, error-correcting codes, phylogenetics and geometric modelling. There are also connections to string theory, game theory, graph matchings, solitons and integer programming.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Sources ===\nKline, M. (1972). Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times. Volume 1. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195061357. \n\n\n== Further reading ==\nSome classic textbooks that predate schemes\nvan der Waerden, B. L. (1945). Einfuehrung in die algebraische Geometrie. Dover.\nHodge, W. V. D.; Pedoe, Daniel (1994). Methods of Algebraic Geometry Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46900-5. Zbl 0796.14001.\nHodge, W. V. D.; Pedoe, Daniel (1994). Methods of Algebraic Geometry Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46901-2. Zbl 0796.14002.\nHodge, W. V. D.; Pedoe, Daniel (1994). Methods of Algebraic Geometry Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46775-9. Zbl 0796.14003.Modern textbooks that do not use the language of schemes\nGarrity, Thomas;  et al. (2013). Algebraic Geometry A Problem Solving Approach. American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-821-89396-8.\nGriffiths, Phillip; Harris, Joe (1994). Principles of Algebraic Geometry. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0-471-05059-9. Zbl 0836.14001.\nHarris, Joe (1995). Algebraic Geometry A First Course. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-97716-4. Zbl 0779.14001.\nMumford, David (1995). Algebraic Geometry I Complex Projective Varieties (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-58657-9. Zbl 0821.14001.\nReid, Miles (1988). Undergraduate Algebraic Geometry. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-35662-6. Zbl 0701.14001.\nShafarevich, Igor (1995). Basic Algebraic Geometry I Varieties in Projective Space (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-54812-8. Zbl 0797.14001.Textbooks in computational algebraic geometryCox, David A.; Little, John; O'Shea, Donal (1997). Ideals, Varieties, and Algorithms (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-94680-1. Zbl 0861.13012.\nBasu, Saugata; Pollack, Richard; Roy, Marie-Fran\u00e7oise (2006). Algorithms in real algebraic geometry. Springer-Verlag.\nGonz\u00e1lez-Vega, Laureano; Recio, T\u00f3mas (1996). Algorithms in algebraic geometry and applications. Birkha\u00fcser.\nElkadi, Mohamed; Mourrain, Bernard; Piene, Ragni, eds. (2006). Algebraic geometry and geometric modeling. Springer-Verlag.\nDickenstein, Alicia; Schreyer, Frank-Olaf; Sommese, Andrew J., eds. (2008). Algorithms in Algebraic Geometry. The IMA Volumes in Mathematics and its Applications. 146. Springer. ISBN 9780387751559. LCCN 2007938208.\nCox, David A.; Little, John B.; O'Shea, Donal (1998). Using algebraic geometry. Springer-Verlag.\nCaviness, Bob F.; Johnson, Jeremy R. (1998). Quantifier elimination and cylindrical algebraic decomposition. Springer-Verlag.Textbooks and references for schemes\nEisenbud, David; Harris, Joe (1998). The Geometry of Schemes. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-98637-1. Zbl 0960.14002.\nGrothendieck, Alexander (1960). \u00c9l\u00e9ments de g\u00e9om\u00e9trie alg\u00e9brique. Publications Math\u00e9matiques de l'IH\u00c9S. Zbl 0118.36206.\nGrothendieck, Alexander; Dieudonn\u00e9, Jean Alexandre (1971). \u00c9l\u00e9ments de g\u00e9om\u00e9trie alg\u00e9brique. 1 (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-05113-8. Zbl 0203.23301.\nHartshorne, Robin (1977). Algebraic Geometry. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-90244-9. Zbl 0367.14001.\nMumford, David (1999). The Red Book of Varieties and Schemes Includes the Michigan Lectures on Curves and Their Jacobians (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-63293-1. Zbl 0945.14001.\nShafarevich, Igor (1995). Basic Algebraic Geometry II Schemes and complex manifolds (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-57554-2. Zbl 0797.14002.\n\n\n== External links ==\nFoundations of Algebraic Geometry by Ravi Vakil, 808 pp.\nAlgebraic geometry entry on PlanetMath\nEnglish translation of the van der Waerden textbook\nDieudonn\u00e9, Jean (March 3, 1972). \"The History of Algebraic Geometry\". Talk at the Department of Mathematics of the University of Wisconsin\u2013Milwaukee \u2013 via YouTube.\nThe Stacks Project, an open source textbook and reference work on algebraic stacks and algebraic geometry", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Parabola_%26_cubic_curve_in_projective_space.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Slanted_circle.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Stereographic_projection_in_3D.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Togliatti_surface.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg"], "summary": "Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics, classically studying zeros of multivariate polynomials. Modern algebraic geometry is based on the use of abstract algebraic techniques, mainly from commutative algebra, for solving  geometrical problems about these sets of zeros.\nThe fundamental objects of study in algebraic geometry are algebraic varieties, which are geometric manifestations of solutions of systems of polynomial equations. Examples of the most studied classes of algebraic varieties are: plane algebraic curves, which include lines, circles, parabolas, ellipses, hyperbolas, cubic curves like elliptic curves, and quartic curves like lemniscates and Cassini ovals. A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation. Basic questions involve the study of the points of special interest like the singular points, the inflection points and the points at infinity. More advanced questions involve the topology of the curve and relations between the curves given by different equations.\nAlgebraic geometry occupies a central place in modern mathematics and has multiple conceptual connections with such diverse fields as complex analysis, topology and number theory. Initially a study of systems of polynomial equations in several variables, the subject of algebraic geometry starts where equation solving leaves off, and it becomes even more important to understand the intrinsic properties of the totality of solutions of a system of equations, than to find a specific solution; this leads into some of the deepest areas in all of mathematics, both conceptually and in terms of technique.\nIn the 20th century, algebraic geometry split into several subareas.\n\nThe mainstream of algebraic geometry is devoted to the study of the complex points of the algebraic varieties and more generally to the points with coordinates in an algebraically closed field.\nReal algebraic geometry is the study of the real points of an algebraic variety.\nDiophantine geometry and, more generally, arithmetic geometry is the study of the points of an algebraic variety with coordinates in fields that are not algebraically closed and occur in algebraic number theory, such as the field of rational numbers, number fields, finite fields, function fields, and p-adic fields.\nA large part of singularity theory is devoted to the singularities of algebraic varieties.\nComputational algebraic geometry is an area that has emerged at the intersection of algebraic geometry and computer algebra, with the rise of computers. It consists mainly of algorithm design and software development for the study of properties of explicitly given algebraic varieties.Much of the development of the mainstream of algebraic geometry in the 20th century occurred within an abstract algebraic framework, with increasing emphasis being placed on \"intrinsic\" properties of algebraic varieties not dependent on any particular way of embedding the variety in an ambient coordinate space; this parallels developments in topology, differential and complex geometry. One key achievement of this abstract algebraic geometry is Grothendieck's scheme theory which allows one to use sheaf theory to study algebraic varieties in a way which is very similar to its use in the study of differential and analytic manifolds. This is obtained by extending the notion of point: In classical algebraic geometry, a point of an affine variety may be identified, through Hilbert's Nullstellensatz, with a maximal ideal of the coordinate ring, while the points of the corresponding affine scheme are all prime ideals of this ring. This means that a point of such a scheme may be either a usual point or a subvariety. This approach also enables a unification of the language and the tools of classical algebraic geometry, mainly concerned with complex points, and of algebraic number theory. Wiles' proof of the longstanding conjecture called Fermat's last theorem is an example of the power of this approach."}, "Econometrica": {"links": ["Frisch Medal", "Hdl ", "Journal of the Royal Statistical Society", "Edward C. Prescott", "Journal of the American Statistical Association", "English language", "Peter Howitt ", "Finn Kydland", "Econometrics", "Statistics Surveys", "Journal of Chemometrics", "The American Statistician", "Biometrika", "Multivariate Behavioral Research", "Communications in Statistics", "Robert F. Engle", "Subscription business model", "Journal of Applied Statistics", "ISO four", "Doi ", "Biometrical Journal", "Editor-in-chief", "Journal of Applied Econometrics", "Annals of Statistics", "Outline of academic disciplines", "Statistical Applications in Genetics and Molecular Biology", "Journal of Business & Economic Statistics", "Ragnar Frisch", "Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods", "Chilean Journal of Statistics", "Econometric Society", "Technometrics", "Halbert White", "Evsey Domar", "Frederick V. Waugh", "Clive Granger", "Frisch\u2013Waugh\u2013Lovell theorem", "Christopher A. Sims", "Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics", "OCLC ", "Open access journal", "Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics", "Marc Melitz", "ISSN ", "JSTOR ", "Survey Methodology", "Comparison of statistics journals", "Journal of Economic Perspectives", "CODEN ", "Delayed open access journal", "Journal of Official Statistics", "Academic journal", "Peer review", "Guido Imbens", "SORT ", "Brazilian Journal of Probability and Statistics", "Biometrics ", "Revista Colombiana de Estadistica", "Academic publisher", "CiteSeerX ", "Wiley-Blackwell", "Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences", "Technology Innovations in Statistics Education", "Statistical Science", "Philippe Aghion", "Statistics in Medicine ", "Amos Tversky", "Econometric Theory", "LCCN ", "List of statistics journals", "Current Index to Statistics", "John F. Muth", "The Review of Economics and Statistics", "Daniel Kahnemann", "Pharmaceutical Statistics", "REVSTAT", "Journal of Statistical Planning and Inference", "Journal of Econometrics", "Impact factor", "Journal of Statistical Software", "Harrod\u2013Domar model", "Article ", "Journal of Statistical Computation and Simulation", "Periodical literature", "Economics", "Biostatistics "], "content": "Econometrica is a peer-reviewed academic journal of economics, publishing articles in many areas of economics, especially econometrics. It is published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Econometric Society. The current editor-in-chief is Guido Imbens.\nEconometrica was established in 1933. Its first editor was Ragnar Frisch, recipient of the first Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1969, who served as an editor from 1933 to 1954. Although Econometrica is currently published entirely in English, the first few issues also contained scientific articles written in French.\nThe Econometric Society aims to attract high-quality applied work in economics for publication in Econometrica through the Frisch Medal. This prize is awarded every two years for an empirical or theoretical applied article published in Econometrica during the past five years.\n\n\n== Notable papers ==\nEven apart from those being awarded with the Frisch medal, numerous Econometrica articles have been highly influential in economics and social sciences, including:\nFrisch, Ragnar; Waugh, Frederick V. (1933). \"Partial Time Regressions as Compared with Individual Trends\". Econometrica. 1 (4): 387\u2013401. doi:10.2307/1907330. JSTOR 1907330.\nEvsey D., Domar (1946). \"Capital Expansion, Rate of Growth, and Employment\". Econometrica. 14 (2): 137\u2013147. doi:10.2307/1905364. JSTOR 1905364.\nMuth, John F. (1961). \"Rational Expectations and the Theory of Price Movements\". Econometrica. 29 (3): 315\u2013335. doi:10.2307/1909635. JSTOR 1909635.\nPratt, J. W. (1964). \"Risk Aversion in the Small and in the Large\". Econometrica. 32 (1\u20132): 122\u2013136. doi:10.2307/1913738. JSTOR 1913738.\nKahneman, Daniel; Tversky, Amos (1979). \"Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk\". Econometrica. 47 (2): 263\u2013291. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.407.1910. doi:10.2307/1914185. JSTOR 1914185.\nSims, Christopher A. (1980). \"Macroeconomics and Reality\". Econometrica. 48 (1): 1\u201348. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.163.5425. doi:10.2307/1912017. JSTOR 1912017.\nWhite, Halbert (1980). \"A Heteroskedasticity-Consistent Covariance Matrix Estimator and a Direct Test for Heteroskedasticity\". Econometrica. 48 (4): 817\u2013838. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.11.7646. doi:10.2307/1912934. JSTOR 1912934.\nEngle, Robert F. (1982). \"Autoregressive Conditional Heteroscedasticity with Estimates of the Variance of United Kingdom Inflation\". Econometrica. 50 (4): 987\u20131007. doi:10.2307/1912773. JSTOR 1912773.\nKydland, Finn E.; Prescott, Edward C. (1982). \"Time to Build and Aggregate Fluctuations\". Econometrica. 50 (6): 1345\u20131370. doi:10.2307/1913386. JSTOR 1913386.\nEngle, Robert F.; Granger, C. W. J. (1987). \"Co-Integration and Error Correction: Representation, Estimation, and Testing\" (PDF). Econometrica. 55 (2): 251\u2013276. doi:10.2307/1913236. JSTOR 1913236.\nAghion, Philippe; Howitt, Peter (1992). \"A Model of Growth Through Creative Destruction\". Econometrica. 60 (2): 323\u2013351. doi:10.2307/2951599. hdl:1721.1/63839. JSTOR 2951599.\nMelitz, Marc J. (2003). \"The Impact of Trade on Intra-Industry Reallocations and Aggregate Industry Productivity\". Econometrica. 71 (6): 1695\u20131725. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.563.6294. doi:10.1111/1468-0262.00467.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg"], "summary": "Econometrica is a peer-reviewed academic journal of economics, publishing articles in many areas of economics, especially econometrics. It is published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Econometric Society. The current editor-in-chief is Guido Imbens.\nEconometrica was established in 1933. Its first editor was Ragnar Frisch, recipient of the first Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1969, who served as an editor from 1933 to 1954. Although Econometrica is currently published entirely in English, the first few issues also contained scientific articles written in French.\nThe Econometric Society aims to attract high-quality applied work in economics for publication in Econometrica through the Frisch Medal. This prize is awarded every two years for an empirical or theoretical applied article published in Econometrica during the past five years."}, "Multivariate_Behavioral_Research": {"links": ["Basic science ", "List of psychology organizations", "Psychology", "Cognitivism ", "Correlation coefficient", "Intra-class correlation coefficient", "JMP ", "Psychology of religion", "Confirmatory factor analysis", "Cronbach's alpha", "Binomial test", "Covariance matrix", "Music psychology", "ANOVA", "Canonical correlation", "Experimental Psychology", "History of psychology", "Counseling psychology", "Health psychology", "Assessment ", "Military psychology", "Journal of Mathematical Psychology", "Data analytics", "Content validity", "Applied Psychological Measurement", "Sport psychology", "Hierarchical linear modelling", "Cognitive psychology", "Educational and Psychological Measurement", "Evolutionary psychology", "Critical psychology", "Personality psychology", "List of psychological research methods", "Cultural psychology", "Multivariate analysis", "Positive psychology", "Factor analysis", "Logistic regression", "Educational psychology", "Traffic psychology", "Test validity", "Cluster analysis", "MANCOVA", "American Journal of Evaluation", "Clinical psychology", "SAS ", "Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics", "ANCOVA", "School psychology", "List of psychology disciplines", "List of psychotherapies", "Occupational health psychology", "Legal psychology", "Environmental psychology", "Experimental psychology", "Humanistic psychology", "Differential psychology", "Multilevel modeling", "Reliability ", "Psychological Assessment ", "British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology", "Human factors and ergonomics", "Spearman\u2013Brown prediction formula", "Applied psychology", "Chi-squared test", "Principal component analysis", "Quantitative psychology", "Cross-cultural psychology", "Exploratory Factor Analysis", "Item response theory", "Factor Analysis", "Multiple regression", "R ", "Index of psychology articles", "Multivariate Behavioral Research", "Psychometrics", "Confirmatory Factor Analysis", "Abnormal psychology", "Structural Equation Modeling ", "Behavioral neuroscience", "Comparative psychology", "Parallel-forms Reliability", "Community psychology", "Social psychology", "Multiple regression analysis", "Psychometrika", "Applied behavior analysis", "Experimental designs", "Cohen's kappa", "Outline of psychology", "Medical psychology", "Political psychology", "Krippendorff's alpha", "Criterion validity", "Forensic psychology", "Regression analysis", "List of psychologists", "ISBN ", "Mathematical psychology", "Behavioural genetics", "Classical test theory", "Item Response Theory", "List of important publications in psychology", "KNIME", "Ggplottwo", "Consumer behaviour", "Timeline of psychology", "SPSS", "Neuropsychology", "MANOVA", "Industrial and organizational psychology", "Subfields of psychology", "List of psychological schools", "Structural equation modeling", "Construct validity", "Exploratory factor analysis", "T-test", "Developmental psychology"], "content": "Psychological statistics is application of formulas, theorems, numbers and laws to psychology. \nStatistical Methods for psychology include development and application statistical theory and methods for modeling psychological data. \nThese methods include psychometrics, Factor analysis, Experimental Designs, and Multivariate Behavioral Research. The article also discusses journals in the same field.\n\n\n== Psychometrics ==\n\nPsychometrics deals with measurement of psychological attributes. It involves developing and applying statistical models for mental measurements. The measurement theories are divided into two major areas: (1) Classical test theory; (2) Item Response Theory.\n\n\n=== Classical Test Theory ===\n\nThe classical test theory or true score theory or reliability theory in statistics is a set of statistical procedures useful for development of psychological tests and scales. It is based on a fundamental equation, \nX = T + E\nwhere, X is total score, T is a true score and E is error of measurement. For each participant, it assumes that there exist a true score and it need to be obtained score (X) has to be as close to it as possible. The closeness of X has with T is expressed in terms of ratability of the obtained score. The reliability in terms of classical test procedure is correlation between true score and obtained score. The typical test construction procedures has following steps:\n(1)\tDetermine the construct \n(2)\tOutline the behavioral domain of the construct\n(3)\tWrite 3 to 5 times more items than desired test length\n(4)\tGet item content analyzed by experts and cull items\n(5)\tObtain data on initial version of the test \n(6)\tItem analysis (Statistical Procedure)\n(7)\tFactor analysis (Statistical Procedure)\n(8)\tAfter the second cull, make final version\n(9)\tUse it for research\n\n\n==== Reliability ====\n\nThe reliability is computed in specific ways.  \n(A)\tInter-Rater reliability: Inter-Rater reliability is estimate of agreement between independent raters. This is most useful for subjective responses. Cohen's Kappa, Krippendorff's Alpha, Intra-Class correlation coefficients, Correlation coefficients, Kendal's concordance coefficient, etc. are useful statistical tools. \n(B)\tTest-Retest Reliability: Test-Retest Procedure is estimation of temporal consistency of the test. A test is administered twice to the same sample with a time interval. Correlation between two sets of scores is used as an estimate of reliability. Testing conditions are assumed to be identical. \n(C)\t Internal Consistency Reliability: Internal consistency reliability estimates consistency of items with each other. Split-half reliability (Spearman- Brown Prophecy) and Cronbach Alpha are popular estimates of this reliability. \n(D)\tParallel Form Reliability: It is an estimate of consistency between two different instruments of measurement. The inter-correlation between two parallel forms of a test or scale is used as an estimate of parallel form reliability.\n\n\n==== Validity ====\n\nValidity of a scale or test is ability of the instrument to measure what it purports to measure. Construct validity, Content Validity, and Criterion Validity are types of validity. \nConstruct validity is estimated by convergent and discriminant validity and factor analysis. Convergent and discriminant validity are ascertained by correlation between similar of different constructs. \nContent Validity: Subject matter experts evaluate content validity. \nCriterion Validity is correlation between the test and a criterion variable (or variables) of the construct. Regression analysis, Multiple regression analysis, and Logistic regression are used as an estimate of criterion validity. \nSoftware applications: The R software has \u2018psych\u2019 package that is useful for classical test theory analysis.\n\n\n=== Modern test Theory ===\n\nThe modern test theory is based on latent trait model. Every item estimates the ability of the test taker. The ability parameter is called as theta (\u03b8). The difficulty parameter is called b. the two important assumptions are local independence and unidimensionality.   \nThe Item Response Theory has three models. They are one parameter logistic model, two parameter logistic model and three parameter logistic model. In addition, Polychromous IRT Model are also useful.The R Software has \u2018ltm\u2019, packages useful for IRT analysis.\n\n\n== Factor Analysis ==\n\nFactor analysis is at the core of psychological statistics. It has two schools: (1) Exploratory Factor analysis (2) Confirmatory Factor analysis.\n\n\n=== Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) ===\n\nThe exploratory factor analysis begins without a theory or with a very tentative theory. It is a dimension reduction technique. It is useful in psychometrics, multivariate analysis of data and data analytics. \nTypically a k-dimensional correlation matrix or covariance matrix of variables is reduced to k X r factor pattern matrix where r < k. Principal Component analysis and common factor analysis are two ways of extracting data. Principal axis factoring, ML factor analysis, alpha factor analysis and image factor analysis is most useful ways of EFA. \nIt employs various factor rotation methods which can be classified into orthogonal (resulting in uncorrelated factors) and oblique (resulting correlated factors).\nThe \u2018psych\u2019 package in R is useful for EFA.\n\n\n=== Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) ===\n\nConfirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) is factor analytic technique that begins with theory and test the theory by carrying out factor analysis. \nThe CFA is also called as latent structure analysis, which considers factor as latent variables causing actual observable variables. The basic equation of the CFA is\nX = \u039b\u03be + \u03b4\nwhere, X is observed variables, \u039b are structural coefficients, \u03be are latent variables (factors) and \u03b4 are errors. \nThe parameters are estimated using ML methods however; other methods of estimation are also available. The chi-square test is very sensitive and hence various fit measures are used.\nR package \u2018sem\u2019, \u2018lavaan\u2019 are useful for the same.\n\n\n== Experimental Design ==\n\nExperimental Methods are very popular in psychology. It has more than 100 years tradition. Experimental psychology has a status of sub-discipline in psychology .\nThe statistical methods are applied for designing and analyzing experimental data. They involve, t-test, ANOVA, ANCOVA,  MANOVA, MANCOVA, binomial test, chi-square etc. are used for the analysis of the experimental data.\n\n\n== Multivariate Behavioral Research ==\nMultivariate behavioral research is becoming very popular in psychology. These methods include Multiple Regression and Prediction; Moderated and Mediated Regression Analysis; Logistics Regression; Canonical Correlations; Cluster analysis; Multi-level modeling; Survival-Failure analysis; Structural Equations Modeling; hierarchical linear modelling, etc. are very useful for psychological statistics.\n\n\n== Journals for statistical application for psychology ==\nThere are many specialized journals that publish advances in statistical analysis for psychology:\n\nPsychometrika\nEducational and Psychological Measurement\nAssessment\nAmerican Journal of Evaluation\nApplied Psychological Measurement\nBehavior Research Methods\nBritish Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology\nJournal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics\nJournal of Mathematical Psychology\nMultivariate Behavioral Research\nPsychological Assessment\nStructural Equation Modeling\n\n\n== Software Packages for Psychological Research ==\nVarious software packages are available for statistical methods for psychological research. They can be classified as commercial software (e.g., JMP and SPSS) and open-source (e.g., R). Among the open-source offerings, the R software is the most popular. There are many online references for R and specialized books on R for Psychologists are also being written. The \"psych\" package of R is very useful for psychologists. Among others, \"lavaan\", \"sem\", \"ltm\", \"ggplot2\" are some of the popular packages. PSPP and KNIME are other free packages. Among the commercial packages include JMP, SPSS and SAS. JMP and SPSS are commonly reported in books.\n\n\n== See also ==\nQuantitative psychology\n\n\n== References ==\nAgresti, A. (1990). Categorical data analysis. Wiley: NJ.\nBollen, KA. (1989). Structural Equations with Latent Variables. New York: John Wiley & Sons.\nBelhekar, V. M. (2016). Statistics for Psychology Using R, New Delhi: SAGE. ISBN 9789385985003\nDancey, Christine P.; Reidy, John (2011). Statistics Without Maths for Psychology. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-273-72602-9.\nCohen, B.H. (2007) Explaining Psychological Statistics, 3rd Edition, Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-00718-1\nCronbach LJ (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika 16, 297\u2013334. doi:10.1007/bf02310555\nHambleton, R. K., & Swaminathan H. (1985). Item Response theory: Principles and Applications. Boston: Kluwer.\nHarman, H. H. (1976). Modern Factor Analysis(3rd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.\nHayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. The Guilford Press: NY.\nHowell, D. (2009) Statistical Methods for Psychology, International Edition, Wadsworth. ISBN 0-495-59785-6\nKline, T. J. B. (2005)Psychological Testing: A Practical Approach to Design and Evaluation. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks.\nLoehlin, J. E. (1992). Latent Variable Models: An Introduction to Factor, Path, and Structural Analysis (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.\nLord, F. M. , and Novick, M. R. ( 1 968). Statistical theories of mental test scores. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1968.\nMenard, S. (2001). Applied logistic regression analysis. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks. CA: Sage Publications.\nNunnally, J. & Bernstein, I. (1994). Psychometric Theory.  McGraw-Hill.\nRaykov, T.  & Marcoulides, G.A. (2010) Introduction to Psychometric Theory. New York: Routledge.\nTabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using Multivariate Statistics, 6th ed. Boston: Pearson. ISBN 9780205849574\nWilcox, R. (2012). Modern Statistics for the Social and Behavioral Sciences: A Practical Introduction. FL: CRC Press. ISBN 9781439834565Specific\n\n\n== External links ==\nCRAN Webpage for R\nPage for R functions for psychological statistics\n\nMatthew Rockloff's tutorials on t-tests, correlation and ANOVA\nYouTube videos on statistics for psychology by Vivek Belhekar", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Psi2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/archive/6/6c/20101113061943%21Psi2.svg"], "summary": "Psychological statistics is application of formulas, theorems, numbers and laws to psychology. \nStatistical Methods for psychology include development and application statistical theory and methods for modeling psychological data. \nThese methods include psychometrics, Factor analysis, Experimental Designs, and Multivariate Behavioral Research. The article also discusses journals in the same field."}, "Industrial_and_organizational_psychology": {"links": ["Opinions", "Health Professions Council of South Africa", "Absenteeism", "Interpersonal skills", "Philosophy of psychology", "Intelligence", "Blackwell Publishers", "Organizational diagnostics", "B. F. Skinner", "Traffic psychology", "Erving Goffman", "Formative assessments", "Doi ", "Group behavior", "Life satisfaction", "Machiavellianism in the workplace", "Pastoral psychology", "British Psychological Society", "Instructional design", "Organizational engineering", "Job performance", "Donald T. Campbell", "Organizational ombudsman", "Organisation climate", "Differential psychology", "Content validity", "John Wiley & Sons", "Organizational safety", "Logistic regression", "Walter Van Dyke Bingham", "Case study", "Vroom-Yetton decision model", "Organizational citizenship behavior", "Environmental psychology", "Behavioral neuroscience", "Organizational network analysis", "Mathematical psychology", "Sigmund Freud", "Organizational behavior", "OCLC ", "PMID ", "Personality psychology", "List of psychotherapies", "Counseling psychology", "Stanley Schachter", "Team", "Anomalistic psychology", "Individual psychological assessment", "Health psychology", "Psychopathy in the workplace", "Richard E. Nisbett", "Observational studies", "Performance management", "Suggestion box", "Management", "Elton Mayo", "Archival research", "Ecological psychology", "Organizational learning", "Human resource management", "Cross-cultural psychology", "Human relations movement", "Virtual team", "Substance abuse", "Transactional leadership", "World War I", "United States dollar", "Work design", "History of psychology", "Edward Thorndike", "Organizational intelligence", "Participant observation", "Job satisfaction", "Correlation", "Expert witness", "Applied behavior analysis", "Classical test theory", "Persuasion", "Mentorship", "Learning", "Personality tests", "Fiedler contingency model", "Organizational identification", "Theoretical psychology", "Organizational analysis", "Motivation", "Positive psychology in the workplace", "Endel Tulving", "Workplace bullying", "Organizational field", "Team effectiveness", "Resilience ", "Army Alpha", "Counterproductive work behavior", "Person-environment fit", "ISSN ", "Job enlargement", "Trait theory", "Bruce McEwen", "Power ", "Systems psychology", "Joseph E. LeDoux", "Personnel psychology", "Job evaluation", "Cognitivism ", "Donald O. Hebb", "List of psychological research methods", "List of psychological schools", "Organization development", "Bureau of Labor Statistics", "Herbert A. Simon", "Roy Baumeister", "Health", "Harry Harlow", "Suicidology", "Kurt Lewin", "Social cognitive neuroscience", "Simulation", "Quasi-experiments", "Richard Davidson", "Critical psychology", "Fatigue ", "Positive psychology", "Self-report inventory", "Clinical psychology", "Person analysis", "Survey methodology", "Cognitive psychology", "Psychology of religion", "Job characteristic theory", "Raymond Cattell", "Quantitative psychological research", "Neal E. Miller", "Experimental psychology", "Walter Dill Scott", "Gordon Allport", "Work motivation", "Richard Lazarus", "Neuroimaging", "Employment law", "Workplace violence", "Perceived organizational support", "Attitude ", "Carl Rogers", "Wayback Machine", "Society for Occupational Health Psychology", "Multilevel modeling", "Organizational socialization", "List of psychology disciplines", "Organizational effectiveness", "Kick the cat", "Leadership", "Focus groups", "Occupational burnout", "Cellular organizational structure", "Rand McNally", "Industrial Revolution", "David McClelland", "Ronald C. Kessler", "Ingratiation", "Organizational capital", "Statistical survey", "Wilhelm Wundt", "Analysis of variance", "Organizational life cycle", "Consumer behaviour", "Incentive", "Experiment", "Forensic psychology", "Paul Ekman", "Sexual harassment", "Psychophysics", "Affective neuroscience", "Employee benefits", "Shelley E. Taylor", "Human resources development", "Daniel Kahneman", "Hierarchical organization", "Psycholinguistics", "Musculoskeletal disorder", "Negative affect", "Behaviorism", "Health and Care Professions Council", "Innovation", "French and Raven's bases of power", "Workplace politics", "Carl Jung", "Needs assessment", "Outline of psychology", "Subfields of psychology", "Human subject research", "Noam Chomsky", "Well-being", "Basic science ", "Ulric Neisser", "Susan Fiske", "Theft", "Organizational conflict", "Leader\u2013member exchange theory", "Psychological testing", "Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology", "Proactivity", "Music psychology", "Neuropsychology", "Case studies", "Performance Rating ", "Psychotherapy", "Remuneration", "John Robert Anderson ", "Item response theory", "Larry Squire", "Behaviorally anchored rating scales", "Meta-analyses", "Organizational culture", "Stanford\u2013Binet", "Psychometric", "Occupational medicine", "Onboarding", "Hans Eysenck", "Military psychology", "Developmental psychology", "Index of psychology articles", "Coaching psychology", "Michael Posner ", "Australian Psychological Society", "Quantitative psychology", "Job enrichment", "Organizational space", "Complexity theory and organizations", "Robert Zajonc", "Moral psychology", "Martin Seligman", "Jossey-Bass", "Summative evaluation", "Animal testing", "Timeline of psychology", "Clark L. Hull", "Roger Brown ", "Interview ", "European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology", "G factor ", "Scientist\u2013practitioner model", "Job analysis", "Human resources", "Social psychology", "Organizational ethics", "Legal psychology", "Hugo M\u00fcnsterberg", "Accident", "Ethnographic", "Organizational architecture", "Affective science", "Path\u2013goal theory", "Goal", "Organizational dissent", "Political psychology", "Transfer of training", "Organizational storytelling", "Needs analysis", "List of psychology organizations", "Elliot Aronson", "Medical ethics", "Interviews", "Hawthorne studies", "Cognitive science", "Lawrence Kohlberg", "Cognitive neuroscience", "Psychology", "Jean Piaget", "Qualitative methods", "School psychology", "Content analysis", "Equal Employment Opportunity Commission", "European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology", "Behavioural genetics", "American Psychological Association", "Job crafting", "Organizational structure", "Behavioral epigenetics", "Organizational commitment", "Feminist psychology", "JSTOR ", "James McKeen Cattell", "Recruitment", "SAGE Publications", "Perception", "Generalizability theory", "Rating scale", "Gestalt psychology", "Organizational patterns", "Construct validity", "Leon Festinger", "Humanistic psychology", "Organizational ecology", "Organizational performance", "Jerome Bruner", "Industrial sociology", "Personnel selection", "Evolutionary psychology", "Personality test", "Ivan Pavlov", "Blame", "Occupational stress", "Training needs analysis", "Cultural psychology", "Hdl ", "ISBN ", "Erik Erikson", "Qualitative psychological research", "Individual differences", "Transformational leadership", "Association of Business Psychologists", "Job turnover", "Abnormal psychology", "Arthur Kornhauser", "William James", "Medical psychology", "Performance evaluation", "Psychologist", "Human factors and ergonomics", "Educational psychology", "Critical Incident Technique", "Ed Diener", "Observation", "Occupational health and safety", "World War II", "Performance appraisal", "Carnegie Mellon University", "Task analysis", "Quality of working life", "Oxford University Press", "EuroPsy", "Hierarchical linear modeling", "List of important publications in psychology", "Organization", "Organizational justice", "Media psychology", "Occupational health psychology", "Community psychology", "Criterion validity", "Individual assessment", "Amos Tversky", "Comparative psychology", "Occupational safety and health", "Assessment centre", "Workplace aggression", "Applied psychology", "Jerome Kagan", "Narcissism in the workplace", "John B. Watson", "Behavioral risk management", "Consideration and initiating structure", "Walter Mischel", "Social influence", "Americans with Disabilities Act of nineteen ninety", "Structural equation modeling", "J. P. Guilford", "George Armitage Miller", "List of psychologists", "List of counseling topics", "Sport psychology", "Performance appraisals", "Albert Bandura", "Abraham Maslow", "Organizational chart", "Fit in or fuck off", "Meta-analysis", "Psychometrics", "Psychophysiology", "Quantitative methods", "Job rotation", "Multiple regression", "Organizational retaliatory behavior", "Training", "Kiss up kick down", "National Council on Measurement in Education", "Occupational Health Science", "Organizational communication", "Ernest Hilgard", "Mechanization"], "content": "Industrial and organizational psychology (I-O psychology) which is also known as occupational psychology, organizational psychology, or work and organizational psychology; is an applied discipline within psychology. Industrial, work and organizational psychology (IWO) is the broader global term for the field internationally.\nThe discipline is the science of human behavior relating to work and applies psychological theories and principles to organizations and individuals in their places of work as well as the individual's work-life more generally. Industrial and organizational psychologists are trained in the scientist\u2013practitioner model. They contribute to an organization's success by improving the performance, motivation, job satisfaction, and occupational safety and health as well as the overall health and well-being of its employees. An I-O psychologist conducts research on employee behaviors and attitudes, and how these can be improved through hiring practices, training programs, feedback, and management systems.I-O psychology was ranked the fastest growing occupation over the next decade according to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics's Occupational Outlook Handbook in 2014. It is estimated to grow 53% with a mean salary of US$109,030, with those at the top 10 percentile earning $192,150 for 2018.As of 2020, I-O psychology is one of the 17 recognized professional specialties by the American Psychological Association (APA) in the United States. It is represented by Division 14 of the APA and is formally known as the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP).\n\n\n== International ==\nIn the United Kingdom, industrial and organizational psychologists are referred to as occupational psychologists. Occupational psychology in the UK is one of nine \"protected titles\" within the profession \"practitioner psychologist\" regulated by the Health and Care Professions Council. In the UK, graduate programs in psychology, including occupational psychology, are accredited by the British Psychological Society.\nIn Australia, the title organizational psychologist is protected by law, and regulated by the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA). Organizational psychology is one of nine areas of specialist endorsement for psychology practice in Australia.In Europe, someone with a specialist EuroPsy Certificate in Work and Organisational Psychology is a fully qualified psychologist and a specialist in the work psychology field. Industrial and organizational psychologists reaching the EuroPsy standard are recorded in the Register of European Psychologists and industrial and organizational psychology is one of the three main psychology specializations in Europe.\nIn South Africa, industrial psychology is a registration category for the profession of psychologist as regulated by the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA).\n\n\n== Historical overview ==\nThe historical development of I-O psychology was paralleled in the US, the UK, Australia, Germany, the Netherlands, and Eastern European countries such as Romania. The roots of I-O psychology trace back nearly to the beginning of psychology as a science, when Wilhelm Wundt founded one of the first psychological laboratories in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. In the mid 1880s, Wundt trained two psychologists, Hugo M\u00fcnsterberg and James McKeen Cattell, who had a major influence on the emergence of I-O psychology.Instead of viewing performance differences as human \"errors\", Cattell was one of the first to recognize the importance of differences among individuals as a way of better understanding work behavior. Walter Dill Scott, who was a contemporary of Cattell, was elected President of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1919, was arguably the most prominent I-O psychologist of his time. Scott, along with Walter Van Dyke Bingham, worked at the Carnegie Institute of Technology, developing methods for selecting and training sales personnel.The \"industrial\" side of I-O psychology originated in research on individual differences, assessment, and the prediction of work performance. Industrial psychology crystallized during World War I. In response to the need to rapidly assign new troops to duty. Scott and Bingham volunteered to help with the testing and placement of more than a million army recruits. In 1917, together with other prominent psychologists, they adapted a well-known intelligence test the Stanford\u2013Binet, which was designed for testing one individual at a time, to make it suitable for group testing. The new test was called the Army Alpha.After the war, the growing industrial base in the US was a source of momentum for what was then called industrial psychology. Private industry set out to emulate the successful testing of army personnel. Mental ability testing soon became commonplace in the work setting.\nElton Mayo found that rest periods improved morale and reduced turnover in a Philadelphia textile factory. He later joined the ongoing Hawthorne studies, where he became interested in how workers' emotions and informal relationships affected productivity. The results of these studies ushered in the human relations movement.World War II brought renewed interest in ability testing (to accurately place recruits in new technologically advanced military jobs), the introduction of the assessment center, and concern with morale and fatigue in war industry workers.The industrial psychology division of the former American Association of Applied Psychology became a division within APA, becoming Division 14 of APA. It was initially called the Industrial and Business Psychology Division. In 1962, the name was changed to the Industrial Psychology Division. In 1973, it was renamed again, this time to the Division of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. In 1982, the unit become more independent of APA, and its name was changed again, this time to the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology.The name change of the division from \"industrial psychology\" to \"industrial and organizational psychology\" reflected the shift in the work of industrial psychologists who had originally addressed work behavior from the individual perspective, examining performance and attitudes of individual workers. Their work became broader. Group behavior in the workplace became a worthy subject of study. The emphasis on \"organizational\" underlined the fact that when an individual joins an organization (e.g., the organization that hired him or her), he or she will be exposed to a common goal and a common set of operating procedures. In the 1970s in the UK, references to occupational psychology became more common than I-O psychology.According to Bryan and Vinchur, \"while organizational psychology increased in popularity through [the 1960s and 1970s], research and practice in the traditional areas of industrial psychology continued, primarily driven by employment legislation and case law\". There was a focus on fairness and validity in selection efforts as well as in the job analyses that undergirded selection instruments. For example, I-O psychology showed increased interest in behaviorally anchored rating scales. What critics there were of I-O psychology accused the discipline of being responsive only to the concerns of managements.From the 1980s to 2010s, other changes in I-O psychology took place. Researchers increasingly adopted a multi-level approach, attempting to understand behavioral phenomena from both the level of the organization and the level of the individual worker. There was also an increased interest in the needs and expectations of employees as individuals. For example, an emphasis on organizational justice and the psychological contract took root, as well as the more traditional concerns of selection and training. Methodological innovations (e.g., meta-analyses, structural equation modeling) were adopted. With the passage of the American with Disabilities Act in 1990 and parallel legislation elsewhere in the world, I-O psychology saw an increased emphasis on \"fairness in personnel decisions.\" Training research relied increasingly on advances in educational psychology and cognitive science.\n\n\n== Research methods ==\nAs described above, I-O psychologists are trained in the scientist\u2013practitioner model. I-O psychologists rely on a variety of methods to conduct organizational research. Study designs employed by I-O psychologists include surveys, experiments, quasi-experiments, and observational studies. I-O psychologists rely on diverse data sources including human judgments, historical databases, objective measures of work performance (e.g., sales volume), and questionnaires and surveys.\nI-O researchers employ quantitative statistical methods. Quantitative methods used in I-O psychology include correlation, multiple regression, and analysis of variance. More advanced statistical methods employed in I-O research include logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and hierarchical linear modeling (HLM; also known as multilevel modeling). I-O research has also employed meta-analysis. I-O psychologists also employ psychometric methods including methods associated with classical test theory, generalizability theory, and item response theory (IRT).I-O psychologists have also employed qualitative methods, which largely involve focus groups, interviews, and case studies. I-O psychologists conducting research on organizational culture have employed ethnographic techniques and participant observation. A qualitative technique associated with I-O psychology is Flanagan's Critical Incident Technique. I-O psychologists also use quantitative and qualitative methods in concert and  sometimes within a single study.\n\n\n== Topics ==\n\n\n=== Job analysis ===\n\nJob analysis encompasses a number of different methods including, but not limited to, interviews, questionnaires, task analysis, and observation. It primarily involves the systematic collection of information about a job. A task-oriented job analysis involves an examination of the duties, tasks, and/or competencies required by the job being assessed. By contrast, a worker-oriented job analysis involves an examination of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) required to successfully perform the work. Information obtained from job analyses are used for many purposes, including the creation of job-relevant selection procedures, performance appraisals and the criteria they require, and the development of training programs.\n\n\n=== Personnel recruitment and selection ===\n\nI-O psychologists typically work with human resource specialists to design (a) recruitment processes and (b) personnel selection systems. Personnel recruitment is the process of identifying qualified candidates in the workforce and getting them to apply for jobs within an organization. Personnel recruitment processes include developing job announcements, placing ads, defining key qualifications for applicants, and screening out unqualified applicants.\nPersonnel selection is the systematic process of hiring and promoting personnel. Personnel selection systems employ evidence-based practices to determine the most qualified candidates. Personnel selection involves both the newly hired and individuals who can be promoted from within the organization. Common selection tools include ability tests (e.g., cognitive, physical, or psycho-motor), knowledge tests, personality tests, structured interviews, the systematic collection of biographical data, and work samples. I-O psychologists must evaluate evidence regarding the extent to which selection tools predict job performance.\nPersonnel selection procedures are usually validated, i.e., shown to be job relevant to personnel selection, using one or more of the following types of validity: content validity, construct validity, and/or criterion-related validity. I-O psychologists must adhere to professional standards in personnel selection efforts. SIOP (e.g., Principles for validation and use of personnel selection procedures) and APA together with the National Council on Measurement in Education (e.g., Standards for educational and psychological testing are sources of those standards. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission's Uniform guidelines are also influential in guiding personnel selection decisions.\nA meta-analysis of selection methods found that general mental ability was the best overall predictor of job performance and attainment in training.\n\n\n=== Performance appraisal/management ===\n\nPerformance appraisal or performance evaluation is the process in which an individual's or a group's work behaviors and outcomes are assessed against managers' and others' expectations for the job. Performance appraisal is frequently used in promotion and compensation decisions, to help design and validate personnel selection procedures, and for performance management. Performance management is the process of providing performance feedback relative to expectations, and information relevant to improvement (e.g., coaching, mentoring). Performance management may also include documenting and tracking performance information for organizational evaluation purposes.\nAn I-O psychologist would typically use information from the job analysis to determine a job's performance dimensions, and then construct a rating scale to describe each level of performance for the job. Often, the I-O psychologist would be responsible for training organizational personnel how to use the performance appraisal instrument, including ways to minimize bias when using the rating scale, and how to provide effective performance feedback.\n\n\n=== Individual assessment and psychometrics ===\n\nIndividual assessment involves the measurement of individual differences. I-O psychologists perform individual assessments in order to evaluate differences among candidates for employment as well as differences among employees. The constructs measured pertain to job performance. With candidates for employment, individual assessment is often part of the personnel selection process. These assessments can include written tests, aptitude tests, physical tests, psycho-motor tests, personality tests, integrity and reliability tests, work samples, simulations, and assessment centres.\n\n\n=== Occupational health and well-being ===\nI-O psychologists are concerned with occupational health and well-being for well over a century. Developments early in the 20th century occurred in both the UK and the U.S. During World War I Charles Myers in the U.K. studied worker fatigue and other aspects of well-being, discussed in his 1920 I-O psychology textbook. In the U.S. Arthur Kornhauser examined the impact on productivity of hiring mentally unstable workers. Kornhauser also examined the link between industrial working conditions and mental health as well as the spillover into a worker's personal life of having an unsatisfying job.More recently, I-O researchers have found that staying vigorous during working hours is associated with better work-related behaviour and subjective well-being as well as more effective functioning in the family domain. Trait vigor and recovery experiences after work were related to vigor at work. Job satisfaction has also been found to be associated with life satisfaction, happiness, well-being and positive affect, and the absence of negative affect.  Other research indicates that among older workers activities such as volunteering and participating in social clubs was related to a decrease in depressive symptoms over the next two years. Research on job changing indicates that mobility between, but not within, organizations is associated with burnout. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a new discipline, occupational health psychology, emerged from i/o psychology and both health psychology, and occupational medicine.\n\n\n=== Work design ===\n\nWork design concerns the \"content and organisational of one's work tasks, activities, relationships, and responsibilities.\" Research has demonstrated that work design has important implications for individual employees (e.g., level of engagement, job strain, chance of injury), teams (e.g., how effectively teams co-ordinate their activities), organisations (e.g., productivity, safety, efficiency targets), and society (e.g., whether a nation utilises the skills of its population or promotes effective aging).I-O psychologists review job tasks, relationships, and an individual's way of thinking about their work to ensure that their roles are meaningful and motivating, thus creating greater productivity and job satisfaction. Deliberate interventions aimed at altering work design are sometimes referred to as work redesign. Such interventions can be initiated by the management of an organization (e.g., job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment) or by individual workers (e.g., job crafting, role innovation, idiosyncratic ideals).\n\n\n=== Workplace bullying, aggression and violence ===\n \nI-O psychologists are concerned with the related topics of workplace bullying, aggression, and violence. For example, I-O research found that exposure to workplace violence elicited ruminative thinking.  Ruminative thinking is associated with poor well-being. I-O research has found that interpersonal aggressive behaviour is associated with worse team performance.\n\n\n=== Remuneration and compensation ===\n\nCompensation includes wages or salary, bonuses, pension/retirement contributions, and employee benefits that can be converted to cash or replace living expenses. I-O psychologists may be asked to conduct a job evaluation for the purpose of determining compensation levels and ranges. I-O psychologists may also serve as expert witnesses in pay discrimination cases, when disparities in pay for similar work are alleged by employees.\n\n\n==== Training and training evaluation ====\n\nTraining involves the systematic teaching of skills, concepts, or attitudes that results in improved performance in another environment. Because many people hired for a job are not already versed in all the tasks the job requires, training may be needed to help the individual perform the job effectively. Evidence indicates that training is often effective, and that it succeeds in terms of higher net sales and gross profitability per employee.Similar to performance management (see above), an I-O psychologist would employ a job analysis in concert with the application of the principles of instructional design to create an effective training program. A training program is likely to include a summative evaluation at its conclusion in order to ensure that trainees have met the training objectives and can perform the target work tasks at an acceptable level. Training programs often include formative evaluations to assess the effect of the training as the training proceeds. Formative evaluations can be used to locate problems in training procedures and help I-O psychologists make corrective adjustments while training is ongoing.The foundation for training programs is learning. Learning outcomes can be organized into three broad categories: cognitive, skill-based, and affective outcomes. Cognitive training is aimed at instilling declarative knowledge or the knowledge of rules, facts, and principles (e.g., police officer training covers laws and court procedures). Skill-based training aims to impart procedural knowledge (e.g., skills needed to use a special tool) or technical skills (e.g., understanding the workings of software program). Affective training concerns teaching individuals to develop specific attitudes or beliefs that predispose trainees to behave a certain way (e.g., show commitment to the organization, appreciate diversity).A needs assessment, an analysis of corporate and individual goals, is often undertaken prior to the development of a training program. In addition, a careful needs analysis is required in order to develop a systematic understanding of where training is needed, what should be taught, and who will be trained. A training needs analysis typically involves a three-step process that includes organizational analysis, task analysis and person analysis.An organizational analysis is an examination of organizational goals and resources as well as the organizational environment. The results of an organizational analysis help to determine where training should be directed. The analysis identifies the training needs of different departments or subunits. It systematically assesses manager, peer, and technological support for transfer of training. An organizational analysis also takes into account the climate of the organization and its subunits. For example, if a climate for safety is emphasized throughout the organization or in subunits of the organization (e.g., production), then training needs will likely reflect an emphasis on safety. A task analysis uses the results of a job analysis to determine what is needed for successful job performance, contributing to training content. With organizations increasingly trying to identify \"core competencies\" that are required for all jobs, task analysis can also include an assessment of competencies. A person analysis identifies which individuals within an organization should receive training and what kind of instruction they need. Employee needs can be assessed using a variety of methods that identify weaknesses that training can address.\n\n\n=== Motivation in the workplace ===\n\nWork motivation reflects the energy an individual applies \"to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration\" Understanding what motivates an organization's employees is central to I-O psychology. Motivation is generally thought of as a theoretical construct that fuels behavior. An incentive is an anticipated reward that is thought to incline a person to behave a certain way. Motivation varies among individuals. Studying its influence on behavior, it must be examined together with ability and environmental influences. Because of motivation's role in influencing workplace behavior and performance, many organizations structure the work environment to encourage productive behaviors and discourage unproductive behaviors.Motivation involves three psychological processes: arousal, direction, and intensity. Arousal is what initiates action. It is often fueled by a person's need or desire for something that is missing from his or her life, either totally or partially. Direction refers to the path employees take in accomplishing the goals they set for themselves. Intensity is the amount of energy employees put into goal-directed work performance. The level of intensity often reflects the importance and difficulty of the goal. These psychological processes involve four factors.  First, motivation serves to direct attention, focusing on particular issues, people, tasks, etc. Second, it serves to stimulate effort. Third, motivation influences persistence. Finally, motivation influences the choice and application of task-related strategies.\n\n\n=== Occupational stress ===\n\nI-O psychologists have since the 1960s been at the forefront of research and the practice of occupational stress and design of individual and organizational interventions to manage and reduce the stress levels and increase productivity, performance, health and wellbeing. Occupational stress can have implications for organizational performance because of the emotions job stress evokes. For example, a job stressor such as conflict with a supervisor can precipitate anger that in turn motivates counterproductive workplace behaviors. I-O research has examined the association between work stressors and aggression, theft, substance abuse, and depressive symptoms. A number of models have been developed to explain the job stress process, including the person-environment (P-E) fit model and the demand-control model.I-O research has also examined occupational stress in specific occupations, including police, general practitioners, and dentists. Another concern has been the relation of occupational stress to family life. Other I-O researchers have examined gender differences in leadership style and job stress and strain in the context of male- and female-dominated industries, and unemployment-related distress. I-O psychology is also concerned with the relation of occupational stress to career advancement.\n\n\n=== Occupational safety ===\n\nAccidents and safety in the workplace are significant areas of interest to I-O psychology and I-O psychologists. Examples of psychosocial injury hazards of interest to I-O psychology include fatigue, workplace violence, workplace bullying, and working night shifts. I-O researchers conduct \"stress audits\" that can help organizations remain compliant with various occupational safety regulations. Psychosocial hazards can affect musculoskeletal disorders. A psychosocial factor related to accident risk is safety climate, which refers to employees' perceptions of the extent to which their work organization prioritizes safety. By contrast, psychosocial safety climate refers to management's \"policies, practices, and procedures\" aimed at protecting workers' psychological health. Research on safety leadership is also relevant to I-O psychology. Research suggests that safety-oriented transformational leadership is associated with a positive safety climate and safe worker practices.\n\n\n=== Organizational culture ===\n\nWhile there is no universal definition for organizational culture, a collective understanding shares the following assumptions:\n... that they are related to history and tradition, have some depth, are difficult to grasp and account for, and must be interpreted; that they are collective and shared by members of groups and primarily ideational in character, having to do with values, understandings, beliefs, knowledge, and other intangibles; and that they are holistic and subjective rather than strictly rational and analytical.\nOrganizational culture has been shown to affect important organizational outcomes such as performance, attraction, recruitment, retention, employee satisfaction, and employee well-being. There are three levels of organizational culture: artifacts, shared values, and basic beliefs and assumptions. Artifacts comprise the physical components of the organization that relay cultural meaning. Shared values are individuals' preferences regarding certain aspects of the organization's culture (e.g., loyalty, customer service). Basic beliefs and assumptions include individuals' impressions about the trustworthiness and supportiveness of an organization, and are often deeply ingrained within the organization's culture.\nIn addition to an overall culture, organizations also have subcultures. Subcultures can be departmental (e.g. different work units) or defined by geographical distinction. While there is no single \"type\" of organizational culture, some researchers have developed models to describe different organizational cultures.\n\n\n=== Group behavior ===\n\nGroup behavior involves the interactions among individuals in a collective. The individuals' opinions, attitudes, and adaptations affect group behavior, with group behavior in turn affecting those opinions, etc. The interactions are thought to fulfill some need satisfaction in an individual who is part of the collective. A specific area of I-O research in group behavior is the team dynamics and team effectiveness.\n\n\n==== Team effectiveness ====\n\nOrganizations often organize teams because teams can accomplish a much greater amount of work in a short period of time than an individual can accomplish. I-O research has examined the harm workplace aggression does to team performance.\n\n\n==== Team composition ====\nTeam composition, or the configuration of team member knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics, fundamentally influences teamwork. Team composition can be considered in the selection and management of teams to increase the likelihood of team success. To achieve high-quality results, teams built with members having higher skill levels are more likely to be effective than teams built around members having lesser skills; teams that include a members with a diversity of skills are also likely to show improved team performance. Team members should also be compatible in terms of personality traits, values, and work styles. There is substantial evidence that personality traits and values can shape the nature of teamwork, and influence team performance.\n\n\n==== Team task design ====\nA fundamental question in team task design is whether or not a task is even appropriate for a team. Those tasks that require predominantly independent work are best left to individuals, and team tasks should include those tasks that consist primarily of interdependent work. When a given task is appropriate for a team, task design can play a key role in team effectiveness.Job characteristic theory identifies core job dimensions that affect motivation, satisfaction, performance, etc. These dimensions include skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback. The dimensions map well to the team environment. Individual contributors who perform team tasks that are challenging, interesting, and engaging are more likely to be motivated to exert greater effort and perform better than team members who are working on tasks that lack those characteristics.\n\n\n==== Organizational resources ====\nOrganizational support systems affect the team effectiveness and provide resources for teams operating in the multi-team environment. During the chartering of new teams, organizational enabling resources are first identified. Examples of enabling resources include facilities, equipment, information, training, and leadership. Team-specific resources (e.g., budgetary resources, human resources) are typically made available. Team-specific human resources represent the individual contributors who are selected to be team members. Intra-team processes (e.g., task design, task assignment) involve these team-specific resources.Teams also function in dynamic multi-team environments. Teams often must respond to shifting organizational contingencies. Contingencies affecting teams include constraints arising from conditions in which organizational resources are not exclusively earmarked for certain teams. When resources are scarce, they must be shared by multiple teams.\n\n\n==== Team rewards ====\nOrganizational reward systems drive the strengthening and enhancing of individual team member efforts; such efforts contribute towards reaching team goals. In other words, rewards that are given to individual team members should be contingent upon the performance of the entire team.Several design elements are needed to enable organizational reward systems to operate successfully. First, for a collective assessment to be appropriate for individual team members, the group's tasks must be highly interdependent. If this is not the case, individual assessment is more appropriate than team assessment. Second, individual-level reward systems and team-level reward systems must be compatible. For example, it would be unfair to reward the entire team for a job well done if only one team member did most of the work. That team member would most likely view teams and teamwork negatively, and would not want to work on a team in the future. Third, an organizational culture must be created such that it supports and rewards employees who believe in the value of teamwork and who maintain a positive attitude towards team-based rewards.\n\n\n==== Team goals ====\nGoals potentially motivate team members when goals contain three elements: difficulty, acceptance, and specificity. Under difficult goal conditions, teams with more committed members tend to outperform teams with less committed members. When team members commit to team goals, team effectiveness is a function of how supportive members are with each other. The goals of individual team members and team goals interact. Team and individual goals must be coordinated. Individual goals must be consistent with team goals in order for a team to be effective.\n\n\n=== Job satisfaction and commitment ===\n\nJob satisfaction is often thought to reflect the extent to which a worker likes his or her job, or individual aspects or facets of jobs. It is one of the most heavily researched topics in I-O psychology. Job satisfaction has theoretical and practical utility for the field. It has been linked to important job outcomes including attitudinal variables (e.g., job involvement, organizational commitment), absenteeism, turnover intentions, actual turnover, job performance, and tension. A meta-analyses found job satisfaction to be related to life satisfaction, happiness, positive affect, and the absence of negative affect.\n\n\n=== Productive behavior ===\nProductive behavior is defined as employee behavior that contributes positively to the goals and objectives of an organization. When an employee begins a new job, there is a transition period during which he or she may not contribute significantly. To assist with this transition an employee typically requires job-related training. In financial terms, productive behavior represents the point at which an organization begins to achieve some return on the investment it has made in a new employee. IO psychologists are ordinarily more focused on productive behavior than job or task performance, including in-role and extra-role performance. In-role performance tells managers how well an employee performs the required aspects of the job; extra-role performance includes behaviors not necessarily required by job but nonetheless contribute to organizational effectiveness. By taking both in-role and extra-role performance into account, an I-O psychologist is able to assess employees' effectiveness (how well they do what they were hired to do), efficiency (outputs to relative inputs), and productivity (how much they help the organization reach its goals). Three forms of productive behavior that IO psychologists often evaluate include job performance, organizational citizenship behavior (see below), and innovation.\n\n\n==== Job performance ====\n\nJob performance represents behaviors employees engage in while at work which contribute to organizational goals. These behaviors are formally evaluated by an organization as part of an employee's responsibilities. In order to understand and ultimately predict job performance, it is important to be precise when defining the term. Job performance is about behaviors that are within the control of the employee and not about results (effectiveness), the costs involved in achieving results (productivity), the results that can be achieved in a period of time (efficiency), or the value an organization places on a given level of performance, effectiveness, productivity or efficiency (utility).To model job performance, researchers have attempted to define a set of dimensions that are common to all jobs. Using a common set of dimensions provides a consistent basis for assessing performance and enables the comparison of performance across jobs. Performance is commonly broken into two major categories: in-role (technical aspects of a job) and extra-role (non-technical abilities such as communication skills and being a good team member). While this distinction in behavior has been challenged it is commonly made by both employees and management. A model of performance by Campbell breaks performance into in-role and extra-role categories. Campbell labeled job-specific task proficiency and non-job-specific task proficiency as in-role dimensions, while written and oral communication, demonstrating effort, maintaining personal discipline, facilitating peer and team performance, supervision and leadership and management and administration are labeled as extra-role dimensions. Murphy's model of job performance also broke job performance into in-role and extra-role categories. However, task-orientated behaviors composed the in-role category and the extra-role category included interpersonally-oriented behaviors, down-time behaviors and destructive and hazardous behaviors. However, it has been challenged as to whether the measurement of job performance is usually done through pencil/paper tests, job skills tests, on-site hands-on tests, off-site hands-on tests, high-fidelity simulations, symbolic simulations, task ratings and global ratings. These various tools are often used to evaluate performance on specific tasks and overall job performance. Van Dyne and LePine developed a measurement model in which overall job performance was evaluated using Campbell's in-role and extra-role categories. Here, in-role performance was reflected through how well \"employees met their performance expectations and performed well at the tasks that made up the employees' job.\" Dimensions regarding how well the employee assists others with their work for the benefit of the group, if the employee voices new ideas for projects or changes to procedure and whether the employee attends functions that help the group composed the extra-role category.\nTo assess job performance, reliable and valid measures must be established. While there are many sources of error with performance ratings, error can be reduced through rater training and through the use of behaviorally-anchored rating scales. Such scales can be used to clearly define the behaviors that constitute poor, average, and superior performance. Additional factors that complicate the measurement of job performance include the instability of job performance over time due to forces such as changing performance criteria, the structure of the job itself and the restriction of variation in individual performance by organizational forces. These factors include errors in job measurement techniques, acceptance and the justification of poor performance and lack of importance of individual performance.\nThe determinants of job performance consist of factors having to do with the individual worker as well as environmental factors in the workplace. According to Campbell's Model of The Determinants of Job Performance, job performance is a result of the interaction between declarative knowledge (knowledge of facts or things), procedural knowledge (knowledge of what needs to be done and how to do it), and motivation (reflective of an employee's choices regarding whether to expend effort, the level of effort to expend, and whether to persist with the level of effort chosen). The interplay between these factors show that an employee may, for example, have a low level of declarative knowledge, but may still have a high level of performance if the employee has high levels of procedural knowledge and motivation.\nRegardless of the job, three determinants stand out as predictors of performance: (1) general mental ability (especially for jobs higher in complexity); (2) job experience (although there is a law of diminishing returns); and (3) the personality trait of conscientiousness (people who are dependable and achievement-oriented, who plan well). These determinants appear to influence performance largely through the acquisition and usage of job knowledge and the motivation to do well. Further, an expanding area of research in job performance determinants includes emotional intelligence.\n\n\n=== Organizational citizenship behavior ===\n\nOrganizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) are another form of workplace behavior that IO psychologists are involved with. OCBs tend to be beneficial to both the organization and other workers. Dennis Organ (1988) defines OCBs as \"individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization.\" Behaviors that qualify as OCBs can fall into one of the following five categories: altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, conscientiousness, and civic virtue. OCBs have also been categorized in other ways too, for example, by their intended targets (individuals, supervisors, and the organization as a whole. Other alternative ways of categorizing OCBs include \"compulsory OCBs\", which are engaged in owing to coercive persuasion or peer pressure rather than out of good will. The extent to which OCBs are voluntary has been the subject of some debate.Other research suggests that some employees perform OCBs to influence how they are viewed within the organization. While these behaviors are not formally part of the job description, performing them can influence performance appraisals. Researchers have advanced the view that employees engage in OCBs as a form of \"impression management,\" a term coined by Erving Goffman. Goffman defined impression management as \"the way in which the individual ... presents himself and his activity to others, the ways in which he guides and controls the impression they form of him, and the kinds of things he may and may not do while sustaining his performance before them. Some researchers have hypothesized that OCBs are not performed out of good will, positive affect, etc., but instead as a way of being noticed by others, including supervisors.\n\n\n=== Innovation ===\n\nFour qualities are generally linked to creative and innovative behaviour by individuals:\nTask-relevant skills (general mental ability and job specific knowledge). Task specific and subject specific knowledge is most often gained through higher education; however, it may also be gained by mentoring and experience in a given field.\nCreativity-relevant skills (ability to concentrate on a problem for long periods of time, to abandon unproductive searches, and to temporarily put aside stubborn problems). The ability to put aside stubborn problems is referred to by Jex and Britt as productive forgetting. Creativity-relevant skills also require the individual contributor to evaluate a problem from multiple vantage points. One must be able to take on the perspective of various users. For example, an Operation Manager analyzing a reporting issue and developing an innovative solution would consider the perspective of a sales person, assistant, finance, compensation, and compliance officer.\nTask motivation (internal desire to perform task and level of enjoyment).At the organizational level, a study by Damanpour identified four specific characteristics that may predict innovation:\nA population with high levels of technical knowledge\nThe organization's level of specialization\nThe level an organization communicates externally\nFunctional differentiation.\n\n\n=== Counterproductive work behavior ===\n\nCounterproductive work behavior (CWB) can be defined as employee behavior that goes against the goals of an organization. These behaviors can be intentional or unintentional and result from a wide range of underlying causes and motivations. Some CWBs have instrumental motivations (e.g., theft). It has been proposed that a person-by-environment interaction can be utilized to explain a variety of counterproductive behaviors. For instance, an employee who sabotages another employee's work may do so because of lax supervision (environment) and underlying psychopathology (person) that work in concert to result in the counterproductive behavior. There is evidence that an emotional response (e.g., anger) to job stress (e.g., unfair treatment) can motivate CWBs.The forms of counterproductive behavior with the most empirical examination are ineffective job performance, absenteeism, job turnover, and accidents. Less common but potentially more detrimental forms of counterproductive behavior have also been investigated including violence and sexual harassment.\n\n\n=== Leadership ===\n\nIn IO psychology, leadership can be defined as a process of influencing others to agree on a shared purpose, and to work towards shared objectives. A distinction should be made between leadership and management. Managers process administrative tasks and organize work environments. Although leaders may be required to undertake managerial duties as well, leaders typically focus on inspiring followers and creating a shared organizational culture and values. Managers deal with complexity, while leaders deal with initiating and adapting to change. Managers undertake the tasks of planning, budgeting, organizing, staffing, controlling and problem solving. In contrast, leaders undertake the tasks of setting a direction or vision, aligning people to shared goals, communicating, and motivating.Approaches to studying leadership in IO psychology can be broadly classified into three categories: Leader-focused approaches, contingency-focused approaches, and follower-focused approaches.\n\n\n==== Leader-focused approaches ====\nLeader-focused approaches look to organizational leaders to determine the characteristics of effective leadership. According to the trait approach, more effective leaders possess certain traits that less effective leaders lack. More recently, this approach is being used to predict leader emergence. The following traits have been identified as those that predict leader emergence when there is no formal leader: high intelligence, high needs for dominance, high self-motivation, and socially perceptive. Another leader-focused approached is the behavioral approach, which focuses on the behaviors that distinguish effective from ineffective leaders. There are two categories of leadership behaviors: consideration and initiating structure. Behaviors associated with the category of consideration include showing subordinates they are valued and that the leader cares about them. An example of a consideration behavior is showing compassion when problems arise in or out of the office. Behaviors associated with the category of initiating structure include facilitating the task performance of groups. One example of an initiating structure behavior is meeting one-on-one with subordinates to explain expectations and goals. The final leader-focused approach is power and influence. To be most effective, a leader should be able to influence others to behave in ways that are in line with the organization's mission and goals. How influential a leader can be depends on their social power \u2013 their potential to influence their subordinates. There are six bases of power: French and Raven's classic five bases of coercive, reward, legitimate, expert, and referent power, plus informational power. A leader can use several different tactics to influence others within an organization. These include: rational persuasion, inspirational appeal, consultation, ingratiation, exchange, personal appeal, coalition, legitimating, and pressure.\n\n\n==== Contingency-focused approaches ====\nOf the 3 approaches to leadership, contingency-focused approaches have been the most prevalent over the past 30 years. Contingency-focused theories base a leader's effectiveness on their ability to assess a situation and adapt their behavior accordingly. These theories assume that an effective leader can accurately \"read\" a situation and skillfully employ a leadership style that meets the needs of the individuals involved and the task at hand. A brief introduction to the most prominent contingency-focused theories will follow.\nThe Fiedler contingency model holds that a leader's effectiveness depends on the interaction between their characteristics and the characteristics of the situation. Path\u2013goal theory asserts that the role of the leader is to help his or her subordinates achieve their goals. To effectively do this, leaders must skillfully select from four different leadership styles to meet the situational factors. The situational factors are a product of the characteristics of subordinates and the characteristics of the environment. The leader\u2013member exchange theory (LMX) focuses on how leader\u2013subordinate relationships develop. Generally speaking, when a subordinate performs well or when there are positive exchanges between a leader and a subordinate, their relationship is strengthened, performance and job satisfaction are enhanced, and the subordinate will feel more commitment to the leader and the organization as a whole. Vroom-Yetton-Jago model focuses on decision-making with respect to a feasibility set which is composed of the situational attributes.\nIn addition to the contingency-focused approaches mentioned, there has been a high degree of interest paid to three novel approaches that have recently emerged. The first is transformational leadership, which posits that there are certain leadership traits that inspire subordinates to perform beyond their capabilities. The second is transactional leadership, which is most concerned with keeping subordinates in-line with deadlines and organizational policy. This type of leader fills more of a managerial role and lacks qualities necessary to inspire subordinates and induce meaningful change. And the third is authentic leadership which is centered around empathy and a leader's values or character. If the leader understands their followers, they can inspire subordinates by cultivating a personal connection and leading them to share in the vision and goals of the team. Although there has been a limited amount of research conducted on these theories, they are sure to receive continued attention as the field of IO psychology matures.\n\n\n==== Follower-focused approaches ====\nFollower-focused approaches look at the processes by which leaders motivate followers, and lead teams to achieve shared goals. Understandably, the area of leadership motivation draws heavily from the abundant research literature in the domain of motivation in IO psychology. Because leaders are held responsible for their followers' ability to achieve the organization's goals, their ability to motivate their followers is a critical factor of leadership effectiveness. Similarly, the area of team leadership draws heavily from the research in teams and team effectiveness in IO psychology. Because organizational employees are frequently structured in the form of teams, leaders need to be aware of the potential benefits and pitfalls of working in teams, how teams develop, how to satisfy team members' needs, and ultimately how to bring about team effectiveness and performance.\nAn emerging area of IO research in the area of team leadership is in leading virtual teams, where people in the team are geographically-distributed across various distances and sometimes even countries. While technological advances have enabled the leadership process to take place in such virtual contexts, they present new challenges for leaders as well, such as the need to use technology to build relationships with followers, and influencing followers when faced with limited (or no) face-to-face interaction.\n\n\n==== Organizational development ====\n\nIO psychologists are also concerned with organizational change. This effort, called organizational development (OD). Tools used to advance organization development include the survey feedback technique. The technique involves the periodic assessment (with surveys) of employee attitudes and feelings. The results are conveyed to organizational stakeholders, who may want to take the organization in a particular direction. Another tool is the team building technique. Because many if not most tasks within the organization are completed by small groups and/or teams, team building is important to organizational success. In order to enhance a team's morale and problem-solving skills, IO psychologists help the groups to build their self-confidence, group cohesiveness, and working effectiveness.\n\n\n=== Relation to organizational behavior ===\nThe IO psychology and organizational behavior have manifested some overlap. The overlap has led to some confusion regarding how the two disciplines differ. There is also much confusion about the differences between IO psychology and human resources, or human resource management\n\n\n== Training ==\nThe minimum requirement for working as an IO psychologist is a master's degree. Normally, this degree requires about two to three years of postgraduate work to complete. Of all the degrees granted in IO psychology each year, approximately two thirds are at the master's level.A comprehensive list of US and Canadian master's and doctoral programs can be found at the web site of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP). Admission into IO psychology PhD programs is highly competitive; many programs accept only a small number of applicants each year.\nThere are graduate degree programs in IO psychology outside of the US and Canada. The SIOP web site also provides a comprehensive list of IO programs in many other countries.\nIn Australia, organizational psychologists must be accredited by the Australian Psychological Society (APS). To become an organizational psychologist, one must meet the criteria for a general psychologist's licence: three years studying bachelor's degree in psychology, 4th year honours degree or postgraduate diploma in psychology, and two-year full-time supervised practice plus 80 hours of professional development. There are other avenues available, such as a two-year supervised training program after honours (i.e. 4+2 pathway), or one year of postgraduate coursework and practical placements followed by a one-year supervised training program (i.e. 5+1 pathway). After this, psychologists can elect to specialize as Organizational Psychologists.\n\n\n=== Competencies ===\nThere are many different sets of competencies for different specializations within IO psychology and IO psychologists are versatile behavioral scientists. For example, an IO psychologist specializing in selection and recruiting should have expertise in finding the best talent for the organization and getting everyone on board while he or she might not need to know much about executive coaching. Some IO psychologists specialize in specific areas of consulting whereas others tend to generalize their areas of expertise. There are basic skills and knowledge an individual needs in order to be an effective IO psychologist, which include being an independent learner, interpersonal skills (e.g., listening skills), and general consultation skills (e.g., skills and knowledge in the problem area).\n\n\n=== Job outlook ===\nAccording to the United States Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics, IO psychology is the fastest growing occupation in the United States, based on projections between 2012 and 2022. \nIn a 2006 salary survey, the median salary for a PhD in IO psychology was $98,000; for a master's level IO psychologist was $72,000. The highest paid PhD IO psychologists in private industry worked in pharmaceuticals and averaged approximately $151,000 per year; the earnings median of self-employed consultants was $150,000; those employed in retail, energy, and manufacturing followed closely behind, averaging approximately $133,000. The lowest earners were found in state and local government positions, averaging approximately $77,000. In 2005, IO psychologists whose primary responsibility is teaching at private and public colleges and universities often earn additional income from consulting with government and industry.\n\n\n== Ethics ==\nAn IO psychologist, whether an academic, a consultant, or an employee, is expected to maintain high ethical standards. The APA's ethical principles apply to IO psychologists. For example, ethically, the IO psychologist should only accept projects for which he or she is qualified. With more organizations becoming global, it is important that when an IO psychologist works outside her or his home country, the psychologist is aware of rules, regulations, and cultures of the organizations and countries in which the psychologist works, while also adhering to the ethical standards set at home.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\nFootnotes\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nCanadian Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology\nBritish Psychological Society's Division of Occupational Psychology's (DOP) website\nSociety for Industrial and Organisational Psychology of South Africa\nEuropean Academy of Occupational Health Psychology\nEuropean Association of Work and Organizational Psychology\nSociety for Industrial and Organizational Psychology", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Psi2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/44/Full-protection-shackle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/5c/Symbol_template_class.svg"], "summary": "Industrial and organizational psychology (I-O psychology) which is also known as occupational psychology, organizational psychology, or work and organizational psychology; is an applied discipline within psychology. Industrial, work and organizational psychology (IWO) is the broader global term for the field internationally.\nThe discipline is the science of human behavior relating to work and applies psychological theories and principles to organizations and individuals in their places of work as well as the individual's work-life more generally. Industrial and organizational psychologists are trained in the scientist\u2013practitioner model. They contribute to an organization's success by improving the performance, motivation, job satisfaction, and occupational safety and health as well as the overall health and well-being of its employees. An I-O psychologist conducts research on employee behaviors and attitudes, and how these can be improved through hiring practices, training programs, feedback, and management systems.I-O psychology was ranked the fastest growing occupation over the next decade according to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics's Occupational Outlook Handbook in 2014. It is estimated to grow 53% with a mean salary of US$109,030, with those at the top 10 percentile earning $192,150 for 2018.As of 2020, I-O psychology is one of the 17 recognized professional specialties by the American Psychological Association (APA) in the United States. It is represented by Division 14 of the APA and is formally known as the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP)."}, "Grapefruit": {"links": ["Wikispecies", "Corsican citron", "Sesquiterpene", "Vitamin C", "Forbidden fruit", "Bitter orange", "Melogold", "Citrus reshni", "Lime ", "Rangpur ", "Calcium citrate", "Sapindales", "Kumquat", "Patent", "Tropicos", "Flowering plant", "Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera", "Magnesium in biology", "Julia Morton", "Citrus rootstock", "Citrus hybrid", "Naringenin", "Shangjuan", "Clementine", "The Plant List", "Samuyao", "Fairchild ", "Enzyme", "Phosphorus", "Citrus ichangensis", "INaturalist", "Adverse effect", "Meyer lemon", "Citrus inodora", "Citrus junos", "Integrated Taxonomic Information System", "Cold-hardy citrus", "Oxanthera", "Citrus cavaleriei", "Binomial nomenclature", "Mandarin orange", "Lim\u00f3n de Pica", "Australian outback lime", "Saint Lucia", "Niacin", "Food energy", 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"Vitamin E", "Citrus greening disease", "Orlando tangelo", "OCLC ", "Citrus tristeza virus", "Terpene", "Pfour fifty", "World Flora Online", "'Encore' mandarin", "List of citrus fruits", "Variegated pink lemon", "Walter Tennyson Swingle", "Phoma tracheiphila", "Sulfur", "Dulce de leche", "Lemon", "Guiney orange", "Kobayashi mikan", "Yemenite citron", "Hassaku orange", "Valencia orange", "Imperial lemon", "Bizzaria", "Ugli fruit", "Vietnam", "Barbados", "Diamante citron", "Riboflavin", "Global Biodiversity Information Facility", "Natural Resources Conservation Service", "Citrus depressa", "Setoka", "Carbohydrate", "Thiamine", "Dancy ", "Haruka ", "Species", "National Center for Biotechnology Information", "David Mabberley", "New Zealand grapefruit", "Atenas", "ISSN ", "Grapefruit spoon", "Fat", "Dietary Reference Intake", "Mother Orange Tree", "\u014cgonkan", "Citrus garrawayi", "National Biodiversity Network", "Doi ", "Citrus indica", "Sanbokan", "Rough lemon", "Yuzuquat", "Drug 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Hughes", "Kaffir lime", "EPPO Code", "Mandelo", "Safety Harbor", "Papeda ", "Orange juice", "Yuja-hwachae", "Clara H. Hasse", "Grapefruit mercaptan", "Citrus myrtifolia", "Phytophthora citricola", "Daidai", "Ch\u016bhai", "Citrus longispina", "Microgram", "Sweet lemon", "Biasong", "Citrus macroptera", "Lena B. Smithers Hughes", "Mangshanyegan", "University of California Citrus Experiment Station", "Ikuro Takahashi ", "Citrus limetta", "Grapefruit knife", "Murcott ", "Sudachi", "Citrus unshiu", "Orange flower water", "Hyuganatsu", "Pixie mandarin", "Nanfengmiju", "Smith Red Valencia", "Choline", "South Africa", "Sucrose", "Zinc", "Taxonomy ", "Zest ", "Jabara ", "Micronutrient", "Dangyuja", "Fairchild tangerine", "Citrus exocortis", "Bergamottin", "FAOSTAT", "Citrus macrophylla", "Shonan Gold", "Grapefruit\u2013drug interactions", "Byeonggyul", "Blood lime", "Backcross", "Laraha", "United States", "Palestinian sweet lime", "Citrus celebica", "Dried lime tea", "Daily Value", "Kinnow", "Moroccan citron", "Jaffa orange", "Pomelos"], "content": "The grapefruit  (Citrus \u00d7 paradisi) is a subtropical citrus tree known for its relatively large, sour to semisweet, somewhat bitter fruit. The interior flesh is segmented and varies in color from pale yellow to dark pink.\nGrapefruit is a citrus hybrid originating in Barbados as an accidental cross between the sweet orange (C. sinensis) and the pomelo or shaddock (C. maxima), both of which were introduced from Asia in the 17th century. When found, it was called the forbidden fruit. In the past it was referred to as the pomelo, but that term is now the common name for Citrus maxima.In 2019, world production of grapefruits (combined with pomelos) was 9.3 million tonnes, of which 53% was in China. Other significant producers include Vietnam, United States and Mexico.\n\n\n== Description ==\n\nThe evergreen grapefruit trees usually grow to around 5\u20136 m (16\u201320 ft) tall, although they may reach 13\u201315 m (43\u201349 ft). The leaves are glossy, dark green, long (up to 15 cm (5.9 in)), and thin. It produces 5 cm (2 in) white four-petaled flowers. The fruit is yellow-orange skinned and generally, an oblate spheroid in shape; it ranges in diameter from 10 to 15 cm (3.9 to 5.9 in). The flesh is segmented and acidic, varying in color depending on the cultivars, which include white, pink, and red pulps of varying sweetness (generally, the redder varieties are the sweetest). The 1929 U.S. 'Ruby Red' (of the 'Redblush' variety) was the first grapefruit patent.\n\n\n== History ==\nGrapefruit originated as a natural hybrid. One ancestor of the grapefruit was the Jamaican sweet orange (Citrus sinensis), itself an ancient hybrid of Asian origin; the other was the Indonesian pomelo (C. maxima). Both C. sinensis and C. maxima were present in the West Indies by 1692. One story of the fruit's origin is that a certain \"Captain Shaddock\" brought pomelo seeds to Jamaica and bred the first fruit, which were then called shaddocks. This apparently referred to a captain who traded in the West Indies in the 17th century. The grapefruit then probably originated as a naturally occurring hybrid between the two plants some time after they had been introduced there.\n\nA hybrid fruit, called forbidden fruit, was first documented in 1750 (along with 14 other citrus fruits including the guiney orange) by a Welshman, Rev. Griffith Hughes, who described specimens from Barbados in The Natural History of Barbados. However, Hughes's forbidden fruit may have been a plant distinct from grapefruit although still closely related to it.In 1814, naturalist John Lunan published the term grapefruit to describe a similar Jamaican citrus plant. Lunan reported that the name was due to its similarity in taste to the grape (Vitis vinifera). An alternative explanation offered by Tussac (1824) is that this name may allude to clusters of the fruit on the tree, which often appear similar to bunches of grapes. After this, authors of the period used both terms forbidden fruit and grapefruit as synonyms.In 1830, the Jamaican version of the plant was given the botanical name Citrus paradisi by botanist James Macfadyen. Macfadyen identified two varieties \u2013 one called forbidden fruit, the other called Barbadoes Grape Fruit. Macfadyen distinguished between the two plants by fruit shape with the Barbadoes Grape Fruit being piriform while the forbidden fruit was \"maliformis.\" Macfadyen's and Hughes's description differ, so it is not clear that the two reports are describing the same plant. Kumamoto et al. (1987) suggest that Hughes's golden orange was actually a grapefruit while his forbidden fruit was a different plant that had since became extinct and frequently confused with grapefruits. Later, Kim (1990) found a different citrus called forbidden fruit or shaddette in Saint Lucia that is closely related to grapefruits and may be the plant described by Hughes and Macfadyen.The name grape-fruit was used more and more during the 19th century to refer to pomelos, to the consternation of some.\n\nThe grapefruit was brought to Florida by Count Odet Philippe in 1823, in what is now known as Safety Harbor. Further crosses have produced the tangelo (1905), the Minneola tangelo (1931), and the oroblanco (1984).Its true origins were not determined until the 1940s. This led to the official name being altered to Citrus \u00d7 paradisi, the \u00d7 identifying its hybrid origin.An early pioneer in the American citrus industry was Kimball Atwood, a wealthy entrepreneur who founded the Atwood Grapefruit Company in the late 19th century. The Atwood Grove became the largest grapefruit grove in the world, with a yearly output of 80,000 boxes of fruit. There, pink grapefruit was first discovered in 1906.\n\n\n== Varieties ==\nThe varieties of Texas and Florida grapefruit include: 'Duncan', 'Flame', 'Henderson', 'Hudson', 'Marsh', 'Oro Blanco', 'Pink', 'Pummelo HB', 'Ray', 'Rio Star', 'Ruby Red', 'Star Ruby', 'Thompson', 'Triumph', 'Walters', 'White Marsh'.\n\nThe 1929 'Ruby Red' (or 'Redblush') patent was associated with real commercial success, which came after the discovery of a red grapefruit growing on a pink variety. It was a limb sport of a 'Thompson' grapefruit selected by A.E. Henninger. The 'Thompson' was a limb sport from a 'Marsh' grapefruit selected in 1913.Using radiation to trigger mutations, new varieties were developed to retain the red tones that typically faded to pink. The 'Rio Red' variety is a 2007 Texas grapefruit with registered trademarks Rio Star and Ruby-Sweet, also sometimes promoted as Reddest and Texas Choice. The 'Rio Red' is a mutation-bred variety that was developed by treatment of bud sticks with thermal neutrons. Its improved attributes of mutant variety are fruit and juice color, deeper red, and wide adaptation.The 'Star Ruby' is the darkest of the red varieties. Developed from an irradiated 'Hudson' grapefruit ('Hudson' being a limb sport of 'Foster', itself a limb sport of the 'Walters'), it has found limited commercial success because it is more difficult to grow than other varieties.\n\n\n== Production ==\nIn 2019, world production of grapefruits (combined with pomelos) was 9.3 million tonnes, led by China with 53% of the world total. Secondary producers were Vietnam, the United States, and Mexico.\n\n\n== Parasites ==\nGrapefruits are one of the most common hosts for fruit flies such as A. suspensa, which lay their eggs in overripe or spoiled grapefruits. The larvae of these flies then consume the fruit to gain nutrients until they can proceed into the pupae stage. This parasitism has led to millions in economic costs for nations in Central America and southern North America.\n\n\n== Colors and flavors ==\n\nGrapefruit varieties are differentiated by the flesh color of fruit they produce. Common varieties are yellow and pink pulp colors. Flavors range from highly acidic and somewhat sour to sweet and tart, resulting from composition of sugars (mainly sucrose), organic acids (mainly citric acid), and monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes providing aromas.Grapefruit mercaptan, a sulfur-containing terpene, is one of the aroma compounds influencing taste and odor of grapefruit, compared with other citrus fruits.\n\n\n== Drug interactions ==\n\nGrapefruit and grapefruit juice have been found to interact with numerous drugs and in many cases, to result in adverse direct and/or side effects (if dosage is not carefully adjusted).This happens in two very different ways. In the first, the effect is from natural furanocoumarins such as bergamottin and 6',7'-dihydroxybergamottin, which occur in both grapefruit flesh and peel. Furanocoumarins inhibit the CYP3A4 enzyme, including the P450 enzyme family responsible for metabolizing 90% of drugs. The action of the CYP3A4 enzyme itself is to metabolize many medications. If the drug's breakdown for removal is lessened, then the level of the drug in the blood may become too high or stay too long, leading to adverse effects. On the other hand, some drugs must be broken down to become active, and inhibiting CYP3A4 may lead to reduced drug effects.The other effect is that grapefruit can block the absorption of drugs in the intestine. If the drug is not absorbed, then not enough of it is in the blood to have a therapeutic effect. Each affected drug has either a specific increase of effect or decrease.One whole grapefruit, or a glass of 200 ml (7 US fl oz) of grapefruit juice may cause drug overdose toxicity. Typically, drugs that are incompatible with grapefruit are so labeled on the container or package insert. People taking drugs should ask their health-care provider or pharmacist questions about grapefruit and drug interactions.\n\n\n== Nutrition ==\nRaw grapefruit is 90% water, 8% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and negligible fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, raw grapefruit provides 33 kilocalories and is a rich source of vitamin C (40% of the Daily Value), with no other micronutrients in significant content.\nGrapefruit juice contains about half the citric acid of lime or lemon juice, and about 50% more citric acid than orange juice.\n\n\n== Cuisine ==\nIn Costa Rica, especially in Atenas, grapefruit are often cooked to remove their sourness, rendering them as sweets; they are also stuffed with dulce de leche, resulting in a dessert called toronja rellena (stuffed grapefruit). In Haiti, grapefruit is used primarily for its juice (jus de Chad\u00e8que), but also is used to make jam (confiture de Chad\u00e8que).\n\n\n== Related citruses ==\n\nGrapefruit is a pomelo backcross, a hybrid of pomelo and sweet orange, which is in turn a pomelo \u00d7 mandarin hybrid.\nThe grapefruit is a parent to many hybrids:\n\nA tangelo is any hybrid of a tangerine and either a pomelo or a grapefruit\n'Minneola': 'Duncan' grapefruit \u00d7 'Dancy' tangerine\nOrlando (formerly Take): Bowen grapefruit \u00d7 'Dancy' tangerine (pollen parent)'Fairchild' is a clementine \u00d7 'Orlando' hybrid\n'Seminole': 'Bowen' grapefruit \u00d7 'Dancy' tangerine\n'Thornton': tangerine \u00d7 grapefruit, unspecified\n'Ugli': mandarin \u00d7 grapefruit, probable (wild seedling)\n'Nova' is a second-generation hybrid: clementine \u00d7 'Orlando' tangelo cross\nThe 'Oroblanco' and 'Melogold' grapefruits are hybrids between pomelo (C. maxima) and the grapefruit\nThe 'Triumph' grapefruit is thought to be a hybrid between a grapefruit and one of either an orange, a mandarin orange, or a pomeloRelated citrus fruits include:\n\nCommon sweet orange: pomelo \u00d7 mandarin hybrid\nBitter orange: a different pomelo \u00d7 mandarin hybrid\nMandelos: pomelo \u00d7 mandarin\nHyuganatsu may also be a pomelo hybrid\nForbidden fruit: pomelo \u00d7 orange hybrid found in Saint Lucia closely related to and historically confused with grapefruits\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nGrapefruit knife \u2013 Knife designed specifically for cutting grapefruit\nGrapefruit spoon \u2013 Kind of spoon intended for use with citrus fruit\nGrapefruit\u2013drug interactions \u2013 Drug interactions with grapefruit juice\nNaringenin\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n Data related to Citrus paradisi at Wikispecies", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Grapefruit-mercaptan-2D-skeletal-vertical.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Grapefruit.ebola.jpeg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Grapefruits_-_whole-halved-segments.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/KC_Atwood.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Red_Pencil_Icon.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Citrus_paradisi_%28Grapefruit%2C_pink%29_white_bg.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "The grapefruit  (Citrus \u00d7 paradisi) is a subtropical citrus tree known for its relatively large, sour to semisweet, somewhat bitter fruit. The interior flesh is segmented and varies in color from pale yellow to dark pink.\nGrapefruit is a citrus hybrid originating in Barbados as an accidental cross between the sweet orange (C. sinensis) and the pomelo or shaddock (C. maxima), both of which were introduced from Asia in the 17th century. When found, it was called the forbidden fruit. In the past it was referred to as the pomelo, but that term is now the common name for Citrus maxima.In 2019, world production of grapefruits (combined with pomelos) was 9.3 million tonnes, of which 53% was in China. Other significant producers include Vietnam, United States and Mexico."}, "Greek_citron": {"links": ["Citrus limetta", "Karolos Koun", "Micrantha ", "The Citrus Industry", "Hybrid ", "Rhobs el Arsa", "Limequat", "Cold-hardy citrus", "Judaeo-Spanish", "Axis occupation of Greece", "Kitron", "Hechsher", "Florentine citron", "Satmar ", "Clementine", "Abraham Isaac Kook", "Neroli", "Phoma tracheiphila", "Citrumelo", "History of the Jews in Cyprus", "Pompia", "Kalpi ", "Ch\u016bhai", "Smith Red Valencia", "Pomelos", "Hakham Bashi", "Corsican citron", "Grapefruit juice", "Palestinian sweet lime", "Moroccan citron", "Kehila Kedosha Janina", "Delos Synagogue", "Don Pacifico affair", "Citrus rootstock", "Hyuganatsu", "Citrus celebica", "Kaunas", "Koji orange", "Romaniote Jews", "Procimequat", "Citrange", "Balady citron", "Ch\u014dzabur\u014d Tanaka", "Buddha's Hand", "Orange juice", "Eastern Europe", "Holocaust Museum of Greece", "Nanfengmiju", "Shangjuan", "\u014cgonkan", "Calamansi juice", "Citrus black spot", "Passover", "Key lime", "Wayback Machine", "Preveza", "Etrog", "Australian lime", "Jewish Museum of Thessaloniki", "New Square", "Robert Soost", "Jewish diaspora", "Jamaican tangelo", "Biasong", "Ikuro Takahashi ", "Carpel", "Hadera", "Holy Land", "Citrus x deliciosa", "Sephardi Jews", "Citrus warburgiana", "Cl\u00e9ment Rodier", "Second Temple", "Citrofortunella", "Ephraim Zalman Margolis", "Parga", "Ritual", "Ali Pasha of Ioannina", "Cara cara navel", "Lumia ", "Citrus reshni", "Lemonade fruit", "Orangeat", "Hebrew language", "Diamante citron", "Spanish Inquisition", "Orangery", "Rough lemon", "Aristotle", "Botanical garden", "Limeade", "National Union of Greece", "Meyer lemon", "Lim\u00f3n de Pica", "Melogold", "Sanbokan", "Bizzaria", "Shechita", "Ionian Islands", "Ponkan", "Hebrew Political Union", "Fingered citron", "Kahal Shalom Synagogue", "Hesperidium", "Nuremberg", "\u0130zmir", "Pixie mandarin", "Judaism", "Romaniotes", "Limetta", "Variety ", "Japanese citrus", "Lemon", "Oxanthera", "Jewish Museum of Rhodes", "'Encore' mandarin", "Citrus canker", "Bergamot orange", "Tangerine", "Reikou", "Byeonggyul", "Dried lime tea", "Citrus macrophylla", "Biphenyl", "Hebesu", "Johann Christoph Volkamer", "Etz Hayyim Synagogue", "Orange oil", "Citrus greening disease", "Responsa", "Beth Shalom Synagogue ", "Halacha", "Liberty Hyde Bailey", "Austro-Hungarian gulden", "Citrus latipes", "Phytophthora", "Kabbalah", "Oroblanco", "History of the Jews in Greece", "Citrus medica", "Ottoman empire", "Jewish Koine Greek", "Valencia orange", "Rebbe", "Kiyomi", "Clara H. Hasse", "Volkamer lemon", "Forbidden fruit ", "Jewish ghettos in Europe", "Blood orange", "Bitter orange", "Clymenia ", "Shonan Gold", "Mandarin orange", "Imperial lemon", "Citrus ichangensis", "Persian lime", "Ponderosa lemon", "History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire", "Sour orange", "Fairchild tangerine", "Jewish settlers", "List of citrus diseases", "Kishumikan", "Yemenite citron", "Yuzuquat", "Blood lime", "Halakha", "Citrus tristeza virus", "David Mabberley", "Yitzchak Elchanan Spektor", "Maccabi Thessaloniki", "Iyokan", "Robert Willard Hodgson", "Kanpei", "Jabara ", "Orangequat", "Halki ", "Orange ", "Citrus production", "Walter Tennyson Swingle", "Citrus", "Sunquat", "Haruka ", "Setoka", "Mandelo", "Yuja-hwachae", "Hellenistic Judaism", "Midknight Valencia Orange", "Plant sexuality", "Athens", "Moses Montefiore", "Murcott ", "Gina Bachauer", "Calcium citrate", "Etz Chaim Synagogue ", "Banpeiyu", "Four species", "New Zealand grapefruit", "Citron", "Skverer rebbe", "Citrus maideniana", "Kishu mikan", "Daidai", "Jewish Museum of Greece", "Albert Cohen ", "Amanatsu", "Napoleon I of France", "Citrus australis", "Phytophthora citricola", "Citric acid", "Citrus gracilis", "Antisemitism in Greece", "Cura\u00e7ao ", "Kinnow", "Cultivar", "History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire", "Herbert John Webber", "Pomelo", "Citrus inodora", "Dangyuja", "Limonene", "Australian outback lime", "Agia, Larissa", "Kinkoji unshiu", "Zest ", "Orangelo", "Arab", "X\u00e3 \u0110o\u00e0i orange", "Tangelo", "Shlomo Kluger", "Isser Zalman Meltzer", "Citrus indica", "University of California Citrus Experiment Station", "Citrus glauca", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Citrus depressa", "Kaffir lime", "List of citrus fruits", "Sukkot", "La Juderia", "Kashrut", "Rhodes blood libel", "Kobayashi mikan", "Yuja tea", "Rangpur ", "Israel", "Citrus garrawayi", "Citrus cavaleriei", "Species", "Roza Eskenazi", "Citrus longispina", "Papeda ", "Komikan ", "Alexander the Great", "Yuukou mandarin", "Chaim Palagi", "Avraam Benaroya", "Ark ", "Mangshanyegan", "Sabbatai Zevi", "Greek language", "Calamansi", "Grapefruit", "Venice", "Kuchinotsu No. thirty-seven", "Hassaku orange", "Kawachi Bankan", "Rapha\u00ebl Salem", "Hasidic Judaism", "Monastir Synagogue ", "Sudachi", "Citrus macroptera", "Blood libel", "Salamo Arouch", "Dekopon", "Variegated pink lemon", "Liqueur", "Synagogue in the Agora of Athens", "Grafting", "Solomon Eliezer Alfandari", "Acid", "Hebrew University of Jerusalem", "Lena B. Smithers Hughes", "Turkey", "Hybrid name", "Ovadia Yosef", "Cam s\u00e0nh", "Theophrastus", "Tachibana orange", "Laraha", "Citrus hybrid", "Greece", "Beit El Synagogue", "Cyprus internment camps", "Jaffa orange", "Lime ", "Distillation", "Judah Bibas", "History of the Jews in Thessaloniki", "Orange flower water", "Citrangequat", "Munkacs ", "Citrus halimii", "Taxation in the Ottoman Empire", "University of California", "Gynoecium", "Tangor", "Sweet lemon", "Yevanic language", "Mother Orange Tree", "Joseph Saul Nathanson", "Samuyao", "Succade", "Citrus taxonomy", "Trifoliate orange", "Kabbad", "Citrus exocortis", "Citrus junos", "Naxos", "Kabosu", "Mordechai Frizis", "Chaim Elazar Spira", "Apple russet", "Mandora ", "Mary the Jewess", "Citrus wintersii", "Citrus myrtifolia", "University of California, Riverside Citrus Variety Collection", "Citrus unshiu", "Adolf Engler", "Kumquat", "Jaffa", "Jew", "Lemonade"], "content": "The Greek citron variety of Citrus medica (Greek: \u03ba\u03b9\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03ac, Hebrew: \u05d0\u05ea\u05e8\u05d5\u05d2 \u05e7\u05d5\u05e8\u05e4\u05d5\u200e or \u05d9\u05b0\u05d5\u05b8\u05e0\u05b4\u05d9) was botanically classified by Adolf Engler as the \"variety etrog\". This is remarking on its major use for the Jewish ritual etrog during Sukkot.It was also called pitima, or the cedro col pigolo (\"citron with a pitom\"), because of its usually persisting pitom (carpel). The last does not only enhance its character, but also adds Halachic promotion.\n\n\n== Description and illustration ==\n\nThe following description is from the Nurenbergische Hesperides (2nd Volume; 8th Chap.) by Johann Christoph Volkamer, titled \"About the Cedro col Pigolo\". He was growing that kind in his botanical garden in Nuremberg, and writes that it can also be called the \"Jewish Citron\", since it is mostly used for the four species.\n''This tree does not become particularly big. The leaves are smaller than those of other citrons, and serrated, oblong, pointed towards the front, mixed with many thorns. The bloom is small and reddish from outside. The fruit blossoms (- ''the [[Gynoecium|carpels]]'') are not less oblong from the beginning, appearing as reddish and dark-green; thereafter they turn entirely green, and when they ripen, straw-yellow, remaining, however, rather small all the time and never growing to a proper size, like other kinds of Citron.\n''Such a fruit as the one shown in the illustration grew one year ago in my garden, and I hope to grow more of those. This fruit is pointed above and has at the top a small long distaff (- ''the pitom''); it has a very pleasant smell, very like that of the Florentine citron described below. It contains very little juice and tastes somewhat sour and also somewhat bitter. As it seems, this plant thrives better in pots, than standing in the ground, for this tree of mine has remained very short in height, and its branches have not overgrown the [supporting] stalk.''\n\n\n== Uses and cultivation ==\nThe variety was initially cultivated in towns near Corfu. The etrogim were under the hashgachah of the Corfu rabbis and were transported to Trieste by way of Corfu, and that is why Jews referred to this as the Corfu etrog.\n\nWhile citron trees are still found on Corfu, and in Naxos, the citron is no longer exported from Greece for the ritual purpose. The Crete citron growers sell it for the candied peel, which is called succade, and in Naxos it is distilled into a special aromatic liqueur called kitron.\n\n\n== Role as etrog ==\n\n\n=== Initial source ===\nAccording to the Romaniotes this variety of citron was in their hands since the times of the Second Temple or earlier, and was always used by them for the religious ritual. Afterwards it was appreciated by the Sephardim who settled in Italy, Greece and Turkey, after their exile from Spain in 1492.\nHistorically speaking, the citron is considered by numerous writers, to be introduced to Europe by the troops of Alexander. It was also described by Theophrastus, who succeeded Aristotle as the curator of the Botanical garden in Athens.\n\n\n=== In Ashkenazi hands ===\nWhen the Corfu etrogim started to be imported into the rest of Europe in 1785, the communities adherent through Ashkenazi tradition to the Genoese variety were very skeptical about it. The Ashkenazim assumed that since the Greek is so much different from the Genoese, it might have been grafted or hybridized. At the beginning of the 19th century, when the Yanova Esrog was ceased due to the battles of Napoleon I of France, it really started to dominate the market.\nRabbi Ephraim Zalman Margolis, in his responsa Bet Ephraim (volume 1;56), confirmed that at the time, none of the so-called Corfu etrogim were from grafted citron trees. He argued that, even if it could not be verified whether the plant was propagated by cuttings of grafted plants since the tradition lineage is missing, it should still be considered kosher. Therefore, he concluded that in case no nice, clean and kosher \"Yanove Esrog\" is to be found, the Corfu etrog may be used instead. This certification, as well as the lenient position of many other authorities, eventually opened doors for the permission of this etrog.\n\n\n=== The new places ===\n\nAlexander Ziskind Mintz, an Ashkenazi merchant, started claiming in 1846 that only those growing in Parga are not grafted, and therefore kosher for the ritual. He claimed that under the previous Ottoman system, citrons could only be planted in Parga under the control of Ali Pasha, who collected all proceeds for the Ottoman empire, and those were thus the only citrons known as kosher and un-grafted through the years. Since the rules have been changed, and farmers are allowed to earn their income and pay only a tax, that's how the plantations have expanded to Agia and Preveza. And since those places are new, no one could not be sure whether those picked from newly planted trees, were grafted or not, at least without careful tree checking upon picking.\nThe local Sephardic rabbis in head of Judah Bibas, the Chief Rabbi of Corfu, kept arguing that all of them are kosher, and that not one grafted tree is to be in the regions of cultivation. Their position was supported by the great Rabbi Chaim Palagi the chief rabbi (Hakham Bashi) of \u0130zmir in neighboring Turkey.\nThe dispute ended up with Rabbi Shlomo Kluger banning all sources including, those of Mintz, which were said to be from Parga, and Rabbi Joseph Saul Nathanson permitting all sources, if they bore a certification from the local rabbis.\n\n\n=== The monopoly and its break ===\n\nThis controversy did not significantly decrease the abundance of the Corfu. In 1875, they incorporated themselves into a cartel and drastically raised the price of each single etrog to six florins, assuming that the Jews would have no choice and pay the price.\nThere was an underlying misconception, that there is a belief by the Jews that whoever doesn't reveal a Corfu etrog for Sukkot will not survive the next year. However, this was not the case. The rabbi of Kovno, Rabbi Yitzchak Elchanan Spektor, intended to stop this record-breaking monopoly, and banned the Corfu etrog until the prices would be lowered, and the status of kashrus clarified. Even the rabbi of Corfu certified in a letter that there were already many grafted trees in the region, and the certification process was very complex. The ban was further supported with signatures of many leading rabbis throughout Eastern Europe.\nThe preferred etrog was now the Balady citron of Israel, which had just started being imported, and they regarded even the Corsican citron above the Corfu, while the most respected Genoese citron was very hard to get.\nEach Jewish etrog merchant committed himself to his local rabbi that he would not buy any etrog from the Greek farmers, since this would result in a record breaking expense for the Jewish community, which was impossible for them to pay. This was a great sacrifice from the local Jewry in Corfu, who went without income for the year.\nThis act severely affected the Greek planters and dealers, who, left with high costs and no revenue, were forced to lower prices.\n\n\n=== The blood libel and pogrom ===\n\nIn the pre-Pesach season of 1891, an unidentified female body was found on a street neighboring the Jewish ghetto. The Greek etrog growers made a blood libel, accusing local Jews of the murder.\nThe local Church officials on Corfu (as well as on the other Ionian Islands) maintained a deliberate neutrality during the anti-semitic events and did not support the government's efforts to reestablish order, unlike the high echelons of the Church, who took measures to limit the anti-Semitic mood. Similarly the Greek press played a role in publicizing the unfairness of the accusations. The culprits were never prosecuted, however.After several days of violence, a short investigation found that the victim was Sarda, a member of a famous Jewish family on the Corfu Island, who was killed in sexual violence. The discovery was too late for the total of 139 dead, and this composed the Jewish saying, \"Rather should the etrog have a 'blatt-flaw', [a flaw similar to apple russet that is presumably caused by a scratch from a leaf, this was common in the different varieties of citron but not in the Greek] but not in any case a 'blood-flaw'\", referring to the blood spilled in Corfu. However, the local Jewry did not necessarily appreciate the ban.\n\n\n=== Partial decline ===\nAs a result, the popularity of the Greek citron drastically declined in the eastern European communities that switched to the Balady etrogs, but was still used elsewhere. After World War II, some European Jews who had relocated to Israel or the United States still continued using the Greek for at least two decades.\nIn 1956, Rabbi Yeshaye Gross, a Satmar from Brooklyn, proceeded to visit the orchards in Calabria, and found out that a large percentage of the trees are actually grafted. From then on he realized that no etrog could be picked off the tree without a careful inspection, which he was allowed and able to do.\nThe Greek growers, in contrast, didn't let any Jewish merchants visit their orchards to inspect their trees, and only sold etrogs on Corfu. This forced many Satmars to switch back to the traditional Yanova citron, even not bearing a pitam. The cultivation of the Greek citron was thereafter on concentrated in Halki, Naxos where there is a small production for distillery.\nIn those years, the Moroccan citron took place and appealed for both traditional purity without any history of grafting, and its bearing a persistent healthy pitam.Still the Skverer rebbe manages to get annually one esrog from Corfu. The esrog is brought from Greece by Meyer Knoblach from New Square.\n\n\n== Introduction to Israel ==\nAt about 1850, Sir Moses Montefiore was instrumental in establishing etrog plantations in the Holy Land, in order to help the Jewish settlers to survive. As the Balady citron had little chance for success \u2013 being not so great in shape, color etc., with a persistent style ratio as low as 1;1000 \u2013 the Sephardic settlers, who were always positive about the Corfu, planted its seeds in the coastal region of Israel, especially in the vicinity of Jaffa. The transplantation was witnessed as kosher by the local Sephardic Rabbi Yehuda Halevi.\n\nArab farmers imported cuttings from Greece, which they budded onto rootstock of the Palestinian sweet lime for cleansing diseases and for longer life. The Corfu variety, which they called kubbad abu nunia ('citron with persistent style'), did not acclimatize well in Israeli land, so growers started employing the grafting method on a large scale.\nThe great scholar and kabballist Rabbi Aaron Ezrial of the Beit El Synagogue still certified some ungrafted citron orchards in Jaffa by eliminating the plants he found to be grafted. The Greek-Jaffa citron was also promoted by most of the Sephardic and even some Ashkenazic rabbis, who saw a great future in the beautiful and pitamed variety. The permission was based upon inspection of each and every tree prior to picking, just like it is practiced today in Calabria.In the following time, the Greek citron of Jaffa pushed the Balady citron off the market. The Jaffa Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook founded and headed the \"Atzei Hadar\" union for kosher etrog cultivators and marketers, to prevent grafting the Jaffa etrog unto rootstock of sour orange or sweet lime, but very much promoted intraspecific grafting of the Greek citron upon Balady citron rootstock, which is permitted by Halacha.\nThe act led to the establishment of a beautiful variety in Israel, yet kosher, and saved the economy of Israel for decades. As of today it is the leading variety in Israel, and is a very important article in international trade.\n\n\n=== Suspicions ===\n\nAlthough the graft of Greek citron on Balady rootstock was a great idea from practical and Halachic views, it induced suspicion from customers who wondered why the Israeli citron was suddenly so beautiful with an erect pitam. Suspicion arose in Israel and in the diaspora, and many rumors spread.\nThe late Grand Rabbi of Munkatch, Chaim Elazar Spira, was aware of the change. He speculated that it was the same problem continuously claimed against the Greek in their homeland Greece, namely to be grafted or bred with lemon, which renders it non-kosher.This was not completely false, since those not supervised were grafted also onto bitter orange or limetta. Also, even with supervision it is very hard to detect the rootstock type, while not the same as the scion.\nSuch skeptical views about the beautiful Greek-Israeli citron, were also expressed by the Rabbi Solomon Eliezer Alfandari, and by the former chief rabbi Ovadia Yosef.\nLater an ungrafted tree was found in the backyard of a Shochet in Hadera with the name ordang. Today, most Hasidic communities in Israel, as well as in the diaspora, are using descendants of this strain while planted under rabbinical Hashgacha.\n\n\n== See also ==\nHistory of the Jews in Greece\nIsser Zalman Meltzer\nKehila Kedosha Janina\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== HaLevanon links ===\nThe etrog controversy in the years of 1875\u20136 was mainly led by the Hebrew newspaper HaLevanon. The newspaper has been digitized and made available online by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Some links to it (in Hebrew):\n\nHaLevanon 7 \u2013 no 32 \u2013 see page 2\nHaLevanon 11 \u2013 no 7, no 35, no 36, no 39 The ruling of Rabbi Spektor, no 41, no 44, no 45, no 46 \u2013 see also page 6, no 50.\nHaLevanon 12 \u2013 no 1 \u2013 go to page 3,no 2, no 3, no 4, no 5, no 6, no 7, no 43, no 49, no 50\nHaLevanon 13 \u2013 no 3 \u2013 see page 4, no 8 \u2013 see page 3, no 42, no 47.\n\n\n=== Google Books ===\nOrigin of Cultivated Plants By Alphonse de Candolle\nMansfeld's encyclopedia of agricultural and horticultural crops ..., Volume 4 By Peter Hanelt, Rudolf Mansfeld, R. B\u00fcttner\nThe Mediterranean Diets in Health and Disease\nA History of the Jews in Modern Times\n\n\n== External links ==\n\"The Extra-ordinary History of Etrog\"\nEssay by Eliezer Segal\nInnvista page about citrons\nThe Citrus Variety Collection at the University of California Riverside\nCitrus Pages\nRemnants of ancient synagogue in Albania or by Science Daily\nGreek Legends and Stories by M.V. Seton-Williams\n\"Etrog\", \"Corfu\" in The Jewish Encyclopedia\nThe Encyclopedia of Jewish Life Before and During the Holocaust\n\"In the Arboretum Today\"\nFoods and Nutrition Encyclopedia By Audrey H. Ensminger\nViroid infection on Etrog Citron by the USDA", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/3_etrog.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Aron_Kodesh_Corfu.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Cedro_col_Pigolo.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Naxos_citron.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/OrdangNiceB.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Parga_and_its_castle.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Star_of_David.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Yitzchak_Elchanan_Spektor.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a0/Ordang_multi.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/04/The_Minchas_Eliezer.jpg"], "summary": "The Greek citron variety of Citrus medica (Greek: \u03ba\u03b9\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03ac, Hebrew: \u05d0\u05ea\u05e8\u05d5\u05d2 \u05e7\u05d5\u05e8\u05e4\u05d5\u200e or \u05d9\u05b0\u05d5\u05b8\u05e0\u05b4\u05d9) was botanically classified by Adolf Engler as the \"variety etrog\". This is remarking on its major use for the Jewish ritual etrog during Sukkot.It was also called pitima, or the cedro col pigolo (\"citron with a pitom\"), because of its usually persisting pitom (carpel). The last does not only enhance its character, but also adds Halachic promotion.\n\n"}, "Orangequat": {"links": ["Dangyuja", "Key lime", "Micrantha ", "X\u00e3 \u0110o\u00e0i orange", "New Zealand grapefruit", "Blood orange", "Sudachi", "Kawachi Bankan", "Trifoliate orange", "Kabbad", "Lena B. Smithers Hughes", "Shonan Gold", "Yuja-hwachae", "Citrus hybrid", "Lumia ", "Orange oil", "Smith Red Valencia", "Sweet lemon", "Citrangequat", "Citrus gracilis", "Citrus warburgiana", "Citrus unshiu", "Citrus macrophylla", "Mother Orange Tree", "Australian outback lime", "Clara H. Hasse", "Palestinian sweet lime", "Phoma tracheiphila", "Midknight Valencia Orange", "Nanfengmiju", "Robert Soost", "Limequat", "Citrus rootstock", "Herbert John Webber", "Cam s\u00e0nh", "Amanatsu", "Lim\u00f3n de Pica", "Hybrid ", "Cara cara navel", "Phytophthora", "Australian lime", "Tangerine", "Citrus cavaleriei", "Citrofortunella", "Lemon", "Citrange", "Limonene", "Rangpur ", "Setoka", "Citrus tristeza virus", "Procimequat", "Citrus x deliciosa", "Citrus glauca", "Citrus halimii", "University of California, Riverside Citrus Variety Collection", "Hesperidium", "Papeda ", "Daidai", "Citrus black spot", "Sunquat", "Calamansi juice", "Kaffir lime", "Oroblanco", "Moroccan citron", "Kiyomi", "Pomelo", "Citrus myrtifolia", "Citrus australis", "The Citrus Industry", "Species", "Murcott ", "Kalpi ", "Ch\u016bhai", "Balady citron", "Imperial lemon", "Orange juice", "Kobayashi mikan", "Tangor", "Bitter orange", "Mangshanyegan", "Yuja tea", "Dried lime tea", "Citrus limetta", "Forbidden fruit ", "Japanese citrus", "Fairchild tangerine", "Kabosu", "Komikan ", "Melogold", "Citrus exocortis", "Jabara ", "Grapefruit juice", "Pomelos", "Orangelo", "Clymenia ", "Byeonggyul", "List of citrus diseases", "Citrus greening disease", "Valencia orange", "United States Department of Agriculture", "Kinkoji unshiu", "Citrus garrawayi", "Citrumelo", "Walter Tennyson Swingle", "Haruka ", "Citrus inodora", "Samuyao", "Yuzuquat", "Citrus indica", "Greek citron", "Dekopon", "Satsuma ", "Kishu mikan", "Phytophthora citricola", "Kinnow", "Kishumikan", "Ponderosa lemon", "Hyuganatsu", "Florentine citron", "Shangjuan", "Hybrid name", "David Mabberley", "Variegated pink lemon", "Hassaku orange", "Iyokan", "Mandora ", "Oxanthera", "Calamansi", "Citrus latipes", "Reikou", "Citron", "Pompia", "Citrus production", "Sanbokan", "Orangery", "Citrus wintersii", "Ikuro Takahashi ", "Yuukou mandarin", "Koji orange", "Tachibana orange", "University of California Citrus Experiment Station", "Jamaican tangelo", "Biasong", "Kumquat", "Corsican citron", "Hebesu", "Citrus junos", "Johann Christoph Volkamer", "Clementine", "Limeade", "Fingered citron", "Rough lemon", "Rhobs el Arsa", "Citrus taxonomy", "Cold-hardy citrus", "Citrus longispina", "Cultivar", "Orange flower water", "Citrus reshni", "Diamante citron", "Citrus celebica", "Citrus", "Citrus maideniana", "Ch\u014dzabur\u014d Tanaka", "Lime ", "Orange ", "\u014cgonkan", "Jaffa orange", "Bergamot orange", "Grapefruit", "Lemonade", "Biphenyl", "Succade", "Volkamer lemon", "Calcium citrate", "Citrus depressa", "Yemenite citron", "Pixie mandarin", "Kuchinotsu No. thirty-seven", "Laraha", "List of citrus fruits", "Tangelo", "'Encore' mandarin", "Fruit", "Blood lime", "Ponkan", "Persian lime", "Lemonade fruit", "Citric acid", "Mandarin orange", "Mandelo", "Meyer lemon", "Neroli", "Citrus canker", "Bizzaria", "Cura\u00e7ao ", "Orangeat", "Citrus ichangensis", "Zest ", "Cl\u00e9ment Rodier", "Kanpei", "Citrus macroptera", "Robert Willard Hodgson", "Banpeiyu"], "content": "The Nippon orangequat is a cross between a Satsuma mandarin and a Meiwa kumquat (Fortunella crassifolia), hybridized by Dr. Eugene May of the USDA and introduced in 1932, and is a member of the citrofortunella group. 'Nippon' is the only named cultivar.\n\n\n== Description ==\nThis is a small, round, orange fruit, which is larger than a kumquat. The fruit ranges from 2\u20134 cm (0.79\u20131.57 in) in circumference. Orangequats can be eaten whole, including rind, but they have a very bitter and sour taste and most contain seeds. Orangequat trees are small to medium in size; the leaves are usually long and narrow and dark green in color. The trunk and branches of the trees are slightly narrow, given the size of the trees. These trees can be seen with fruits on them through many of the colder months, since that is the season for orangequat growing. Orangequats have not been genetically altered to be resistant to citrus canker, a citrus disease that causes small round sores on the fruit and its tree. The orangequat also has not been bred to be seedless or sweet; it is very tart, and has a fair amount of rather large seeds inside.\n\n\n== Background ==\nThe Meiwa kumquat, a hybrid of a round and an oval kumquat, and the Satsuma mandarin are the two fruits that were used to parent the Nippon orangequat. Both of these fruits are able to withstand cooler climates, the meiwa being partially dormant in the winter months  and the satsuma maturing in October to December. Since both of these citruses are able to grow in the colder season, the orangequat inherited that trait and is also grown and harvested in the colder seasons. Both of the parents of the orangequat are grown in many countries of the world, like China, Japan, South Africa, and the United States of America. In the United States, orangequats are mainly grown in the Southern states like Florida and Alabama; however, they are also grown in California and other Western states.\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Emoji_u1f34f.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Indio_Mandarinquat_%288449598376%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "The Nippon orangequat is a cross between a Satsuma mandarin and a Meiwa kumquat (Fortunella crassifolia), hybridized by Dr. Eugene May of the USDA and introduced in 1932, and is a member of the citrofortunella group. 'Nippon' is the only named cultivar.\n\n"}, "Australian_lime": {"links": ["Citrus macroptera", "Citrus taxonomy", "Yuja-hwachae", "Kishumikan", "Microcitrus", "Sunquat", "Citrus x deliciosa", "List of citrus fruits", "Orangery", "Yemenite citron", "Citrus myrtifolia", "Northern Territory", "Herbert John Webber", "Walter Tennyson Swingle", "University of California, Riverside Citrus Variety Collection", "Citrus junos", "Citrus rootstock", "Citrus celebica", "Citrus gracilis", "David Mabberley", "Yuukou mandarin", "Rhobs el Arsa", "Cara cara navel", "Citrus wakonai", "Citric acid", "Eremocitrus", "Citrangequat", "Citrus longispina", "Bizzaria", "Citrus exocortis", "Orange flower water", "Citrus halimii", "Haruka ", "Variegated pink lemon", "List of citrus diseases", "Setoka", "Fairchild tangerine", "Hesperidium", "Komikan ", "Citrus tristeza virus", "Orangequat", "Papua New Guinea", "Ponkan", "Jamaican tangelo", "Byeonggyul", "Dekopon", "Forbidden fruit ", "Citrus ichangensis", "Sweet lemon", "Smith Red Valencia", "Citrus cavaleriei", "Australian outback lime", "Lemonade", "Moroccan citron", "Bitter orange", "Succade", "Calomondin", "Kishu mikan", "Robert Willard Hodgson", "Trifoliate orange", "Oroblanco", "Kuchinotsu No. thirty-seven", "Lim\u00f3n de Pica", "Kinnow", "Limeade", "Orangeat", "X\u00e3 \u0110o\u00e0i orange", "Bergamot orange", "Papeda ", "Clymenia ", "Dangyuja", "Cura\u00e7ao ", "Ikuro Takahashi ", "University of California Citrus Experiment Station", "Melogold", "Clymenia platypoda", "Shonan Gold", "Sanbokan", "Kumquat", "Laraha", "Port Moresby", "Mandora ", "Jaffa orange", "Kaffir lime", "Tangelo", "'Encore' mandarin", "Calamansi", "Kobayashi mikan", "Citrus black spot", "Kalpi ", "Zest ", "Shangjuan", "Lime ", "Iyokan", "Lumia ", "Nanfengmiju", "Citrus canker", "Cultivar", "Citrus australis", "Phytophthora citricola", "Kiyomi", "Bismarck Archipelago", "Tachibana orange", "Procimequat", "Midknight Valencia Orange", "Grapefruit juice", "Kabbad", "Pomelos", "Citrus unshiu", "Alatau ", "Mother Orange Tree", "Citrus maideniana", "Amanatsu", "Orange juice", "Greek citron", "Limonene", "Citrus wintersii", "Phytophthora", "Blood Lime", "Samuyao", "Goodenough Island", "Citrus inodora", "Citrofortunella", "Persian lime", "Corsican citron", "Ch\u014dzabur\u014d Tanaka", "Diamante citron", "Lena B. Smithers Hughes", "Lemon", "Micrantha ", "Mandarin orange", "Citrus greening disease", "Japanese citrus", "Bangalow, New South Wales", "Clara H. Hasse", "Finger lime", "Balady citron", "Species", "Citrus garrawayi", "Citrus rootstocks", "Kabosu", "Key lime", "Biphenyl", "Cam s\u00e0nh", "Phoma tracheiphila", "Queensland", "Tangerine", "Citrus hybrid", "Koji orange", "Citrus glauca", "Oxanthera", "Calcium citrate", "Australian Outback Lime", "Blood lime", "Papuan Peninsula", "Palestinian sweet lime", "Reikou", "Johann Christoph Volkamer", "Citrus indica", "Imperial lemon", "Pompia", "\u014cgonkan", "Cape York Peninsula", "Grapefruit", "Australian Plant Name Index", "Mandelo", "Citrus australasica", "Citrumelo", "Citrus latipes", "Cold-hardy citrus", "Marmalade", "Citrus production", "Fingered citron", "Sudachi", "Banpeiyu", "Citrus limetta", "Hassaku orange", "Desert lime", "The Citrus Industry", "Neroli", "Florentine citron", "Clymenia polyandra", "Orangelo", "Australia", "Citrus warburgiana", "Pomelo", "Hybrid name", "Robert Soost", "Rough lemon", "Citrus reshni", "Lemonade fruit", "Tangor", "Orange ", "Mangshanyegan", "Daidai", "Valencia orange", "Hyuganatsu", "Kanpei", "Citrus depressa", "Rangpur ", "Yuzuquat", "Murcott ", "Ponderosa lemon", "Blood orange", "Calamansi juice", "Citrus macrophylla", "Citron", "Cook District", "Dried lime tea", "Hebesu", "New Zealand grapefruit", "Pixie mandarin", "Citrus", "Jabara ", "Indigenous Australians", "Meyer lemon", "Ch\u016bhai", "Kinkoji unshiu", "Orange oil", "Yuja tea", "Limequat", "Citrange", "Volkamer lemon", "Biasong", "Cl\u00e9ment Rodier", "Kawachi Bankan", "Clementine"], "content": "Australian limes are species of the plant genus Citrus that are native to Australia and Papua New Guinea.\nThese species were formerly included in the genera Microcitrus and Eremocitrus. They have been used as a food source by indigenous Australians as well as early settlers and are used in modern Australian cuisine, including marmalade and sauces.Species include:\n\n\n== Species from Australia ==\n\n\n=== Natural species ===\nCitrus australasica (Finger lime), a species from rainforest regions of northern New South Wales and Southern Queensland with elongated yellow-green to purple fruits. \nCitrus australis (Round lime or Dooja), a species from south-eastern Australia with round, green fruits\nCitrus glauca (Desert lime), from arid inland areas of inland Australia. Small round fruits are produced in summer. \nCitrus garrawayi, (Mount White lime) is rare and endemic to the Cook District of Cape York Peninsula.\nCitrus gracilis (Kakadu lime or Humpty Doo lime) grows in eucalypt woodland in the Northern Territory and was first described in the scientific literature in 1998.\nCitrus inodora (Russell River lime or large-leaf Australian wild lime) is rare, and endemic to northern Queensland.\nCitrus maideniana (Maiden's Australian wild lime) may be a subspecies of C. inodora.\n\n\n=== Cultivars ===\n\nA number of cultivars have been developed in recent years. These can be grafted on to standard citrus rootstocks.  They may be grown as ornamental trees in the garden or in containers.\nGrafted standards are available for some varieties. The cultivars include:\n\n'Australian Outback' (or 'Australian Desert'), developed from several desert lime varieties\n'Australian Red Centre' (or 'Australian Blood' or Blood Lime), a cross of finger lime and a mandarin-lemon or mandarin-sweet orange hybrid\n'Australian Sunrise', a hybrid cross of finger lime and a calomondin which is pear shaped and orange inside\n'Rainforest Pearl', a pink-fruited form of finger lime from Bangalow, New South Wales\n'Sunrise Lime ', parentage unknown\n'Outback Lime', a desert lime cultivar\n\n\n== Species from Papua New Guinea ==\nCitrus warburgiana (Kakamadu or New Guinea wild lime) grows on the south coast of the Papuan Peninsula near Alatau (pictures).\nCitrus wakonai (also locally called kakamadu) has been reported from Goodenough Island.\nCitrus wintersii, also known as Citrus papuana (Brown River finger lime) has, as the name suggests, a small, thin fruit, pointed at both ends (pictures, more pictures). It grows near Port Moresby.\nClymenia sp. are native to the Bismarck Archipelago but are cultivated in other areas. Clymenia is now often considered to belong within the citrus genus.Clymenia platypoda\nClymenia polyandra has a lemon-sized round fruit, pointed at one end (pictures).Citrus species in Papua New Guinea have not been extensively studied, and there are likely to be more species than are listed here.\n\n\n== Identification ==\nAn identification key (p. 6 or 338) exists for the known Australian limes (not including species from Papua New Guinea). The leaves of some species broaden dramatically with age.\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/CSIRO_ScienceImage_3400_The_Australian_Outback_Lime.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/CSIRO_ScienceImage_3592_New_lime_varieties_bred_from_native_Australian_limes.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Citrus_australasica_green_fruit1.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Citrus_glauca_fruit.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "Australian limes are species of the plant genus Citrus that are native to Australia and Papua New Guinea.\nThese species were formerly included in the genera Microcitrus and Eremocitrus. They have been used as a food source by indigenous Australians as well as early settlers and are used in modern Australian cuisine, including marmalade and sauces.Species include:\n\n"}, "Tangelo": {"links": ["Haruka ", "Citrus unshiu", "Reikou", "Orange ", "Zest ", "Citrus depressa", "Citrus canker", "Doi ", "Citrus greening disease", "Cl\u00e9ment Rodier", "Furocoumarin", "Koji orange", "Lim\u00f3n de Pica", "Hesperidium", "Mandora ", "Orangelo", "Citrus wintersii", "Ch\u014dzabur\u014d Tanaka", "Daidai", "Corsican citron", "Balady citron", "Orange flower water", "Johann Christoph Volkamer", "Imperial lemon", "Yuukou mandarin", "Ch\u016bhai", "Citrus warburgiana", "X\u00e3 \u0110o\u00e0i orange", "Global Biodiversity Information Facility", "Ponkan", "Rough lemon", "Cara cara navel", "Lemonade fruit", "Integrated Taxonomic Information System", "Grapefruit", "Byeonggyul", "Yuja tea", "Citrus", "Oroblanco", "Banpeiyu", "Citrus macrophylla", "Citrus gracilis", "Citrus halimii", "Portmanteau", "Rangpur ", "Yuja-hwachae", "Micrantha ", "Florentine citron", "Midknight Valencia Orange", "Hassaku orange", "Species", "Calcium citrate", "Fairchild tangerine", "Citrus macroptera", "Volkamer lemon", "\u014cgonkan", "Citrus exocortis", "Minneola, Florida", "Diamante citron", "Variegated pink lemon", "Fingered citron", "Robert Willard Hodgson", "Kanpei", "Kiyomi", "Kaffir lime", "List of citrus diseases", "Plantae", "Citrus glauca", "Baboon", "Hebesu", "Laraha", "Dangyuja", "Wikispecies", "Kuchinotsu No. thirty-seven", "Bizzaria", "Yuzuquat", "Harold E. Moore", "Iyokan", "Sanbokan", "The Citrus Industry", "Bowen grapefruit", "Citrange", "Jaffa orange", "Blood lime", "Biphenyl", "Sapindales", "Shangjuan", "Citrus ichangensis", "Herbert John Webber", "Greek citron", "Citrus limetta", "Cam s\u00e0nh", "Bitter orange", "Ikuro Takahashi ", "Citrus tristeza virus", "Oxanthera", "Phoma tracheiphila", "Tachibana orange", "California", "Citrus myrtifolia", "Moroccan citron", "Eudicots", "Pomelos", "Citrus australis", "Hyuganatsu", "Nanfengmiju", "Taxonomy ", "Dried lime tea", "List of citrus fruits", "Cold-hardy citrus", "Natural Resources Conservation Service", "Ponderosa lemon", "Australian outback lime", "Dancy tangerine", "EPPO Code", "Blood orange", "Pixie mandarin", "Tangor", "Sweet lemon", "Persian lime", "University of California Citrus Experiment Station", "Clara H. Hasse", "Germplasm Resources Information Network", "Kinnow", "Rhobs el Arsa", "Komikan ", "Citrus maideniana", "Hybrid name", "'Encore' mandarin", "Rutaceae", "Calamansi", "Cura\u00e7ao ", "Citrus x deliciosa", "Orange juice", "United States Department of Agriculture", "Walter Tennyson Swingle", "Hybrid ", "Statin", "Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences", "Citrumelo", "Orangequat", "Palestinian sweet lime", "Mandarin orange", "Melogold", "Mandelo", "Mangshanyegan", "Orange oil", "Jabara ", "Sweet orange", "Clementine", "Citrus garrawayi", "Citrus longispina", "Calamansi juice", "Murcott ", "Tropicos", "Citric acid", "Japanese citrus", "Limequat", "Citrofortunella", "Citrus taxonomy", "Procimequat", "Citrus rootstock", "Biasong", "Kishumikan", "Shonan Gold", "Citrus black spot", "Fruit", "Cultivar", "Kabosu", "Citrus celebica", "David Mabberley", "Jamaica", "Yemenite citron", "Orangeat", "Citrus junos", "Limonene", "Bergamot orange", "Sunquat", "Grapefruit juice", "Dekopon", "Citrus production", "Limeade", "Phytophthora", "Pomelo", "Kalpi ", "Meyer lemon", "Citrus inodora", "Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera", "Journal of Food Science", "New Zealand grapefruit", "Neroli", "ISBN ", "Binomial nomenclature", "Kabbad", "Phytophthora citricola", "Amanatsu", "University of California, Riverside Citrus Variety Collection", "Wikidata", "Clymenia ", "Citrus indica", "Citrangequat", "Setoka", "Lemon", "Sudachi", "Tangerine", "Arizona", "Papeda ", "Samuyao", "Citrus hybrid", "Tangelo ", "Trifoliate orange", "Lime ", "Kishu mikan", "Pompia", "Orangery", "Forbidden fruit ", "Jamaican tangelo", "Citrus cavaleriei", "Mother Orange Tree", "Kobayashi mikan", "Robert Soost", "International Plant Names Index", "Smith Red Valencia", "Fruit rind", "Kinkoji unshiu", "John William Ingram", "Australian lime", "Lena B. Smithers Hughes", "Key lime", "Kawachi Bankan", "Kumquat", "Rosids", "World Flora Online", "Valencia orange", "Plants of the World Online", "Lemonade", "Citrus reshni", "Citron", "Lumia ", "Cape Town", "Angiosperms", "Succade", "Northern Florida", "Citrus latipes"], "content": "The tangelo ( TAN-j\u0259-loh,  tan-JEL-oh; C. reticulata \u00d7 C. maxima or \u00d7 C. paradisi; sometimes referred to as honeybells), Citrus \u00d7 tangelo,  is a citrus fruit hybrid of a Citrus reticulata variety, such as a mandarin orange or tangerine, and a Citrus maxima variety, such as a pomelo or grapefruit.  The name is a portmanteau of 'tangerine' and 'pomelo'. \nTangelos are the size of an adult fist, have a tart and tangy taste, and are juicy at the expense of flesh. They generally have loose skin and are easier to peel than oranges, readily distinguished from them by a characteristic \"nipple\" at the stem. Tangelos can be used as a substitute for mandarin oranges or sweet oranges.\n\n\n== Varieties ==\n\n\n=== Orlando ===\nThe early maturing Orlando tangelo is noted for its rich juiciness, mild and sweet flavor, large size, distinct zesty smell, and flat-round shape without a characteristic knob. California/Arizona tangelos have a slightly pebbled texture, vibrant interior and exterior color, very few seeds, and a tight-fitting rind. Orlando tangelos are available from mid-November to the beginning of February. The tangelo originated as a cross between a Duncan grapefruit and a Dancy mandarin.  Walter Tennyson Swingle of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is credited with creating the hybrid in 1911. When the Orlando tangelo was first cultivated, it was known by the name Lake tangelo. The trees of this variety grow to a large size and are easily recognized by their cup-shape leaves. Orlando tangelos are recognized as one of the more cold-tolerant varieties. Northern Florida grows significantly fewer tangelos, but they are much sweeter due to climate.\n\n\n=== Minneola ===\nThe Minneola tangelo (also known as the Honeybell) is a cross between a Duncan grapefruit and a Dancy mandarin, and was released in 1931 by the USDA Horticultural Research Station in Orlando.  It is named after Minneola, Florida.  Most Minneola tangelos are characterized by a stem-end neck, which tends to make the fruit appear bell-shaped. Because of this, it is also called the Honeybell in the gift fruit trade, where it is one of the most popular varieties. Both Minneolas and Honeybells are usually fairly large, typically 3\u20133+1\u20442 inches (76\u201389 mm) in diameter; the Honeybells tend to be larger and sweeter. The peel color, when mature, is a bright-reddish-orange color. The rind of the Minneola is relatively thin, while the rind of the Honeybell is slightly thicker. Both the Minneola and Honeybell Tangelo peel rather easily. Both are very juicy. Both the Minneola and the Honeybell are not strongly self-fruitful, and yields will be greater when interplanted with suitable pollenizers such as Temple tangor, Sunburst tangerine, or possibly Fallglo tangerine. It tends to bear a good crop every other year. In the Northern Hemisphere the fruit matures in the December\u2013February period, with January being the peak.\n\n\n=== Jamaican tangelo ===\n\nThe Jamaican tangelo, marketed under proprietary names ugli fruit and uniq fruit, is a spontaneous hybrid discovered about 1920 on the island of Jamaica, with a rough, wrinkled, greenish-yellow rind. Its exact parentage has not been determined, but it is thought to be a tangerine/grapefruit hybrid.\n\n\n=== K-Early (Sunrise) ===\nA hybrid propagated by Walter Tennyson Swingle and Herbert John Webber, the K-Early is an early-ripening cultivar which gained a bad reputation at first but has been increasing in popularity in recent years. It is sometimes called 'Sunrise', a name also used for a different and older cultivar.\n\n\n=== Seminole ===\nThe seminole is a hybrid between a 'Bowen' grapefruit and a 'Dancy' tangerine. It is deep red-orange in color and oblate in shape with a thin and firm peel, and is not necked. It has 11-13 juicy segments and a pleasant, subacid flavor. It has 20-25 small seeds. The tree is high-yielding and scab-resistant.\n\n\n=== Thornton ===\nA tangerine-grapefruit hybrid developed by Walter Tennyson Swingle in 1899, the Thornton is oblate to obovate in shape, slightly rough, and medium to large in size. The peel is light orange in color and is of a medium thickness; the pulp inside is pale to deep orange. It has 10-12 juicy segments and a rich subacid to sweet flavor. There are 10-25 slender seeds inside. It ripens from December to March. The tree is high-yielding and is well-adapted to hot and dry regions, although the fruit ships poorly.\n\n\n=== Novel varieties ===\nIn 2011, a troop of baboons were attracted to the higher sweetness of a new likely mutation in a Minneola planting in Cape Town, South Africa, prompting its propagation.\n\n\n== Drug interactions ==\nOne study thus far has shown that, unlike grapefruit, interactions with statins are not likely with tangelos. Although the tangelo is derived from a grapefruit crossed with a mandarin, the furocoumarins in grapefruit are not expressed in tangelos.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Minneola_fruit_3.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "The tangelo ( TAN-j\u0259-loh,  tan-JEL-oh; C. reticulata \u00d7 C. maxima or \u00d7 C. paradisi; sometimes referred to as honeybells), Citrus \u00d7 tangelo,  is a citrus fruit hybrid of a Citrus reticulata variety, such as a mandarin orange or tangerine, and a Citrus maxima variety, such as a pomelo or grapefruit.  The name is a portmanteau of 'tangerine' and 'pomelo'. \nTangelos are the size of an adult fist, have a tart and tangy taste, and are juicy at the expense of flesh. They generally have loose skin and are easier to peel than oranges, readily distinguished from them by a characteristic \"nipple\" at the stem. Tangelos can be used as a substitute for mandarin oranges or sweet oranges.\n\n"}, "Neroli": {"links": ["Persian lime", "Australian lime", "Clementine", "Petitgrain", "Byeonggyul", "Nerola", "Grapefruit juice", "Hybrid name", "Komikan ", "Kishu mikan", "Bracciano", "Kalpi ", "Japanese citrus", "Melogold", "Citron", "Lemonade", "Citrus indica", "Palestinian sweet lime", "Cara cara navel", "Forbidden fruit ", "Limequat", "Volkamer lemon", "Citrange", "Bitter orange", "Reikou", "Citrus celebica", "Geraniol", "Corsican citron", "Sanbokan", "Rough lemon", "Sunquat", "Orangeat", "Ch\u014dzabur\u014d Tanaka", "Samuyao", "Orange flower water", "Valencia orange", "Ikuro Takahashi ", "\u014cgonkan", "The Citrus Industry", "Amanatsu", "Rangpur ", "Hassaku orange", "Kinnow", "Orange juice", "Citrus junos", "Blood lime", "Murcott ", "Smith Red Valencia", "Kuchinotsu No. thirty-seven", "Kinkoji unshiu", "Grapefruit", "Key lime", "Limonene", "Mandelo", "Variegated pink lemon", "Kabosu", "Micrantha ", "Citrus inodora", "Orange blossom", "Nerol", "Essential oil", "Neroli ", "Lena B. Smithers Hughes", "List of citrus diseases", "Citrus latipes", "Shonan Gold", "Phytophthora citricola", "Perfumery", "Oxanthera", "Citrus macroptera", "Coca-Cola formula", "Yuja-hwachae", "Calamansi", "Citrus reshni", "Mandarin orange", "Procimequat", "Citrus ichangensis", "Enfleurage", "Biphenyl", "Diamante citron", "Biasong", "Citrus taxonomy", "Koji orange", "Anne Marie Orsini", "Ch\u016bhai", "Citrus exocortis", "Calamansi juice", "Clymenia ", "ISBN ", "Ponkan", "Balady citron", "Citrus production", "Bergamot orange", "Lemonade fruit", "Lim\u00f3n de Pica", "Nanfengmiju", "Walter Tennyson Swingle", "Ponderosa lemon", "Moroccan citron", "Citrus warburgiana", "Shangjuan", "Fingered citron", "X\u00e3 \u0110o\u00e0i orange", "Orangery", "Citrus garrawayi", "Farnesol", "Haruka ", "Distillation", "Lumia ", "Orange oil", "Tachibana orange", "Kanpei", "Yuja tea", "Yemenite citron", "Citrofortunella", "Phoma tracheiphila", "Cam s\u00e0nh", "University of California Citrus Experiment Station", "Tangelo", "Rhobs el Arsa", "Citric acid", "Citrus black spot", "Orange ", "Citrangequat", "Citrus limetta", "Citrus australis", "Citrus depressa", "Citrus cavaleriei", "Citrus longispina", "Hesperidium", "Kishumikan", "Citrus tristeza virus", "Hebesu", "List of citrus fruits", "Johann Christoph Volkamer", "Mangshanyegan", "Pomelos", "Dangyuja", "Setoka", "Tangerine", "Trifoliate orange", "Kaffir lime", "Citrus hybrid", "Kiyomi", "Pomelo", "Dried lime tea", "Cl\u00e9ment Rodier", "Phytophthora", "Tangor", "Citrus unshiu", "Daidai", "Terpene", "Absolute ", "University of California, Riverside Citrus Variety Collection", "Meyer lemon", "Lemon", "Citrus x deliciosa", "Open source cola", "Kawachi Bankan", "Pixie mandarin", "Limeade", "Herbert John Webber", "Greek citron", "Jamaican tangelo", "Citral", "Sudachi", "Cultivar", "Kabbad", "Blood orange", "Oroblanco", "Citrus macrophylla", "Laraha", "Kobayashi mikan", "Lime ", "Robert Willard Hodgson", "'Encore' mandarin", "Imperial lemon", "Papeda ", "Citrus rootstock", "Citrus", "Hyuganatsu", "Pompia", "Bizzaria", "Orangequat", "Fairchild tangerine", "Species", "Citrumelo", "Yuzuquat", "Robert Soost", "New Zealand grapefruit", "Yuukou mandarin", "Kumquat", "Mandora ", "Cura\u00e7ao ", "Citrus myrtifolia", "Iyokan", "Citrus halimii", "Midknight Valencia Orange", "Linalool", "Citrus canker", "Citrus wintersii", "Mother Orange Tree", "Citrus gracilis", "Calcium citrate", "Cold-hardy citrus", "Citrus maideniana", "Zest ", "Clara H. Hasse", "David Mabberley", "Succade", "Dekopon", "Florentine citron", "Banpeiyu", "Citrus greening disease", "Citrus glauca", "Sweet lemon", "Australian outback lime", "Jaffa orange", "Orangelo", "Jabara "], "content": "Neroli oil is an essential oil produced from the blossom of the bitter orange tree (Citrus aurantium subsp. amara or Bigaradia). Its scent is sweet, honeyed and somewhat metallic with green and spicy facets. Orange blossom is also extracted from the same blossom and both extracts are extensively used in perfumery. Orange blossom can be described as smelling sweeter, warmer and more floral than neroli. The difference between how neroli and orange blossom smell and why they are referred to with different names, is a result of the process of extraction that is used to obtain the oil from the blooms. Neroli is extracted by steam distillation and orange blossom is extracted via a process of enfleurage (rarely used nowadays due to prohibitive costs) or solvent extraction.\n\n\n== Production ==\nThe blossoms are gathered, usually by hand, in late April to early May. The oil is extracted by steam distillation. Tunisia, Morocco, and Egypt are the leading producers of Neroli.\n\n\n== History ==\nBy the end of the 17th century, Anne Marie Orsini, duchess of Bracciano and princess of Nerola, Italy, introduced the essence of bitter orange tree as a fashionable fragrance by using it to perfume her gloves and her bath. Since then, the term \"neroli\" has been used to describe this essence. Neroli has a refreshing and distinctive, spicy aroma with sweet and flowery notes.\n\n\n== Use ==\n\nNeroli is one of the most widely used floral oils in perfumery. Like many raw materials, neroli can cause sensitisation due to a high content of aromatic terpenes; e.g., linalool, limonene, farnesol, geraniol and citral.  It blends well with any citrus oil, various floral absolutes, and most of the synthetic components available on the market. \nIt also has a limited use in flavorings. Neroli oil is reportedly one of the ingredients in the closely guarded secret recipe for the Coca-Cola soft drink. It is a flavoring ingredient of open source cola recipes, although some variants consider it as optional, owing to the high cost.\n\n\n== See also ==\nCitrus \u00d7 aurantium\nNerol\nOrange flower water\nOrange oil\nPetitgrain oil\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nEntry in the British Pharmaceutical Codex from 1911", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Citrus_aurantium_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-042.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Neroli.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "Neroli oil is an essential oil produced from the blossom of the bitter orange tree (Citrus aurantium subsp. amara or Bigaradia). Its scent is sweet, honeyed and somewhat metallic with green and spicy facets. Orange blossom is also extracted from the same blossom and both extracts are extensively used in perfumery. Orange blossom can be described as smelling sweeter, warmer and more floral than neroli. The difference between how neroli and orange blossom smell and why they are referred to with different names, is a result of the process of extraction that is used to obtain the oil from the blooms. Neroli is extracted by steam distillation and orange blossom is extracted via a process of enfleurage (rarely used nowadays due to prohibitive costs) or solvent extraction."}, "Rough_lemon": {"links": ["Citrus macroptera", "Citrus exocortis", "Yuja tea", "\u014cgonkan", "Herbert John Webber", "Citrus tristeza virus", "Rhobs el Arsa", "Imperial lemon", "Rosids", "Koji orange", "Melogold", "Dried lime tea", "Calamansi juice", "Kabbad", "Tangelo", "Flowering plant", "List of citrus fruits", "Jaffa orange", "Taxonomy ", "Forbidden fruit ", "Persian lime", "Cam s\u00e0nh", "Citrus taxonomy", "Zest ", "Clara H. Hasse", "Citrus Variety Collection", "Citrus cavaleriei", "'Encore' mandarin", "Integrated Taxonomic Information System", "Robert Willard Hodgson", "Hybrid name", "Citrus garrawayi", "Meyer lemon", "Bergamot orange", "Citrus x deliciosa", "Sunquat", "Orangelo", "Neroli", "Citrus longispina", "Cl\u00e9ment Rodier", "The Citrus Industry", "Binomial nomenclature", "Citrange", "Citric acid", "Australian lime", "Clementine", "Variegated pink lemon", "Cultivar", "Tachibana orange", "Citrus depressa", "Biphenyl", "Mother Orange Tree", "Citrumelo", "New Zealand grapefruit", "University of California, Riverside Citrus Variety Collection", "Yuukou mandarin", "Global Biodiversity Information Facility", "Papeda ", "Dekopon", "Kinkoji unshiu", "Blood lime", "Pomelo", "Hyuganatsu", "Citrus gracilis", "Corsican citron", "Mangshanyegan", "Moroccan citron", "Trifoliate orange", "Kuchinotsu No. thirty-seven", "Citrus limetta", "Lemon", "Citrus hybrid", "Tangor", "Plants of the World Online", "Phytophthora", "Kawachi Bankan", "Citrus indica", "Jabara ", "Ch\u016bhai", "Phytophthora citricola", "Clymenia ", "Species", "Yuja-hwachae", "Orangequat", "Limonene", "Sudachi", "International Plant Names Index", "Ikuro Takahashi ", "Grapefruit juice", "Wikispecies", "Greek citron", "Procimequat", "Fairchild tangerine", "Citrus unshiu", "Lemonade", "David Mabberley", "Hassaku orange", "Citrus reshni", "Hebesu", "Mandarin orange", "Citrus inodora", "Tangerine", "Germplasm Resources Information Network", "Mandelo", "Blood orange", "Kobayashi mikan", "Kabosu", "Haruka ", "Vascular plant", "Midknight Valencia Orange", "Natural Resources Conservation Service", "Plant", "Calcium citrate", "Citrus ichangensis", "Oroblanco", "Eudicots", "Kaffir lime", "Nanfengmiju", "Palestinian sweet lime", "Smith Red Valencia", "Citrus glauca", "Bizzaria", "Florentine citron", "Grapefruit", "Citrus celebica", "Citrus wintersii", "Murcott ", "Limequat", "Orange ", "Phoma tracheiphila", "Hesperidium", "Komikan ", "Amanatsu", "Robert Soost", "Lime ", "Sweet lemon", "Orange juice", "Orange oil", "Shangjuan", "Ponkan", "Citron", "Cura\u00e7ao ", "Orangeat", "Kishu mikan", "Succade", "Australian outback lime", "Kinnow", "Citrus rootstock", "Daidai", "Kiyomi", "Citrus junos", "Dangyuja", "Citrus production", "Laraha", "Citrus warburgiana", "Oxanthera", "Lemonade fruit", "University of California Citrus Experiment Station", "Kumquat", "Balady citron", "Fingered citron", "EPPO Code", "Citrangequat", "Citrus macrophylla", "Key lime", "Tropicos", "Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera", "Rutaceae", "Micrantha ", "Mandora ", "Ponderosa lemon", "National Center for Biotechnology Information", "X\u00e3 \u0110o\u00e0i orange", "Citrus canker", "Citrus maideniana", "Citrus greening disease", "Orange flower water", "Ch\u014dzabur\u014d Tanaka", "Kishumikan", "Lumia ", "Citrus australis", "Banpeiyu", "Kanpei", "OCLC ", "Orangery", "Citrus latipes", "Samuyao", "Sanbokan", "Sapindales", "Setoka", "Lena B. Smithers Hughes", "Pompia", "Valencia orange", "Calamansi", "Citrus", "Reikou", "Pomelos", "Limeade", "Pixie mandarin", "Biasong", "Citrus myrtifolia", "Shield budding", "Cold-hardy citrus", "Bitter orange", "Lim\u00f3n de Pica", "Kalpi ", "ISBN ", "Cara cara navel", "Citrofortunella", "Byeonggyul", "Diamante citron", "Yemenite citron", "Yuzuquat", "Jamaican tangelo", "Volkamer lemon", "Citrus black spot", "Walter Tennyson Swingle", "Japanese citrus", "Shonan Gold", "Iyokan", "Wikidata", "List of citrus diseases", "Citrus halimii", "Johann Christoph Volkamer", "Rangpur "], "content": "Rough lemon (Citrus jambhiri Lush.) is the fruit and the tree of a citrus hybrid, like the rangpur a cross between mandarin orange and citron.\nRough lemon is a cold-hardy citrus and can grow into a large tree.\nThe rough lemon is ninety per-cent rind, making it borderline inedible. As a result, the rough lemon is mainly used for citrus rootstock. There are several cultivars of rough lemon that can serve as a citrus rootstock, including 'Florida', 'Schaub', and 'Vangassay' rough lemon. The process for using the rough lemon as a citrus rootstock would start with mashing up the rough lemons. The mashed up rough lemons would then be put in a furrow, which is a long trench. This yellow mash would produce seedlings, which would end up growing into orange or grapefruit trees through shield budding, also known as T budding.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nThe Gardener\nFruitiPedia\nNational Tropical Botanical Garden\nMirriamWebster", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Cutlime.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Flower_of_Citrus_jambhiri_%288350037018%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Red_Pencil_Icon.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Starr_061105-1365_Citrus_limon.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Starr_061105-1366_Citrus_limon.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "Rough lemon (Citrus jambhiri Lush.) is the fruit and the tree of a citrus hybrid, like the rangpur a cross between mandarin orange and citron.\nRough lemon is a cold-hardy citrus and can grow into a large tree.\nThe rough lemon is ninety per-cent rind, making it borderline inedible. As a result, the rough lemon is mainly used for citrus rootstock. There are several cultivars of rough lemon that can serve as a citrus rootstock, including 'Florida', 'Schaub', and 'Vangassay' rough lemon. The process for using the rough lemon as a citrus rootstock would start with mashing up the rough lemons. The mashed up rough lemons would then be put in a furrow, which is a long trench. This yellow mash would produce seedlings, which would end up growing into orange or grapefruit trees through shield budding, also known as T budding.\n\n"}, "Pomelo": {"links": ["Cantonese cuisine", "Japanese citrus", "Ch\u014dzabur\u014d Tanaka", "K-Early tangelo", "Phoma tracheiphila", "Taxonomy ", "Air-layering", "Ipoh", "Australian lime", "Lim\u00f3n de Pica", "Least Concern", "Rutaceae", "Cl\u00e9ment Rodier", "Phosphorus", "Citrus rootstock", "Kuchinotsu No. thirty-seven", "Clymenia ", "Tropicos", "Citrus maideniana", "List of citrus fruits", "ISBN ", "Glossary of botanical terms", "Citrus unshiu", "Calamansi", "Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera", "Micronutrient", "Zest ", "Palestinian sweet lime", "Citrus canker", "Blood orange", "Citrus black spot", "Micrantha ", "Species", "International unit", "Shonan Gold", "Kawachi Bankan", "Bergamot orange", "Plants of the World Online", "Ikuro Takahashi ", "Dancy ", "Limequat", "Mineral ", "Biasong", "Jabara ", "Nepali language", "Nanfengmiju", "Vitamin C", "Citrus myrtifolia", "Fat", "Shangjuan", "Pinghe County", "Bowen grapefruit", "Vietnam", "David Mabberley", "University of California, Riverside Citrus Variety Collection", "Amanatsu", "ISSN ", "Grapefruit juice", "Kiyomi", "Citrus wintersii", "Sunquat", "Jamaica", "Orangequat", "Vascular plant", "Tangelo", "Daily Value", "Orange flower water", "Sweet orange", "Dried lime tea", "Kishumikan", "Yuukou mandarin", "Citrus ichangensis", "Eudicots", "Citrus depressa", "Orange oil", "Kabbad", "Citrus exocortis", "Kinnow", "Murcott ", "Citrofortunella", "Dekopon", "Citrus macroptera", "World Flora Online", "Sodium in biology", "Mesocarp", "Merriam-Webster", "Citrus x deliciosa", "Samuyao", "Citrus celebica", "IUCN Red List", "Yuja-hwachae", "Kinkoji unshiu", "Petiole ", "Bizzaria", "Komikan ", "Variegated pink lemon", "Clara H. Hasse", "Hybrid name", "Florentine citron", "Anti-hypertensive", "Herbert John Webber", "University of California Citrus Experiment Station", "Citrus tristeza virus", "Key lime", "Citrus taxonomy", "Protein ", "Fairchild tangerine", "Pompia", "Citrus", "Balady citron", "Citrumelo", "Microgram", "Citrus halimii", "Greek citron", "Vitamin", "Kumquat", "'Encore' mandarin", "Citrus longispina", "Limeade", "Niacin", "Hybrid ", "Biphenyl", "INaturalist", "Peel ", "Natural Resources Conservation Service", "Setoka", "New Zealand grapefruit", "Citrus cavaleriei", "Citrus latipes", "Hassaku orange", "Citric acid", "Seminole tangelo", "Missouri Botanical Garden", "Citrus warburgiana", "Plant", "Trifoliate orange", "Robert Willard Hodgson", "Limonene", "Dietary fiber", "Sapindales", "Integrated Taxonomic Information System", "Fingered citron", "Australian Plant Name Index", "Citrange", "Citrus production", "Meyer lemon", "Ponderosa lemon", "Citrus garrawayi", "Mangshanyegan", "Backcross", "Australian outback lime", "Conservation status", "Potassium in biology", "EPPO Code", "Kaffir lime", "Diamante citron", "Dietary Reference Intake", "Grafting", "Chinatown, Singapore", "Robert Soost", "Rhobs el Arsa", "East India Company", "Kobayashi mikan", "Wikispecies", "Flowering plant", "Cytochrome Pfour fifty", "Jamaican tangelo", "Anticoagulant", "Citrus gracilis", "Byeonggyul", "Lemonade fruit", "The Citrus Industry", "Citrangequat", "Monoembryonic", "Grapefruit", "Kalpi ", "X\u00e3 \u0110o\u00e0i orange", "Melogold", "Rough lemon", "Laraha", "Carbohydrate", "Magnesium in biology", "Food energy", "European Nature Information System", "Nova mandarin", "Elmer Drew Merrill", "Orangery", "Mandora ", "Citrus junos", "Persian lime", "National Center for Biotechnology Information", "Kanpei", "Smith Red Valencia", "Flora of China", "Fujian", "Citrus greening disease", "Mother Orange Tree", "The Plant List", "Grapefruit\u2013drug interactions", "Sweet lemon", "Valencia orange", "Binomial nomenclature", "Yemenite citron", "Bitter orange", "Hebesu", "Lime ", "Kabosu", "Orangeat", "Manganese", "Daidai", "Kishu mikan", "Hesperidium", "Pixie mandarin", "Citron", "Calcium citrate", "Riboflavin", "Citrus glauca", "Thornton tangelo", "Ponkan", "Lemon", "Conserve ", "Tangor", "Milligram", "Haruka ", "Pomelos", "PMID ", "Minneola tangelo", "Mandarin orange", "Vitamin Bsix", "Sudachi", "Johann Christoph Volkamer", "Walter Tennyson Swingle", "Phytophthora citricola", "Midknight Valencia Orange", "Oxanthera", "Citrus australis", "Forbidden fruit ", "Hyuganatsu", "List of citrus diseases", "Zinc", "\u014cgonkan", "Banpeiyu", "Ancestor", "Encyclopedia of Life", "Blood lime", "Preserves", "Wikidata", "Protein", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Phytophthora", "Prescription drug", "Lemonade", "Cara cara navel", "Germplasm Resources Information Network", "Neroli", "Orlando tangelo", "International Plant Names Index", "Dangyuja", "Imperial lemon", "Cura\u00e7ao ", "Cultivar", "Sanbokan", "Yuja tea", "Clementine", "PMC ", "Procimequat", "Rosids", "Orangelo", "Oroblanco", "Cam s\u00e0nh", "Lumia ", "Citrus hybrid", "Lena B. Smithers Hughes", "Mandelo", "Ugli fruit", "Citrus indica", "Human iron metabolism", "Orange ", "Rangpur ", "Cold-hardy citrus", "Tangerine", "Koji orange", "Moroccan citron", "Juice vesicles", "Reikou", "Citrus macrophylla", "Citrus limetta", "Iyokan", "Y\u00f2uzi", "Papeda ", "Ch\u016bhai", "Doi ", "Thiamine", "Jaffa orange", "Orange juice", "Calamansi juice", "Barbados", "Corsican citron", "American Heritage Dictionary", "Tachibana orange", "South Asian English", "Citrus inodora", "Volkamer lemon", "Yuzuquat", "Global Biodiversity Information Facility", "Yuzu", "Citrus reshni", "Southeast Asia", "Succade"], "content": "The pomelo (), pummelo (), or in scientific terms Citrus maxima or Citrus grandis, is the largest citrus fruit from the family Rutaceae and the principal ancestor of the grapefruit. It is a natural, i.e., non-hybrid, citrus fruit, native to Southeast Asia. Similar in taste to a sweet grapefruit, the pomelo is commonly consumed and used for festive occasions throughout Southeast Asia. Like the grapefruit, the pomelo has the potential for drug interactions.\n\n\n== Etymology ==\nAccording to the Oxford English Dictionary, the etymology of the word \"pomelo\" is uncertain. It may be derived from Dutch pompelmoes. Its botanical name, Citrus maxima, means \"biggest citrus\". In English, the word \"pomelo\" (also spelled pomello, pummelo, pommelo, pumelo) has become the more common name, although \"pomelo\" has historically been used for grapefruit.\nAfter a captain Shaddock of an East India Company ship introduced it to Barbados, the fruit was called \"shaddock\" in English. From there the name spread to Jamaica in 1696. The fruit is also known as jabong in Hawaii and jambola in varieties of English spoken in South Asia. In Nepali, it is known as \"bhogate (\u092d\u094b\u0917\u091f\u0947)\".\n\n\n== Description and uses ==\nThe pomelo tree may be 5\u201315 m (16\u201350 ft) tall, possibly with a crooked trunk 10\u201330 cm (4\u201312 in) thick, and low-hanging, irregular branches. Leaf petioles are distinctly winged, with alternate, ovate or elliptic shapes 5\u201320 cm (2\u20138 in) long, with a leathery, dull green upper layer, and hairy underleaf. The flowers \u2014 single or in clusters \u2014 are fragrant and yellow-white in color.The fruit is large, 15\u201325 cm (6\u201310 in) in diameter, usually weighing 1\u20132 kg (2\u20134 lb). It has a thicker rind than a grapefruit, and is divided into 11 to 18 segments. The flesh tastes like a mild grapefruit, with little of its common bitterness (the grapefruit is a hybrid of the pomelo and the orange). The enveloping membranes around the segments are chewy and bitter, considered inedible, and usually discarded. There are two varieties: a sweet kind with white flesh, and a sour kind with pinkish flesh, the latter more likely to be used in ceremonies, rather than eaten. The fruit generally contains few, relatively large seeds, but some varieties have numerous seeds.The juice is regarded as delicious, and the rind is used to make preserves or may be candied. In Brazil, the thick skin may be used for making a sweet conserve, while the spongy pith of the rind is discarded. In Sri Lanka, it is often eaten as a dessert, sometimes sprinkled with sugar. In large parts of Southeast Asia where pomelo is native, it is a common dessert, often sprinkled with or dipped in a salt mixture. It is eaten in salads. In the Philippines, a pink beverage is made from pomelo and pineapple juice.The fruit may have been introduced to China around 100 BCE. In East Asia, especially in Cantonese cuisine, braised pomelo pith is used to make dishes that are high in fibre and nutritional value and low in fat.\n\n\n=== Propagation and genetic diversity ===\nThe seeds of the pomelo are monoembryonic, producing seedlings with genes from both parents, but they are usually similar to the tree they grow on and therefore pomelo is typically grown from seed in Asia. Seeds can be stored for 80 days at a temperature of 5 \u00b0C (41 \u00b0F) and with moderate relative humidity. Citrus maxima is usually grafted onto other citrus rootstocks outside Asia to produce trees that are identical to the parent; high-quality varieties are propagated by air-layering or by budding onto favored rootstocks.The physical and chemical characteristics of pomelo vary widely across South Asia.\n\n\n== Varieties ==\n\n\n=== Non-hybrid pomelos ===\nDangyuja\n\n\n=== Possible non-hybrid pomelos ===\nBanpeiyu\n\n\n=== Hybrids ===\n\nThe pomelo is one of the original citrus species from which cultivated citrus fruits have been hybridized, others being citron, mandarin, and to a lesser extent, papedas and kumquat. In particular, the common orange is presumed to be a naturally occurring hybrid between the pomelo and the mandarin with the pomelo providing the larger size and greater firmness. The grapefruit was originally also presumed to be a naturally occurring hybrid of the pomelo and the mandarin; however, genome analysis conducted more than two centuries after this presumption was made shows that it is actually a backcrossed hybrid between a pomelo and a sweet orange which is why 63% of the grapefruit's genome comes from the pomelo. The pomelo is employed today in artificial breeding programs:\n\nThe common sweet orange (Citrus \u00d7 sinensis) is a pomelo \u00d7 mandarin hybrid\nThe bitter orange (Citrus \u00d7 aurantium) is another pomelo \u00d7 mandarin hybrid\nThe tangelo is a hybrid between pomelo or grapefruit and any tangerine; it generally has a thicker skin than a tangerine and is less sweet\n'K\u2013Early' ('Sunrise Tangelo')\n'Minneola tangelo': Bowen grapefruit \u00d7 Dancy tangerine\n'Orlando' (formerly 'Take'): Bowen grapefruit \u00d7 Dancy tangerine (pollen parent)\n'Seminole': Bowen grapefruit \u00d7 Dancy tangerine\n'Thornton': tangerine \u00d7 grapefruit, unspecified\n'Ugli fruit' (Jamaican tangelo): mandarin \u00d7 grapefruit, probable (wild seedling)\nGrapefruit is a pomelo backcross: pomelo \u00d7 sweet orange (see above)\n'Nova': Clementine \u00d7 Orlando tangelo cross\nThe Oroblanco and Melogold grapefruits are hybrids between Citrus maxima and the grapefruit\nMandelos: pomelo \u00d7 mandarin\nHyuganatsu is a pomelo hybrid\nKawachi Bankan: ujukitsu x unidentified\n\n\n== Nutrition ==\nRaw pomelo flesh is 89% water, 10% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). A 100 gram reference amount provides 159 kilojoules (38 kilocalories) of food energy, and is rich in vitamin C (73% of the Daily Value), with no other micronutrients in significant content.\n\n\n== Potential for drug interaction ==\n\nPomelo may cause adverse effects, similar to those caused by grapefruit and some other citrus fruits, through the inhibition of cytochrome P450-mediated metabolism of prescription drugs such as anti-hypertensives and anticoagulants.\n\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/B%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Fi.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Caligrapefruit.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Citrus_maxima0.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Citrus_maxima_%28Pampelmuse%29_001.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Citrus_maxima_%28Pampelmuse%29_004.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Citrus_maxima_%28Pampelmuse%29_005.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Mid-Autumn_Festival_33%2C_Chinatown%2C_Singapore%2C_Sep_06.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Pomelo_In_Village.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Pomelo_flesh.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Pomelo_flower.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Pomelo_seedling.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Pomelos_02.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Pummelo_HBuntan_Pink1_Asit.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Pummelo_cut.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Pummelo_or_Pamplemousse_%28Citrus_maxima_%28Burm.%29_Merr.%29%3B_flowe_Wellcome_V0042686.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Pummelos.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Red_Pencil_Icon.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Tam_som-o_nam_pu.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/V%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dn_b%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Fi.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Xiancun_-_pomelo_orchards_-_DSCF4064.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Pomelo_fruit.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "The pomelo (), pummelo (), or in scientific terms Citrus maxima or Citrus grandis, is the largest citrus fruit from the family Rutaceae and the principal ancestor of the grapefruit. It is a natural, i.e., non-hybrid, citrus fruit, native to Southeast Asia. Similar in taste to a sweet grapefruit, the pomelo is commonly consumed and used for festive occasions throughout Southeast Asia. Like the grapefruit, the pomelo has the potential for drug interactions."}, "Aniseed": {"links": ["Euphorbia hirta", "Doctrine of signatures", "Moth", "Butterflies", "Agaricus subrufescens", "Arak ", "Brine", "Plain bearing", "Boesenbergia rotunda", "Chervil", "Synonym ", "Marination", "Khmeli suneli", "Chinese celery", "Tamarind", "Ocimum tenuiflorum", "Jerk ", "Houttuynia cordata", "Piper borbonense", "Aloysia citrodora", "Mentha", "Douchi", "Fish", "Germplasm Resources Information Network", "Ruta graveolens", "Mastika", "Pomegranate", "White mustard", "Medical cannabis", "Apiales", "Herb", "China", "Yuzu", "Celeriac", "Lavandula angustifolia", "Althaea officinalis", "Uzazi", "Pelargonium sidoides", "India", "Tandoori masala", "Cinnamomum cassia", "Xtabent\u00fan ", "Tranquilizer", "Marjoram", "Turkey", "Cinnamomum camphora", "Sium sisarum", "Mahleb", "Taproot", "Fishing", "Smyrnium olusatrum", "Minim ", "Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera", "Muisjes", "Achillea 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herbs and spices", "Zanthoxylum piperitum", "Flora of China", "Buknu", "Herbes de Provence", "Medicinal plants", "Picarones", "Duqqa", "Tabil", "Aniseed ball", "Advieh", "Beau Monde seasoning", "Piper auritum"], "content": "Anise (, ; Pimpinella anisum), also called aniseed or rarely anix, is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae native to the eastern Mediterranean region and Southwest Asia.The flavor and aroma of its seeds have similarities with some other spices, such as star anise, fennel, and liquorice. It is widely cultivated and used to flavor food, candy, and alcoholic drinks, especially around the Mediterranean.\n\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe name \"anise\" is derived via Old French from the Latin word, anisum, or Greek, anison, referring to dill.\n\n\n== Description ==\n\nAnise is an herbaceous annual plant growing to 90 cm (3 ft) or more. The leaves at the base of the plant are simple, 10\u201350 mm (3\u20448\u20132 in) long and shallowly lobed, while leaves higher on the stems are feathery pinnate, divided into numerous small leaflets. The flowers are either white or yellow, approximately 3 mm (1\u20448 in) in diameter, produced in dense umbels. The fruit is an oblong dry schizocarp, 3\u20136 mm (1\u20448\u20131\u20444 in)  long, usually called \"aniseed\".Anise is a food plant for the larvae of some Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths), including the lime-speck pug and wormwood pug.\n\n\n== Cultivation ==\n\nAnise was first cultivated in Egypt and the Middle East, and was brought to Europe for its medicinal value. It has been cultivated in Egypt for approximately 4,000 years.Anise plants grow best in light, fertile, well-drained soil. The seeds should be planted as soon as the ground warms up in spring. Because the plants have a taproot, they do not transplant well after being established, so they should either be started in their final location or be transplanted while the seedlings are still small.\n\n\n== Production ==\nWestern cuisines have long used anise to flavor dishes, drinks, and candies. The word is used for both the species of herb and its licorice-like flavor. The most powerful flavor component of the essential oil of anise, anethole, is found in both anise and an unrelated spice indigenous to northern China called star anise (Illicium verum) widely used in South Asian, Southeast Asian, and East Asian dishes. Star anise is considerably less expensive to produce, and has gradually displaced P. anisum in Western markets. While formerly produced in larger quantities, by 1999 world production of the essential oil of anise was only 8 tons, compared to 400 tons of star anise.\n\n\n== Composition ==\n\nAs with all spices, the composition of anise varies considerably with origin and cultivation method. These are typical values for the main constituents.\nMoisture: 9\u201313%\nProtein: 18%\nFatty oil: 8\u201323%\nEssential oil: 2\u20137%\nStarch: 5%\nN-free extract: 22\u201328%\nCrude fibre: 12\u201325%In particular, the anise seeds products should also contain more than 0.2 milliliter volatile oil per 100 grams of spice.\n\n\n=== Essential oil ===\nAnise essential oil can be obtained from the fruits by either steam distillation or extraction using supercritical carbon dioxide. The yield of essential oil is influenced by the growing conditions and extraction process, with supercritical extraction being more efficient. Regardless of the method of isolation the main component of the oil is anethole (80\u201390%), with minor components including 4-anisaldehyde, estragole and pseudoisoeugenyl-2-methylbutyrates, amongst others. Anethole is responsible for anise's characteristic odor and flavor.\n\n\n== Uses ==\n\n\n=== Culinary ===\n\nAnise is sweet and aromatic, distinguished by its characteristic flavor. The seeds, whole or ground, are used for preparation of teas and tisanes (alone or in combination with other aromatic herbs), as well many regional and ethnic confectioneries, including black jelly beans, British aniseed balls, aniseed twists and \"troach\" drops, Australian humbugs, New Zealand aniseed wheels, Italian pizzelle and biscotti, German Pfeffern\u00fcsse and Springerle, Austrian Anisb\u00f6gen, Dutch muisjes, New Mexican bizcochitos, and Peruvian picarones.The culinary uses of anise are not limited only to sweets and confections, as it is a key ingredient in Mexican atole de an\u00eds and champurrado, which is similar to hot chocolate. In India and Pakistan, it is taken as a digestive after meals, used in brines in the Italian region of Puglia, and as a flavoring agent in Italian sausage, pepperoni and other Italian processed meat products. The freshly chopped leaves are added to cheese spreads, dips or salads, while roots and stems impart a mild licorice flavor to soups and stews.The ancient Romans often served spiced cakes with aniseed called mustaceoe at the end of feasts as a digestive.  This tradition of serving cake at the end of festivities is the basis for the tradition of serving cake at weddings.\n\n\n=== Liquor ===\n\nAnise is used to flavor Greek ouzo; Italian sambuca; Bulgarian and Macedonian mastika; French absinthe, anisette, and pastis; Spanish An\u00eds del Mono, An\u00edsado and Herbs de Majorca; Turkish and Armenian rak\u0131; Lebanese, Egyptian, Syrian, Jordanian, and Israeli arak; and Algerian Anisette Cristal. Outside the Mediterranean region, it is found in Colombian aguardiente and Mexican Xtabent\u00fan. These liquors are clear, but on addition of water become cloudy, a phenomenon known as the ouzo effect.Anise is used together with other herbs and spices in some root beers, such as Virgil's in the United States.\n\n\n=== Traditional medicine ===\nThe main use of anise in traditional European herbal medicine was for its carminative effect (reducing flatulence), as noted by John Gerard in his Great Herball, an early encyclopedia of herbal medicine:\n\nThe seed wasteth and consumeth winde, and is good against belchings and upbraidings of the stomach, alaieth gripings of the belly, provoketh urine gently, maketh abundance of milke, and stirreth up bodily lust: it staieth the laske (diarrhea), and also the white flux (leukorrhea) in women.\nAccording to Pliny the Elder, anise was used as a cure for sleeplessness, chewed with alexanders and a little honey in the morning to freshen the breath, and, when mixed with wine, as a remedy for asp bites (N.H. 20.72). In 19th-century medicine, anise was prepared as aqua anisi (\"Water of Anise\") in doses of an ounce or more and as spiritus anisi (\"Spirit of Anise\") in doses of 5\u201320 minims. In Turkish folk medicine, its seeds have been used as an appetite stimulant, tranquilizer, or diuretic.\n\n\n=== Other uses ===\nBuilders of steam locomotives in Britain incorporated capsules of aniseed oil into white metal plain bearings, so the distinctive smell would give warning in case of overheating. Anise can be made into a liquid scent and is used for both drag hunting and fishing. It is put on fishing lures to attract fish.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nBaynes, T. S., ed. (1878), \"Anise\" , Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, 2 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 57\u201358\nChisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), \"Anise\" , Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, 2 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 55", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/AniseEssOil.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/AniseSeeds.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Anise_alcohols_Mediterranean_map.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Aniseed_plant_%28Flora_of_Sindh%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Anisi_fructus_-_microscopy.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Koehler1887-PimpinellaAnisum.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Red_Pencil_Icon.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Troach_sweet_-_2018-08-21_-_Andy_Mabbett.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "Anise (, ; Pimpinella anisum), also called aniseed or rarely anix, is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae native to the eastern Mediterranean region and Southwest Asia.The flavor and aroma of its seeds have similarities with some other spices, such as star anise, fennel, and liquorice. It is widely cultivated and used to flavor food, candy, and alcoholic drinks, especially around the Mediterranean.\n\n"}, "Ratafia": {"links": ["Lemon peel", "Berkeley Square", "France", "Maceration ", "Nutmeg", "Fortified wine", "Moscato ", "La Pobla de Segur", "Collins English Dictionary", "Cordial ", "Liqueur", "Spain", "Brandy", "Public domain", "Italy", "New Mexico wine", "Oxford English Dictionary", "St. Clair Winery", "Montepulciano d'Abruzzo", "Mentha", "Rosemary", "Molise", "Pomace brandy", "Macaroon", "Cinnamon", "Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica Eleventh Edition", "Clove", "Abruzzo", "BBC", "Waitrose & Partners", "The Compleat Housewife", "Andorno Micca", "Eliza Smith", "New International Encyclopedia", "Mistelle", "Anise", "Daniel Coit Gilman"], "content": "Ratafia is a broad term used for two types of sweet alcoholic beverages, a flavouring essence whose taste resembles bitter almonds, later to a ratafia flavoured biscuit, a biscuit to be eaten along with ratafia, and later still, to a cherry variety.The Oxford English Dictionary lists the word's earliest date of use as 1699.\n\n\n== Liqueur ==\nRatafia liqueurs are alcoholic beverages, originally Italian, compound liqueurs or cordials made by the maceration of ingredients such as aromatics, fruits, in pre-distilled spirits, followed by filtration and sweetening, the flavouring ingredients being merely infused in it  Ratafia may be flavored with kernels (almond, peach, apricot, or cherry), lemon peel and spices in various amounts (nutmeg, cinnamon, clove, mint, rosemary, anise, etc.), typically combined with sugar. Other flavorings can be used, such as vegetables and fresh herbs. \nThe liqueur is typical of the Mediterranean areas of Spain, Italy, and north-east of France (Champagne and Burgundy). In the south-central region of Italy (specifically Molise and Abruzzo) Ratafi\u00e0 is made exclusively with fresh cherries and Montepulciano d'Abruzzo wines.Lazzaroni\u2122 Amaretto, Luxardo\u2122 Albicocca, Kahlua\u2122, Heering\u2122 Original Cherry Liqueur, Alpenz\u2122 Saint Elizabeth Allspice Dram, Carlshamms\u2122 Flaggpunsch, Seale\u2122 John D. Taylor's Velvet Falernum are Ratafia liqueurs.\n\n\n== Fortified wine ==\nThe second type, ratafia de Champagne, a fortified wine, is a type of mistelle, a mixture of marc (grappa) and the unfermented juice of the grape, and is the type produced in France.\nD.H. Lescombes, in New Mexico, uses Moscato grapes fortified with brandy to stop the fermentation early, which keeps the residual sugar high.\n\n\n== Biscuit ==\na small macaroon flavoured with almonds\u2212 Collins English Dictionary\nRatafia Biscuits are made with ratafia essence, sweet almonds, apricot kernels, rosewater, egg white, sugar. Originally made with sweet and bitter almonds, now apricot kernels. Amaretto is a ratafia liquor, thus the ratafia biscuits.In 1727, The Compleat Housewife, by Eliza Smith included a recipe for To make Ratafia Bisket, with the ingredients: bitter almonds, sugar and egg white, making it a confection that is very similar to a modern macaroon.In 1789, The Complete Confectioner, by Frederick Nutt, a confectioner, formerly apprenticed with Domenico Negri, an Italian who opened \"The Pot and Pineapple\" confectionery shop at 7-8 Berkeley Square, London, founded 1757, included a recipe, \"No. 29. Ratafia Biscuits\":\n\nTake half a pound of sweet almonds, and half a pound of bitter almonds, and pound them in a mortar very fine, with whites of eggs ; put three pounds of powdered sugar, mix it well with the whites of eggs, to the proper thickness into a bason ; put two or three sheets of paper on the plate you bake on ; take your knife, and the spaddle made of wood, and drop them on the paper, let them be round, and about the size of a large nutmeg ; put them in the oven, which must be quick, let them have a fine brown, and all alike, but be careful they are not burnt at bottom, else they will not come off the paper when baked ; let them be cold before you take them off.\n\n\n== Other Uses ==\nRatafia essence was suggested in a BBC recipe in their 1940 publication Food Facts For The Kitchen Front, for making mock marzipan, along with soya flour, margarine and sugar.\n\n\n== References ==\nNotes\n\nSources\n\nThis article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Ratafia\". Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.\n This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). \"Ratafia\". New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Ratafia.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Ratafi%C3%A0_di_andorno.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/62/PD-icon.svg"], "summary": "Ratafia is a broad term used for two types of sweet alcoholic beverages, a flavouring essence whose taste resembles bitter almonds, later to a ratafia flavoured biscuit, a biscuit to be eaten along with ratafia, and later still, to a cherry variety.The Oxford English Dictionary lists the word's earliest date of use as 1699.\n\n"}, "Chicken_nuggets": {"links": ["Moravian chicken pie", "Crispy fried chicken", "Buldak", "Bubur ayam", "Chicken soup", "Kai yang", "Mechanically separated meat", "Hainanese chicken rice", "Shish taouk", "White cut chicken", "ISSN ", "Tongdak", "Sorol ", "Ayam taliwang", "Ayam bumbu rujak", "KFC Original Recipe", "Cooties ", "Satay", "Kwetiau ayam", "Wendy's", "Sajji", "Kori rotti", "Baking", "Cock-a-leekie soup", "Ayam goreng", "King Ranch chicken", "Tsukune", "Brown stew chicken", "Thalassery cuisine", "Cornell University", "Cafreal", "Meat industry", "Piyanggang manok", "Chicken bog", "Ginataang manok", "Opor ayam", "Musakhan", "Plecing ayam", "Yangnyeom chicken", "Ayam goreng kalasan", "American Journal of Medicine", "ISBN ", "Dragon tiger phoenix", "Kurnik ", "Chicken as food", "Laziji", "Mie ayam", "Pinikpikan", "Poultry farming", "Vegetarianism", "Food science", "Chicken and waffles", "Airline chicken", "Gulai ayam", "Chicken meat", "Jerusalem mixed grill", "Chicken inasal", "Philippine adobo", "Tinola", "Lemon chicken", "Jujeh kabab", "Linagpang na Manok", "Galinha \u00e0 portuguesa", "Chicken Vesuvio", "Chicken katsu", "Saltimbocca", "Chicken Picasso", "Binakol", "Chilli chicken", "Chicken mull", "PopSugar", "Ayam kodok", "Ostropel", "Soy sauce chicken", "Batter ", "Quorn", "Jerk ", "Chicken \u00e0 la King", "Sesame chicken", "Shawarma", "Karaage", "Chicken salad", "Chicken sandwich", "Sweet and sour", "Huli-huli chicken", "Korean fried chicken", "Robert C. Baker", "Barbecue chicken", "Chargha", "Kedjenou", "Chicken tatsuta", "Kung Pao chicken", "Chikuzenni", "Gallo en chicha", "Inubaran", "Spice bag", "Chicken Maryland", "Dak-bokkeum-tang", "Betutu", "Claypot chicken rice", "Bon bon chicken", "Breading", "Rollatini", "Tavuk g\u00f6\u011fs\u00fc", "Ayam pop", "Chicken parmigiana", "Barberton chicken", "Lechon manok", "Buffalo wing", "Fast food restaurant", "Murgh musallam", "Yakitori", "Bean sprouts chicken", "Poule au riz", "Helzel", "Turducken", "Chicken McNuggets", "Chicken Chettinad", "Empire Kosher", "Lontong cap go meh", "Cordon bleu ", "Ballotine", "Moo goo gai pan", "Chicken and duck blood soup", "Secaucus, New Jersey", "Caldo X\u00f3chitl", "Samgye-tang", "Pinchitos", "Ayam kecap", "Drunken chicken", "Beer can chicken", "Pininyahang manok", "Chicken sixty-five", "Chicken Sukka", "Chicken Marengo", "New Jersey On-Line", "Chicken feet", "Piaparan", "Pollo a la Brasa", "Swiss wing", "Poulet au fromage", "Chicken and dumplings", "McDonald's", "Deep frying", "Country Captain", "Padak", "Hot chicken", "Sinampalukan", "Nasi liwet", "Pastilla", "Coronation chicken", "Piccata", "Chicken Fran\u00e7aise", "Olivier salad", "Chimaek", "Arroz con pollo", "Caldo tlalpe\u00f1o", "Coxinha", "Max Hamburgers", "Nasi tim", "Soto ayam", "Galinhada", "Dapanji", "Roast chicken", "Waterzooi", "Dak-galbi", "Flying Jacob", "List of chicken dishes", "Chicken Kiev", "Afritada", "Twitter", "Bourbon chicken", "Chicken tikka", "General Tso's chicken", "Epithelium", "Chinese chicken salad", "Sopas", "Chicken karahi", "Rotisserie chicken", "Taiwanese fried chicken", "Scaloppine", "Yassa ", "Gribenes", "Hawaiian haystack", "Fujian red wine chicken", "Chicken balls", "Kosherfest", "Chicken riggies", "C\u01a1m g\u00e0 rau th\u01a1m", "CNBC", "Engagement chicken", "Chicken tikka masala", "Arroz caldo", "Ayam masak merah", "Circassian chicken", "Escabeche oriental", "Chicken paprikash", "Chicken fingers", "Falafel", "Talunan", "Ayam pansuh", "Connective tissue", "Butter chicken", "Dong'an chicken", "Nervous tissue", "Chicken tabaka", "Chicken and mushroom pie", "Coq au vin", "Cashew chicken", "Chicken lollipop", "Chicken marsala", "United States", "Orange chicken", "Fried chicken", "Jubilee chicken", "Chicken curry", "Tandoori chicken", "Beggar's Chicken", "Galinha \u00e0 africana", "Moambe chicken", "Ayam bakar", "Chicken Lahori", "PMID ", "Sanbeiji", "Andong jjimdak", "Ayam rica-rica", "Chicken Divan", "Bringhe", "Dakjuk", "Pozharsky cutlet", "Doi ", "BK Chicken Fries", "Chicken macaroni salad"], "content": "A chicken nugget is a food product consisting of a small piece of deboned chicken meat that is breaded or battered, then deep-fried or baked. Invented in the 1950s, chicken nuggets have become a very popular fast food restaurant item, as well as widely sold frozen for home use.\n\n\n== History ==\nThe chicken nugget was invented in the 1950s by Robert C. Baker, a food science professor at Cornell University, and published as unpatented academic work. This bite-sized piece of chicken, coated in batter and then deep fried, was called the \"Chicken Crispie\" by Baker and his associates. Two problems the meat industry was facing at the time were being able to clump ground meat without a skin and producing a batter coating that could be both deep fried and frozen without becoming detached. Baker's innovations solved these problems and made it possible to form chicken nuggets in any shape by first coating the meat in vinegar, salt, grains, and milk powder to make it hold together and then using an egg and grain based batter that could be fried as well as frozen.\n\n\n== Nutritional information ==\nChicken nuggets are generally regarded as a fatty, unhealthy food. A study published in the American Journal of Medicine analyzed the composition of chicken nuggets from two American fast food chains. It found that less than half of the material was skeletal muscle, with fat occurring in an equal or greater proportion. Other components included epithelial tissue, bone, nervous tissue and connective tissue. The authors concluded that \"Chicken nuggets are mostly fat, and their name is a misnomer.\"\n\n\n== Manufacturing ==\n\nThe processing required for making chicken nuggets begins with deboning. The chicken is cut and shaped to the correct size. This is done either manually, or by a series of automatic blades, or by a process called grinding (a method of deboning in which the softer parts of the chicken carcass are forced through a mesh, leaving behind the more solid pieces, resulting in a meat paste. If used, this paste is then shaped before battering). The pieces are battered and breaded in a large cylindrical drum that rotates, evenly coating all of the pieces in the desired spices and breading. The pieces are then fried in oil until the batter has set and the outside reaches the desired color. Finally, the nuggets are packaged, frozen and stored for shipping. While specific ingredients and production methods may vary between manufacturers, the above practices hold true for most of the industry.\n\n\n== In popular culture ==\nChicken nuggets have been the subject of food challenges, social media phenomena, and many more forms of public notoriety. The dish has inspired gourmet restaurants, exercise routines, and even feature-length productions, including Cooties, a movie about a grade school child whom eats a chicken nugget infected with a virus in which turns prepubescent children into zombies. Thomas Welborn holds the world record for eating the most chicken nuggets in three minutes (746 grams, or approximately 42 chicken nuggets).On Twitter, the most retweeted tweet of 2017 was made by Carter Wilkerson who asked Wendy's what it would take for them to offer him a year of free nuggets. The tweet generated over 3.5 million retweets.The largest recorded chicken nugget weighed 51.1 pounds (23.2 kg) and was 3.25 feet (0.99 m) long and 2 feet (0.61 m) wide and was created by Empire Kosher. It was unveiled at Kosherfest in Secaucus, New Jersey on October 29, 2013.\n\n\n== Alternatives ==\nSome fast food restaurants have launched vegetarian alternatives. McDonald's served Garden McNuggets made of beans and Swedish fast food restaurant Max Hamburgare offers a dish containing nuggets made of falafel. Quorn also supplies vegetarian chicken-like nuggets derived from fungus.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nChicken fingers\nFried chicken\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\"Why Chicken Nugget Demand Is Flat\". YouTube. CNBC. March 20, 2019.", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/McDonalds-Chicken-McNuggets.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Some_chicken_nuggets.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg"], "summary": "A chicken nugget is a food product consisting of a small piece of deboned chicken meat that is breaded or battered, then deep-fried or baked. Invented in the 1950s, chicken nuggets have become a very popular fast food restaurant item, as well as widely sold frozen for home use."}, "KFC_Original_Recipe": {"links": ["Basil", "New York Times", "Thyme", "Fried chicken", "PETA satirical browser games", "Chicago Tribune", "Garlic salt", "University Press of Kentucky", "Intellectual property", "Wheat flour", "Celery salt", "List of countries with KFC franchises", "History of KFC", "Big Chicken", "Mustard seed", "White flour", "Harland Sanders Caf\u00e9 and Museum", "Wendy's", "KFC Israel", "KFC", "H. 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Brown, Jr.", "Kentucky Fried Cruelty", "Term of patent", "Colonel Sanders", "Harland Sanders"], "content": "The KFC Original Recipe is a secret mix of ingredients that fast food restaurant chain KFC uses to produce fried chicken.\n\n\n== History ==\nBy the very late 1930s, Harland Sanders' Corbin, Kentucky, gas station was so well known for its fried chicken, that Sanders decided to remove the gas pumps and build a restaurant and motel in its place. While perfecting his secret recipe with 11 herbs and spices, Sanders found that pan frying chicken was too slow, requiring 30 minutes per order. Deep frying the chicken required half the time, but produced dry, unevenly done chicken. In 1939, he found that using a pressure fryer produced tasty, moist chicken in eight or nine minutes. By July 1940, Sanders finalized what came to be known as his Original Recipe.After Sanders formed a partnership with Pete Harmon, they began marketing the chicken in the 1950s as Kentucky Fried Chicken, the company shipped the spices already mixed to restaurants to preserve the recipe's secrecy. He claimed that the ingredients \"stand on everybody's shelf\".Sanders used vegetable oil for frying chicken. By 1993, for reasons of economy, many KFC outlets had chosen to use a blend of palm and soybean oil. In Japan, the oil used is mainly the more expensive cottonseed and corn oil, as KFC Japan believes that this offers superior taste quality.\n\n\n== Reception ==\nSanders' Original Recipe of \"11 herbs and spices\" is one of the most famous trade secrets in the catering industry. Franchisee Dave Thomas, better known as the founder of Wendy's, argued that the secret recipe concept was successful because \"everybody wants in on a secret\" and former KFC owner John Y. Brown, Jr. called it \"a brilliant marketing ploy.\" The New York Times described the recipe as one of the company's most valuable assets. The recipe is not patented, because patents are published in detail and come with an expiration date, whereas trade secrets can remain the intellectual property of their holders in perpetuity.KFC uses its Original Recipe as a means to differentiate its product from its competitors. Early franchisee Pete Harman credited the chain's popularity to the recipe and the product, and John Y. Brown cites the \"incredibly tasty, almost addictive\" product as the basis of KFC's staying power. On the other hand, Allen Adamson, managing director of brand consultancy Landor, remains unconvinced about the contribution of the secret formula aspect. He argues: \"The story may still be part of these companies' folklore, but I'd be surprised if more than 2 percent buy the brand because of it.\"\n\n\n== Recipe ==\nA copy of the recipe, signed by Sanders, is held safe inside a vault in KFC's Louisville headquarters, along with eleven vials containing the herbs and spices. To maintain the secrecy of the recipe, half of it is produced by Griffith Laboratories before it is given to McCormick, who add the second half.In 1983, William Poundstone conducted laboratory research into the coating mix, as described in his book Big Secrets, and claimed that a sample he examined contained only flour, salt, monosodium glutamate and black pepper. KFC maintains that it still adheres to Sanders' original 1940 recipe. In Todd Wilbur's television program Top Secret Recipe, the Colonel's former secretary, Shirley Topmiller, revealed that Sanders learned from his mother that sage and savory are good seasonings for chicken. Also, Winston Shelton, a former friend of the Colonel, said that the secret recipe contains Tellicherry black pepper.It is well attested that Harland Sanders asked Bill Summers of Marion-Kay Spices in Brownstown, Indiana, US to recreate his secret blend of 11 herbs and spices. While alive, Sanders recommended the Marion-Kay seasoning to franchisees over the corporate version, as he believed the latter had been made inferior by its owners. In 1982, after Sanders' death, KFC brought a lawsuit against Marion-Kay and the latter was barred from selling its mixture to KFC franchises. The Marion-Kay seasoning is still sold under the name \"99-X,\" and according to Sanders biographer Josh Ozersky, it is indistinguishable from the original KFC recipe.In August 2016, the Chicago Tribune reported that Joe Ledington of Kentucky, a nephew by marriage of Colonel Sanders, had claimed to have found a copy of the original KFC fried chicken recipe on a handwritten piece of paper in an envelope in a scrapbook. Tribune staffers conducted a cooking test of this recipe, which took several attempts to get right. They had to determine whether the \"Ts\" meant tablespoons or teaspoons. After some trial and error, they decided the chicken should be soaked in buttermilk and coated once in the breading mixture, then fried in oil at 350 \u00b0F (177 \u00b0C) in a pressure fryer until golden brown. As a pressure fryer was too big, a deep fryer was used alternatively to substitute the pressure fryer. They also claimed that with the addition of MSG as a flavor enhancer, they could produce fried chicken which tasted \"indistinguishable\" from fried chicken they had purchased at KFC.The recipe found by Joe Ledington reads as follows:\n11 Spices \u2013 Mix with 2 cups white flour\n\n2\u20443 tablespoon salt\n1\u20442 tablespoon thyme\n1\u20442 tablespoon basil\n1\u20443 tablespoon oregano\n1 tablespoon celery salt\n1 tablespoon black pepper\n1 tablespoon dry mustard\n4 tablespoon paprika\n2 tablespoon garlic salt\n1 tablespoon ground ginger\n3 tablespoon white pepperWhile Ledington expressed uncertainty that the recipe was the Original Recipe, he had a hand in mixing the Original Recipe for Colonel Sanders when he was a young boy, and recalled that white pepper was a principal ingredient.The Ledington recipe is inaccurate and misleading based on the labeling requirements of the USDA.  KFC by law has published various aspects of their ingredients, however, since mustard is an allergen, it must be clearly labeled as such, and KFC has never published any allergen warnings for the use of mustard in the Original Recipe.  Furthermore, the USDA prohibits the classification of any variations of garlic, celery or onion to be lumped under \"Other Spices\" or \"Natural Flavorings\", once again garlic, celery and onion are not listed by KFC in any published Original Recipe labeling or consumer information, nor are these ingredients listed by Marion-Kay seasoning either for their 99-X.  In conclusion, any KFC Original recipes claiming to contain garlic, onion, celery or mustard in any form (salt, powder or flakes) are incorrect.  The only ingredients which are guaranteed to be legitimate are those listed through labeling and those guaranteed ingredients include: salt, MSG, black pepper, white pepper, coriander and sage. The \"Other\" ingredients are mere speculation, but the most popular conclusions are savory, thyme, ginger and marjoram. There is some debate as to whether or not Colonel Sanders referred to different grinds of black pepper as separate ingredients. \nContrary to popular belief, both visual and laboratory inspections of KFC seasoning mix, Marion-Kay 99-X seasoning mix as well as the Irish equivalent Grace's Strong Blend Seasoning mix; none contain any ingredients which are red in color.  Which means, there is no paprika, no chili powder, no cayenne pepper, or any other ingredient with a red color.  KFC published labeling and consumer information does not contain any references to the use of natural coloring for Original Recipe. Results of visual and laboratory inspection of all the seasoning mixes indicates an overwhelming grey color tone derived from the abundant quantity of black pepper.  References have been made to the \"secret recipe\" containing Tellicherry, but a common misconception regarding Tellicherry black pepper is that it is not a type of pepper.  Tellicherry is nothing more than a size of the peppercorn, not a type or variety of pepper.  What is clear is that black pepper is predominate in the Original Recipe, large black flecks of pepper are easily visible in the final product.  Measurements of the fleck sizes indicate that the flecks are one quarter size cracked black pepper which is equivalent to an 8-10 mesh size, or approximately 1/8\" to 3/32\" in size.  This supports various statements that the use of various grinds of black pepper is accurate including: cracked 8-10 mesh, course 12-16 mesh and fine ground 22-36 mesh.  Its the use of fine ground pepper which is responsible for the heavy grey color overall in all 3 of the commercial seasoning blends.Any discussion regarding the Original Recipe must include 2 important components:\n1. The chicken is brined \"marinated\" in a solution containing salt and MSG. Contrary to certain beliefs KFC is not brined in buttermilk and eggs.\n2. The 2 cups of flour must also include powdered egg whites, powdered milk and a leavening agent - baking powder.\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/KFC_Original_Recipe_chicken_in_bucket.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "The KFC Original Recipe is a secret mix of ingredients that fast food restaurant chain KFC uses to produce fried chicken.\n\n"}, "Oregano": {"links": ["Prineville, Oregon", "Quebec", "Oregon State Treasurer", "Louisiana", "Mount Jefferson Wilderness", "List of National Wild and Scenic Rivers", "twenty twenty-two United States House of Representatives elections", "Hutchinson State Wayside", "Oregon Death with Dignity Act", "Texas", "National Park Service", "Portland Thorns FC", "American pika", "Bonneville Dam", "Arizona Beach State Recreation Site", "Blue whale", "Hollywood", "Wapato Lake National Wildlife Refuge", "Los Angeles", "UTC\u221206:zero", "Fogarty Creek State Recreation Area", "Otter Point State Recreation Site", "Illinois", "American ancestry", "LaMarcus Aldridge", "Portland Rockies", "Tektronix", "Government of Oregon", "Santiam State Forest", "Maine", "List of U.S. state dances", "nineteen ninety United States census", "La Fayette Grover", "Portland Trail Blazers", "Michigan", "U.S. state", "Burns Paiute Tribe", "Bull of the Woods Wilderness", "Peter Skene Ogden State Scenic Viewpoint", "Takelma people", "Oklahoma", "Joseph H. 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Bush", "Constitution of Oregon", "Coos County, Oregon", "National Wildlife Refuge", "Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education", "Springfield, Oregon", "Oregon Medical Marijuana Act", "Wallowa Lake State Park", "Beaverton School District", "Spanish language", "Yellow-bellied marmot", "Siletz Bay National Wildlife Refuge", "onest Oregon Cavalry", "Salmon", "Jory ", "Oregon Tourism Commission", "Beachside State Recreation Site", "Sales tax", "Coos Bay, Oregon", "Salem-Keizer Volcanoes", "Hells Canyon National Recreation Area", "Oregon House of Representatives", "Portland General Electric Company", "Oregon Ballot Measure thirty-six ", "Geisel Monument State Heritage Site", "Alderwood State Wayside", "Metro ", "United States Geological Survey", "Western red cedar", "Fish ladder", "Native Americans in the United States", "Starvation Creek State Park", "Elliott Corbett Memorial State Recreation Site", "Keiko ", "Joseph Gale", "Counties of Oregon", "Maria C. 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Ponsler Memorial State Scenic Viewpoint", "Fremont\u2013Winema National Forest", "James Sinclair ", "United States Forest Service", "Yaquina Bay", "Junior ice hockey", "Idaho", "Old Believers", "PMID ", "Wild Rogue Wilderness", "List of capitals in the United States", "Principal photography", "Linus Torvalds", "Sacramento, California", "Newberg, Oregon", "Willow Creek Wildlife Area", "Josephine County, Oregon", "Cascade Range", "List of U.S. states and territories by population", "Seal of Oregon", "Oregon City, Oregon", "Lucy Vinis", "Last glacial period", "Hillary Clinton", "Copper Salmon Wilderness", "La Grande, Oregon", "Detroit Lake", "Heceta Head Lighthouse State Scenic Viewpoint", "Lewis and Clark State Recreation Site", "Pronghorn antelope", "Nestucca Bay National Wildlife Refuge", "Francis Drake's circumnavigation", "Republican Party ", "Evangelicalism", "Palmyra Atoll", "Gearhart Mountain", "United States Senate", "Kansas", "Ben Hur Lampman State Scenic Corridor", "Conde B. McCullough State Recreation Site", "D River", "Romani people", "Casey State Recreation Site", "Bates Motel ", "Washington, D.C.", "Pileated woodpecker", "Oregon Office of University Coordination", "Christmas Valley Sand Dunes", "Wisconsin River", "Minnesota", "Rogue Valley", "Oregon Health Plan", "Umpqua Myrtle State Natural Site", "Center of population", "twenty twenty United States Census", "Rock Creek Wilderness", "Upper Klamath National Wildlife Refuge", "Driftwood Beach State Recreation Site", "Neptune State Scenic Viewpoint", "Deschutes River State Recreation Area", "Native American peoples of Oregon", "Tualatin Valley", "Cape Kiwanda State Natural Area", "Fern Ridge Wildlife Area", "Yamhill County, Oregon", "Porcupine", "Yachats State Recreation Area", "Race and ethnicity in the United States", "ISO thirty-one sixty-six-2:US", "Manhattan Beach State Recreation Site", "Ecola State Park", "Doi ", "Lithia Motors", "Taiwan Province ", "Julia Butler Hansen Refuge for the Columbian White-Tailed Deer", "Florida", "Ponderosa pine", "Guam", "Oxford University Press", "Armillaria ostoyae", "Black church", "Historic Columbia River Highway", "List of United States senators from Oregon", "Oceanic climate", "Honolulu County, Hawaii", "South Carolina", "Jeff Merkley", "Oregon Historical Society", "Corylus avellana", "Wallowa\u2013Whitman National Forest", "Irrigon Wildlife Area", "Legislature", "Temperate rainforest", "Boiler Bay State Scenic Viewpoint", "George Simpson ", "Mount St. Helens", "Wolf Creek Inn State Heritage Site", "eighteen seventy United States census", "United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit", "Harney Basin", "White River Wildlife Area", "Governor Patterson Memorial State Recreation Site", "Goose Lake State Recreation Area", "Viceroyalty of New Spain", "VIAF ", "Plate tectonics", "Union ", "Smith Rock State Park", "Pac-twelve Conference", "MBAREA ", "Opal Creek Wilderness", "Anchorage metropolitan area", "Cascade College", "Monument Rock Wilderness", "Oregon swallowtail", "Mayer State Park", "Arkansas", "UTC\u2212seven:00", "South Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve", "List of Indian reservations in the United States", "Badger Creek Wilderness", "John Day Fossil Beds National Monument", "United States Department of Agriculture", "William M. Tugman State Park", "Oregon Secretary of State", "John C. Wells", "Columbia River", "List of states and territories of the United States", "Killer whale", "Carl G. Washburne Memorial State Park", "Rooster Rock State Park", "American widgeon", "Painted Hills", "Managed care", "eighteen fifty United States census", "List of freshwater fishes of Oregon", "Milk", "Bear Valley National Wildlife Refuge", "Joey Harrington", "Ciudad Real", "List of National Historic Landmarks in Oregon", "U.S. National Geodetic Survey", "Umpqua Holdings Corporation", "Judaism", "Tennessee", "Cottonwood Canyon State Park", "Yoakam Point State Natural Site", "Canyon Creek Forest State Natural Area", "Monmouth, Oregon", "TouVelle State Recreation Site", "List of cities and unincorporated communities in Oregon", "Ochoco National Forest", "Sacramento metropolitan area", "Emigrant Springs State Heritage Area", "Farewell Bend State Recreation Area", "Executive ", "Columbia River Gorge", "List of Oregon Wildernesses", "Oregon Ballot Measure thirty-seven ", "Treasure Valley", "Index of Oregon-related articles", "List of rivers of Oregon", "Jackson F. Kimball State Recreation Site", "Gleneden Beach State Recreation Site", "Non-Hispanic whites", "Elmer Feldenheimer State Natural Area", "Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs", "Cape Meares National Wildlife Refuge", "Weyerhaeuser", "New Jersey", "San Jose\u2013San Francisco\u2013Oakland, CA Combined Statistical Area", "ISO 3166-two:US", "Asian Americans", "Klamath Marsh National Wildlife Refuge", "Juan Rodr\u00edguez Cabrillo", "Albert H. Powers Memorial State Recreation Site", "Islam", "Santa Fe, New Mexico", "Pseudoroegneria spicata", "List of U.S. state fish", "Western Oregon", "Mountain Lakes Wilderness", "Crime in Oregon", "Boardman, Oregon", "Collins Creek State Recreation Site", "Koberg Beach State Recreation Site", "Jefferson County, Oregon", "Sky Lakes Wilderness", "Metropolitan area", "College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Northwest", "Center for Inquiry", "Blue Mountains ", "Bandon Marsh National Wildlife Refuge", "Oregon Blue Book", "Oakland, California", "Cline Falls State Scenic Viewpoint", "Forest Grove, Oregon", "Pendleton, Oregon", "Democratic Party ", "Cape Arago State Park", "Medical cannabis", "Juneau, Alaska", "Lincoln County, Oregon", "Corvallis, Oregon", "Sequoia ", "Jehovah's Witnesses", "Supreme Court of the United States", "Fishery", "Black Canyon Wilderness ", "Elk Creek Tunnel Forest State Scenic Corridor", "Portland Art Museum", "Lake Missoula", "George R. Stewart", "List of Oregon state forests", "Chinookan peoples", "Klamath Wildlife Area", "TriMet", "Rose Garden ", "Las Vegas Valley", "Jessie M. Honeyman Memorial State Park", "Samaritan Health Services", "San Diego metropolitan area", "List of beaches in Oregon", "Ewing Young", "Cascadia State Park", "French Settlement, Oregon", "George Fox University", "Separation of powers", "List of films shot in Oregon", "Umpqua State Scenic Corridor", "Kate Brown", "Dyer State Wayside", "List of United States representatives from Oregon", "Luther Cressman", "Happy Valley, Oregon", "The Plain Dealer", "United States Minor Outlying Islands", "Barn owl", "List of U.S. state crustaceans", "Albany\u2013Corvallis\u2013Lebanon combined statistical area", "American Samoa", "Great blue heron", "Roe River", "Lone Ranch Beach", "Pacific Islander American", "nineteen thirty United States census", "List of U.S. state and territory flowers", "Fall Creek State Recreation Site", "Coquille Myrtle Grove State Natural Site", "Pacific Fur Company", "K\u00f6ppen climate classification", "Cow Creek Band of Umpqua Tribe of Indians", "Tualatin Hills Nature Park", "List of U.S. state foods", "List of U.S. state mammals", "Gray wolf", "Catholicism", "African Americans", "Intel", "Time zone", "Demonym", "Sherman County, Oregon", "Umatilla people", "Farmer", "Cannabis ", "Grizzly bear", "Chinook salmon", "North West Company", "Largest organisms", "List of Biosphere Reserves in the United States", "Umpqua ", "North American beaver", "Blue Lake Regional Park", "Oregon Supreme Court", "Coquille people", "twenty twenty US election", "Leverage ", "UTC\u2212six:00", "West Virginia", "Oregon Ballot Measure sixty ", "Ontario State Recreation Site", "NW Natural", "Fort Astoria", "Mount Hood Corridor", "Territories of the United States", "Humbug Mountain State Park", "Klamath River", "Gearhart Ocean State Recreation Area", "Eastern Oregon", "Fort Stevens State Park", "Pennsylvania", "Seneca, Oregon", "Salt Lake City", "Mount Hood", "Oregon Constitution", "nineteen eighty eruption of Mount St. Helens", "Public company", "Oregon ", "Mount Thielsen Wilderness", "Puerto Rico", "Dark kangaroo mouse", "Linux kernel", "Matt Groening", "Nevada", "Numbered highways in the United States", "Politics of Oregon", "Crater Lake", "Darlingtonia State Natural Site", "Psilocybin", "Blue Mountain Forest State Scenic Corridor", "White River Falls State Park", "Bend, Oregon", "Dalton Point State Recreation Site", "William L. Finley National Wildlife Refuge", "Cape Sebastian State Scenic Corridor", "Oregon Islands National Wildlife Refuge", "Ord's kangaroo rat", "Oregon Caves National Monument", "Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation", "Hilgard Junction State Recreation Area", "United States congressional apportionment", "Prospect State Scenic Viewpoint", "Pacific Time Zone", "Wayne L. Morse United States Courthouse", "Nashville, Tennessee", "Washington ", "Lieutenant Governor of Oregon", "National University of Natural Medicine", "Thunderegg", "Liberalism", "Malheur County, Oregon", "Strait of Juan de Fuca", "Kam Wah Chung & Co. Museum", "Stand by Me ", "Clackamas Wilderness", "Oregon\u2013Oregon State football rivalry", "Oregon Ballot Measure thirty-nine ", "Gay marriage", "Beaverton, Oregon", "Blueberries", "Nebraska", "nineteen forty United States Census", "Oceanside Beach State Recreation Site", "Hawaii", "Lost Forest Research Natural Area", "Ellmaker State Wayside", "Malheur National Forest", "Philippines", "List of U.S. state mushrooms", "French Canadians", "William J. Bailey", "Neah-kah-nie ", "Columbia County, Oregon", "Bottlenose dolphin", "Portland Beavers", "Salem Metropolitan Statistical Area", "List of Oregon mountain ranges", "McMinnville, Oregon", "List of U.S. state grasses", "Samuel H. Boardman State Scenic Corridor", "Table Rock Wilderness", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Curry County, Oregon", "Jack London", "Memaloose State Park", "Pacific Daylight Time", "Oregon Bureau of Labor and Industries", "Umatilla National Wildlife Refuge", "Harris Beach State Park", "Frenchglen Hotel State Heritage Site", "National Basketball Association", "List of Oregon state symbols", "Union County, Oregon", "eighteen sixty United States census", "Louisiana-Pacific", "Alabama", "Norwegian American", "Pierce v. Society of Sisters", "SUDOC ", "Cape Perpetua", "Tub Springs State Wayside", "North Carolina", "Oregon Museum of Science and Industry", "Utah", "Sperm whale", "List of U.S. state minerals, rocks, stones and gemstones", "Initiatives", "Property tax", "Fund accounting", "Maud Williamson State Recreation Site", "Grassy Knob Wilderness", "Marion County, Oregon", "Alsace wine", "Intel Corporation", "Sunset Bay State Park", "Golden Hind", "Gray whale", "Wake Island", "Caldera", "Forbes", "Hermiston, Oregon", "ISNI ", "Fu-Go balloon bomb", "William Simon U'Ren", "Beeswax shipwreck", "Eastern Oregon University", "Kingdom of Great Britain", "Providence Health & Services", "Crooked Creek State Natural Area", "forty-twond parallel north", "Wasco County, Oregon", "Indian reservation", "Shemia Fagan", "List of U.S. states by date of statehood", "Lane County, Oregon", "Gray wolves", "Troutdale, Oregon", "Marylhurst University", "Red Bridge State Wayside", "Boise, Idaho", "Mentor Graphics", "Armillaria solidipes", "Kalapuya people", "twenty ten United States census", "Graham Oaks Nature Park", "Donation Land Claim Act", "Little pocket mouse", "Irish American", "San Francisco", "Mormons", "Referendum", "Cuban American", "Washburne State Wayside", "Western Hockey League", "Sea lion", "Oregon's statewide elections, two thousand and six", "Slavery", "Portland Business Journal", "Denver", "Silicon Forest", "Three Sisters Wilderness", "Scottish people", "Fishing Rock State Recreation Site", "Three Arch Rocks National Wildlife Refuge", "U.S. National Park Service", "Douglas fir", "twenty thirteen National Women's Soccer League season", "Mitchell Recreation Area", "Oregon Ballot Measure twenty-five ", "List of colleges and universities in Oregon", "North American Vertical Datum of nineteen eighty-eight", "Coast Douglas-fir", "Oregon Daily Emerald", "Hillsboro School District", "White American", "Pago Pago", "Ophir State Rest Area", "Oregon Parks and Recreation Department", "Arcadia Beach State Recreation Site", "Denio, Nevada", "Oregon Attorney General", "Lost Creek State Recreation Site", "Palouse", "Rockaway Beach State Recreation Site", "U.S. Census Bureau", "List of metropolitan statistical areas", "List of areas in the United States National Park System", "Tolovana Beach State Recreation Site", "thirty-fiveth United States Congress", "Elections in Oregon", "San Diego", "Fort Clatsop", "College World Series", "Centroid", "Umatilla County, Oregon", "Biotechnology", "Mountain States", "Phoenix, Arizona", "James Cook", "De facto", "Strait of Anian", "Indiana", "Bud Pierce", "Twin Rocks State Natural Site", "United States National Grassland", "United States Department of Energy", "Sunstone", "Roseburg, Oregon", "Willamette Greenway", "Northwest League", "Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge", "Gresham, Oregon", "Paradise Point State Recreation Site", "Prehistoric period", "Prineville Reservoir State Park", "Steve Callaway", "Executive Committee ", "Oregon State Beavers", "Elliott State Forest", "Schnitzer Steel Industries", "Pacific University", "List of largest cities of U.S. states and territories by population", "List of U.S. state soils", "Kingman Reef", "Wood industry", "List of Oregon National Forests", "Edward Von der Porten", "Towhee", "Valley of the Rogue State Park", "Precision Castparts Corp.", "twenty seventeen National Women's Soccer League season", "Spring Basin Wilderness", "Oregon, My Oregon", "Mark O. Hatfield United States Courthouse", "Deadman's Pass Rest Area", "Roaring River Wilderness", "Cattle", "Sunset ", "La Pine State Park", "Oregon Citizens Alliance", "Vermont", "North Dakota", "Midway Atoll", "Hat Rock State Park", "American Civil War", "Chief justice", "Treemap", "Catholic Church in the United States", "Western Europe", "Mountain Time Zone", "Illinois River Forks State Park", "Jackson County, Oregon", "Mount Hood National Forest", "Elijah Bristow State Park", "Wayback Machine", "Amazon ", "Gordon H. Smith", "Tillamook County, Oregon", "Government Island ", "Damian Lillard", "Judiciary", "Redmond, Oregon", "Oregon Department of Administrative Services", "Klamath Tribes", "Protestant", "Columbia District", "Lake Oswego", "Mount Washington Wilderness", "Fortune one thousand", "California", "Tualatin River National Wildlife Refuge", "Rocky Creek State Scenic Viewpoint", "University of Oregon Bookstore", "Cambia Health Solutions", "George Abernethy", "Oregon State University", "Yachats Ocean Road State Natural Site", "Iowa", "Agate Beach State Recreation Site", "nineteen fifty United States census", "ISSN ", "Lower house", "Spain", "Oahu", "Toyama Prefecture", "Assemblies of God USA", "Academic Ranking of World Universities", "South Dakota", "Population transfer", "Energy Information Administration", "Hispanic and Latino Americans", "Mississippi", "Portland, Oregon", "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", "Catherine Creek State Park", "Face Rock State Scenic Viewpoint", "National monument ", "Mallard duck", "Moose", "Wisconsin", "Wallowa Lake Highway Forest State Scenic Corridor", "U.S. News & World Report", "Saipan", "Asian American", "Religion in the United States", "Stage Coach Forest State Scenic Corridor", "Vinzenz Lausmann Memorial State Natural Area", "twenty ten United States Census", "Johnston Atoll", "Crook County, Oregon", "Portlandia ", "Ainsworth State Park", "Bob Straub State Park", "The Greenbrier Companies", "Lower White River Wilderness", "Prineville Reservoir Wildlife Area", "Sarah Helmick State Recreation Site", "Crater Lake National Park", "The Simpsons", "Lewis and Clark National Historical Park", "British North America", "Buddhism", "twenty ten U.S. Census", "Burgundy wine", "Portland State University", "Guy W. Talbot State Park", "Montana", "Minam State Recreation Area", "Symons State Scenic Viewpoint", "Columbia Plateau", "Woodburn, Oregon", "Mark O. Hatfield Wilderness", "Golden eagle", "List of U.S. state insects", "Port Orford Cedar Forest State Scenic Corridor", "Central Oregon", "Political party strength in Oregon", "Morrow County, Oregon", "Malheur National Wildlife Refuge", "Oregon Superintendent of Public Instruction", "Willamette National Forest", "Linfield College", "North Clackamas School District", "Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area", "Geology of Oregon", "Alanson Beers", "Fauna of Oregon", "Oregon Coast Range", "List of regions of Oregon", "Malheur Lake", "Lists of United States state symbols", "United Kingdom", "Wilson River Highway Forest State Scenic Corridor", "Fort Rock", "Sebasti\u00e1n Vizca\u00edno", "Probate", "Organic act", "Bald eagle", "Pacific Northwest English", "Ron Wyden", "Salmon\u2013Huckleberry Wilderness", "H. B. Van Duzer Forest State Scenic Corridor", "United States congressional delegations from Oregon", "Virginia", "Wilsonville, Oregon", "Clackamas County, Oregon", "War of eighteen twelve", "FLIR Systems", "Providence Park", "State ", "Lewis and Clark Expedition", "Deschutes National Forest", "Oregano", "Boulder Creek Wilderness", "Portland Bible College", "San Francisco Bay Area", "Massachusetts", "Rufous hummingbird", "Sauvie Island Wildlife Area", "Depoe Bay Whale Watching Center", "E. E. Wilson Wildlife Area", "Portland metropolitan area", "De jure", "Medicaid managed care", "Luckiamute State Natural Area", "Polk County, Oregon", "Juan de Fuca", "Wallowa Valley", "Jarvis Island", "OCLC ", "Culture of Oregon", "Languages of the United States", "Google", "Cascade Head", "Irreligion", "Skiing", "List of U.S. states and territories by area", "Smelt Sands State Recreation Site", "Federal government of the United States", "Market capitalization", "Rain forest", "Hillsboro Hops", "Electoral College ", "Tualatin, Oregon", "Newberry National Volcanic Monument", "Northwest Oregon", "Sisters State Park", "Volcano", "Lane Transit District", "Prohibition", "Joaquin Miller", "Washington County, Oregon", "Siuslaw National Forest", "Curlie", "Umpqua River", "Snake River", "Seattle metropolitan area", "Otter Crest State Scenic Viewpoint", "Missouri", "Mary S. Young State Recreation Area", "Initiative", "Klamath County, Oregon", "Joaquin Miller Forest State Wayside", "The Goonies", "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest ", "Lists of Oregon-related topics", "Subarctic climate", "Progressive Era", "Consumer price index", "Data center", "Denver metropolitan area", "United States Virgin Islands", "StanCorp Financial Group", "Carson City, Nevada", "Oregon Territory", "Menagerie Wilderness", "Collier Memorial State Park", "Cougar", "American Library Association", "Neskowin Beach State Recreation Site", "Cooper Mountain Nature Park", "Gilchrist, Oregon", "Dean Creek Wildlife Area", "Blachly Mountain Forest State Park", "Boring, Oregon", "eighteen ninety United States census", "List of hospitals in Oregon", "Northern California", "English American", "Haystack Hill State Scenic Viewpoint", "Kuroshio Current", "Oregon Geographic Names", "West Coast of the United States", "Lynx", "Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest", "CNN", "Mediterranean climate", "North Fork Umatilla Wilderness", "Unity Lake State Recreation Site", "Sherwood, Oregon", "54-forty or fight", "Glendoveer Golf Course and Fitness Trail", "List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union", "Deschutes River ", "San Bernardino, California", "Smart growth", "French Prairie", "Connecticut", "Salt Lake City metropolitan area", "Florence, Oregon", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Google Finance", "Strawberry Mountain Wilderness", "Klickitat people", "Glacial Lake Missoula", "Tuality Healthcare", "Rhode Island", "Open access", "List of U.S. state and territory trees", "Iraqi Kurdistan", "Oswald West State Park", "Sweet Myrtle State Natural Site", "Tigard, Oregon", "White Hispanic and Latino Americans", "Oregon Trail", "George W. Joseph State Natural Area", "Nike, Inc.", "Osborne Russell", "Drift Creek Wilderness", "Erratic Rock State Natural Site", "Rocky Mountains", "Eugene, Oregon", "Medicare Advantage", "Umpqua National Forest", "Sunset Beach State Recreation Site", "Bridge Creek Wildlife Area", "Bicameral", "Pioneer Courthouse", "NCAA Men's Cross Country Championship", "ISBN ", "Wildwood Recreation Site", "Paleo-Indians", "Battle Mountain Forest State Scenic Corridor", "Bandon, Oregon", "Mount Hood Wilderness", "Bobcat", "Kindergarten Cop", "Oregon locations by per capita income", "Portland Winterhawks", "Arizona", "Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife", "Western meadowlark", "Shepperd's Dell", "fifty State quarters", "Ontario", "Per capita personal income in the United States", "Tsuga", "Wheeler County, Oregon", "Colorado", "Wallowa County, Oregon", "Federal district", "Willamette Stone", "Grant County, Oregon", "Denman Wildlife Area", "Tokatee Klootchman State Natural Site", "Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary", "Helena, Montana", "Clyde Holliday State Recreation Site", "Conservatism in the United States", "Albany, Oregon", "Oxbow Regional Park", "United States House of Representatives", "Modern liberalism in the United States", "Salem, Oregon", "Dexter State Recreation Site", "Congregation of Holy Cross", "University of Portland", "Mountain beaver", "Nate Silver", "Willamette Industries", "Soccer-specific stadium", "Ukiah\u2013Dale Forest State Scenic Corridor", "Ashland, Oregon", "World War II", "Grimm ", "McVay Rock State Recreation Site", "eighteen eighty United States census", "Mart\u00edn de Aguilar", "Oregon State Fair", "Federal enclave", "Orthodox Christianity", "Trout Creek Mountains", "Mill Ends Park", "Malheur River", "Linn County, Oregon", "Mount Hood National Recreation Area", "Kalmiopsis Wilderness", "Roads End State Recreation Site", "Succor Creek State Natural Area", "Klamath Falls, Oregon", "Bannock ", "Champoeg, Oregon", "List of Indian reservations in Oregon", "Company town", "Oregon Film Museum", "Education service district ", "Jeollanam-do", "Crooked River National Grassland", "Bly, Oregon", "Francis Drake", "List of U.S. state birds", "The Wall Street Journal", "nineteen hundred United States census", "Floras Lake State Natural Area", "UTC\u221208:zero", "Great Basin pocket mouse", "American Religious Identification Survey ", "Oregon statistical areas", "Household income in the United States", "Humpback whale", "Bill Bradbury", "Grants Pass, Oregon", "Welcome sign", "John Jacob Astor", "M\u00e9tis", "Cummins Creek Wilderness", "Facebook", "Bridal Veil Falls ", "QS World University Rankings", "Barack Obama", "Oregon Shakespeare Festival", "Oregon in the American Civil War", "Upper and Lower Table Rock", "Fungus", "Seven Devils State Recreation Site", "Shrubland", "Genentech", "New Hampshire", "Absentee ballot", "Lang Forest State Scenic Corridor", "fifty-four-40 or fight", "Gilliam County, Oregon", "Softwood", "North Santiam State Recreation Area", "Poultry", "Baker County, Oregon", "Brandon Roy", "Rocky Butte State Scenic Corridor", "Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde", "Holman State Wayside", "seventeen hundred Cascadia earthquake", "Mainline Protestant", "nineteen twenty United States census", "Wenaha Wildlife Area", "Nehalem Bay State Park", "W. B. Nelson State Recreation Site", "L. L. \"Stub\" Stewart State Park", "Howland Island", "Beaver Creek State Natural Area", "Dolphin", "List of U.S. state and territory abbreviations", "Nez Perce National Historical Park", "Reed College", "Fort Vancouver", "List of United States cities by population", "Jason Lee ", "Hazelnut", "Stonefield Beach State Recreation Site", "Klamath Mountains", "Lewis and Clark National Wildlife Refuge", "Multnomah Falls", "Cascade\u2013Siskiyou National Monument", "Devils Punch Bowl State Natural Area", "Oregon Badlands Wilderness", "Soil", "International Rose Test Garden", "Red River Colony", "Upper Midwest", "The General ", "Lake County, Oregon", "Upper house", "Northern Mariana Islands", "Winchuck State Recreation Site", "Treaty of eighteen eighteen", "Oregon Coast", "Kennewick Man", "OpenStreetMap", "Sitka Sedge State Natural Area", "Chuck Bennett ", "Champoeg Meetings", "Insular area", "Navassa Island", "List of lakes in Oregon", "Daylight saving time", "Redmond\u2013Bend Juniper State Scenic Corridor", "Pacific golden chanterelle", "Salem-Keizer School District", "Oceanarium", "Devil's Staircase Wilderness", "Oregon Coast Aquarium", "Sumpter Valley Gold Dredge", "Oregon breweries", "Baker Island", "Alfred A. Loeb State Park", "Moda Center", "Killamuk ", "List of states and territories of the United States by population density", "Baskett Slough National Wildlife Refuge", "Klamath Falls \u2013 Lakeview Forest State Scenic Corridor", "Tualatin Hills Park & Recreation District", "Sisters Rock State Natural Area", "Wenaha\u2013Tucannon Wilderness", "List of people from Portland, Oregon", "Rogue Regional Medical Center", "Liberty ship", "Willamette Valley", "Tumalo State Park", "Milwaukie, Oregon", "Seneca Fouts Memorial State Natural Area", "Major League Soccer", "Eugene Emeralds", "Bibliography of Oregon history", "United States Census Bureau", "Tucson, Arizona", "Riverside Wildlife Area", "National Lampoon's Animal House", "Dabney State Recreation Area", "nineteen eighty United States census", "Flag of Oregon", "Fort Yamhill", "UTC\u2212eight:00", "List of Oregon ballot measures", "Oregon black exclusion laws", "Lieutenant governor ", "List of U.S. state and territory nicknames", "Shore Acres State Park", "John B. Yeon State Scenic Corridor", "Lewis & Clark College", "Diamond Peak Wilderness", "Willamette Week", "San Marine State Wayside", "Maples Rest Area", "Postal voting", "Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area", "John Yeon State Natural Site", "Seattle", "Sports in Portland, Oregon", "Geographic coordinate system", "Ona Beach State Park", "Sun Pass State Forest", "Port Orford Heads State Park", "Deschutes County, Oregon", "New England", "Kaiser Permanente", "Lower Deschutes Wildlife Area", "South Beach State Park", "Governor of Oregon", "Elsie, Oregon", "Salem Hospital ", "Cape Meares", "List of Oregon state parks", "Pacific Islands Americans", "Sheep", "List of states and territories of the United States by population", "List of people from Oregon", "West Linn, Oregon", "Hells Canyon Wilderness ", "Sheridan State Scenic Corridor", "Oregon boundary dispute", "The Cove Palisades State Park", "Summer Lake Wildlife Area", "Albuquerque\u2013Santa Fe\u2013Las Vegas combined statistical area", "Harney County, Oregon", "Tourist attractions near Portland, Oregon", "Mount Talbert Nature Park", "Jewell Meadows Wildlife Area", "Sally Russell ", "nineteen ten United States Census", "Steens Mountain", "Lake Owyhee State Park", "New York ", "List of U.S. state shells", "Muslims", "Great horned owl", "Douglas County, Oregon", "two thousand and four United States presidential election", "Chisel-toothed kangaroo rat", "The Register-Guard", "National Wild and Scenic Rivers System", "Frontier", "Dot-com bubble", "Detroit Lions", "Economy of Oregon", "Mountain Daylight Time", "Bradley State Scenic Viewpoint", "New Hope Christian College", "Kentucky", "Gambling in Oregon", "Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians", "Columbia Sportswear", "Oregon's congressional districts", "Devils Lake State Recreation Area", "Las Vegas", "American Speech", "Assisted suicide", "Olympia, Washington", "San Jose, California", "Hoffman Memorial State Wayside", "OC&E Woods Line State Trail", "Forbes Magazine's List of America's Best Colleges", "Keizer, Oregon", "Three Arch Rocks Wilderness", "Riverside, California", "Black American", "Paisley Caves", "Oregon Caves National Monument and Preserve", "Likert scale", "Metasequoia", "Pear", "David Thompson ", "nineteen forty United States census", "List of U.S. state fossils", "nineteen ten United States census", "Coyote", "Hag\u00e5t\u00f1a, Guam", "Long Beach, California", "Bates State Park", "Albuquerque", "Western Seminary", "Bonnie Lure State Recreation Area", "Wallowa River Rest Area", "Mill Creek Wilderness", "Political divisions of the United States", "German American", "Cheyenne, Wyoming", "National Recreation Area", "Western United States", "Race and ethnicity in the United States Census", "Oregon Legislative Assembly", "Mount Angel Abbey", "Fossil Lake ", "Shasta ", "Canby, Oregon", "Crissey Field State Recreation Site", "Grande Ronde River", "Pistol River State Scenic Viewpoint", "Nez Perce tribe", "Alaska", "ISO thirty-one sixty-six", "Mount Bachelor", "eighteen ninety United States Census", "Lowell State Recreation Site"], "content": "Oregon ( (listen)) is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of its eastern boundary with Idaho. The 42\u00b0 north parallel delineates the southern boundary with California and Nevada.\nOregon has been home to many indigenous nations for thousands of years. The first European traders, explorers, and settlers began exploring what is now Oregon's Pacific coast in the early-mid 1500s. As early as 1565, the Spanish began sending vessels northeast from the Philippines, riding the Kuroshio Current in a sweeping circular route across the northern part of the Pacific. In 1592, Juan de Fuca undertook detailed mapping and studies of ocean currents in the Pacific Northwest, including the Oregon coast as well as the strait now bearing his name. Spanish ships \u2013 250 in as many years \u2013 would typically not land before reaching Cape Mendocino in California, but some landed or wrecked in what is now Oregon. Nehalem tales recount strangers and the discovery of items like chunks of beeswax and a lidded silver vase, likely connected to the 1707 wreck of the San Francisco Xavier.In 1843, an autonomous government was formed in the Oregon Country, and the Oregon Territory was created in 1848. Oregon became the 33rd state of the U.S. on February 14, 1859. Today, with 4 million people over 98,000 square miles (250,000 km2), Oregon is the ninth largest and 27th most populous U.S. state. The capital, Salem, is the second-most populous city in Oregon, with 169,798 residents. Portland, with 647,805, ranks as the 26th among U.S. cities. The Portland metropolitan area, which also includes the city of Vancouver, Washington, to the north, ranks the 25th largest metro area in the nation, with a population of 2,453,168.\nOregon is one of the most geographically diverse states in the U.S., marked by volcanoes, abundant bodies of water, dense evergreen and mixed forests, as well as high deserts and semi-arid shrublands. At 11,249 feet (3,429 m), Mount Hood, a stratovolcano, is the state's highest point. Oregon's only national park, Crater Lake National Park, comprises the caldera surrounding Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. The state is also home to the single largest organism in the world, Armillaria ostoyae, a fungus that runs beneath 2,200 acres (8.9 km2) of the Malheur National Forest.Because of its diverse landscapes and waterways, Oregon's economy is largely powered by various forms of agriculture, fishing, and hydroelectric power. Oregon is also the top lumber producer of the contiguous United States, with the lumber industry dominating the state's economy during the 20th century. Technology is another one of Oregon's major economic forces, beginning in the 1970s with the establishment of the Silicon Forest and the expansion of Tektronix and Intel. Sportswear company Nike, Inc., headquartered in Beaverton, is the state's largest public corporation with an annual revenue of $30.6 billion.\n\n\n== Etymology ==\n\nThe earliest evidence of the name Oregon has Spanish origins. The term \"orej\u00f3n\" (meaning \"big ear\") comes from the historical chronicle Relaci\u00f3n de la Alta y Baja California (1598) written by the new Spaniard Rodrigo Montezuma and made reference to the Columbia River when the Spanish explorers penetrated into the actual North American territory that became part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name Oregon. There are also two other sources with Spanish origins, such as the word oregano, referring to a plant that grows in the southern part of the region. It is possible that the American territory was named by the Spaniards, as there is a stream in Spain called the \"Arroyo del Oreg\u00f3n\" (which is located in the province of Ciudad Real); it is also possible that the \"j\" in the Spanish phrase \"El Orej\u00f3n\" was later corrupted into a \"g\", and in context might refer to the 'earful' of the massive Columbia River at its mouth.\nAnother early use of the name, spelled Ouragon, was by Major Robert Rogers in a 1765 petition to the Kingdom of Great Britain. The term referred to the then-mythical River of the West (the Columbia River). By 1778, the spelling had shifted to Oregon. Rogers wrote:\n\n... from the Great Lakes towards the Head of the Mississippi, and from thence to the River called by the Indians Ouragon ...\nOne theory is that the name comes from the French word ouragan (\"windstorm\" or \"hurricane\"), which was applied to the River of the West based on Native American tales of powerful Chinook winds on the lower Columbia River, or perhaps from firsthand French experience with the Chinook winds of the Great Plains. At the time, the River of the West was thought to rise in western Minnesota and flow west through the Great Plains.Joaquin Miller discussed in Sunset magazine, in 1904, how Oregon's name was derived:\n\nThe name, Oregon, is rounded down phonetically, from Ouve \u00e1gua\u2014Oragua, Or-a-gon, Oregon\u2014given probably by the same Portuguese navigator that named the Farallones after his first officer, and it literally, in a large way, means cascades: \"Hear the waters.\" You should steam up the Columbia and hear and feel the waters falling out of the clouds of Mount Hood to understand entirely the full meaning of the name Ouve a \u00e1gua, Oregon.\nAnother account, endorsed as the \"most plausible explanation\" in the book Oregon Geographic Names, was advanced by George R. Stewart in a 1944 article in American Speech. According to Stewart, the name came from an engraver's error in a French map published in the early 18th century, on which the Ouisiconsink (Wisconsin) River was spelled \"Ouaricon-sint\", broken on two lines with the -sint below, so there appeared to be a river flowing to the west named \"Ouaricon\".\nAccording to the Oregon Tourism Commission, present-day Oregonians  pronounce the state's name as \"or-uh-gun, never or-ee-gone\". After being drafted by the Detroit Lions in 2002, former Oregon Ducks quarterback Joey Harrington distributed \"Orygun\" stickers to members of the media as a reminder of how to pronounce the name of his home state. The stickers are sold by the University of Oregon Bookstore.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nHumans have inhabited the area that is now Oregon for at least 15,000 years. In recorded history, mentions of the land date to as early as the 16th century. During the 18th and 19th centuries, European powers\u2014and later the United States\u2014quarreled over possession of the region until 1846, when the U.S. and Great Britain finalized division of the region. Oregon became a state on February 14, 1859, and as of 2015 has more than four million residents.\n\n\n=== Earliest inhabitants ===\n\nWhile there is considerable evidence that Paleo-Indians inhabited the region, the oldest evidence of habitation in Oregon was found at Fort Rock Cave and the Paisley Caves in Lake County. Archaeologist Luther Cressman dated material from Fort Rock to 13,200 years ago, and there is evidence supporting inhabitants in the region at least 15,000 years ago. By 8000 BC there were settlements throughout the state, with populations concentrated along the lower Columbia River, in the western valleys, and around coastal estuaries.\nDuring the prehistoric period, the Willamette Valley region was flooded after the collapse of glacial dams from then Lake Missoula, located in what would later become Montana. These massive floods occurred during the last glacial period and filled the valley with 300 to 400 feet (91 to 122 m) of water.By the 16th century, Oregon was home to many Native American groups, including the Chinook, Coquille (Ko-Kwell), Bannock, Chasta, Kalapuya, Klamath, Klickitat, Molalla, Nez Perce, Takelma, Killamuk, Neah-kah-nie, Umatilla, and Umpqua.\n\n\n=== European and pioneer settlement ===\n\nThe first Europeans to visit Oregon were Spanish explorers led by Juan Rodr\u00edguez Cabrillo, who sighted southern Oregon off the Pacific coast in 1543. Sailing from Central America on the Golden Hind in 1579 in search of the Strait of Anian during his circumnavigation of the Earth, the English explorer and privateer Sir Francis Drake briefly anchored at South Cove, Cape Arago, just south of Coos Bay, before sailing for what is now California. Mart\u00edn de Aguilar, continuing separately from Sebasti\u00e1n Vizca\u00edno's scouting of California, reached as far north as Cape Blanco and possibly to Coos Bay in 1603. Exploration continued routinely in 1774, starting with the expedition of the frigate Santiago by Juan Jos\u00e9 P\u00e9rez Hern\u00e1ndez, and the coast of Oregon became a valuable trade route to Asia. In 1778, British captain James Cook also explored the coast.\nFrench Canadians, Scots, M\u00e9tis and other continental natives (e.g. Iroquois) trappers arrived in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, soon to be followed by Catholic clergy. Some travelled as members of the Lewis and Clark and 1811 Astor expedition. Few stayed permanently such as \u00c9tienne Lussier, often referred as the first \"European\" farmer in the state of Oregon. Evidence of the French Canadian presence can be found in numerous names of French origin such as Malheur Lake, Malheur River, Grande Ronde, Deschutes rivers and the city of La Grande. Furthermore, many of the early pioneers first came out West with the North West Company and the Hudson's Bay Company before heading South of the Columbia for better farmland as the fur trade declined. French Prairie by the Willamette River and French Settlement by the Umpqua River are known as early mixed ancestry settlements. \nThe Lewis and Clark Expedition travelled through northern Oregon also in search of the Northwest Passage. They built their winter fort in 1805\u201306 at Fort Clatsop, near the mouth of the Columbia River, staying at the encampment from December until March.British explorer David Thompson also conducted overland exploration. In 1811, while working for the North West Company, Thompson became the first European to navigate the entire Columbia River. Stopping on the way, at the junction of the Snake River, he posted a claim to the region for Great Britain and the North West Company. Upon returning to Montreal, he publicized the abundance of fur-bearing animals in the area.Also in 1811, New Yorker John Jacob Astor financed the establishment of Fort Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia River as a western outpost to his Pacific Fur Company; this was the first permanent European settlement in Oregon.\nIn the War of 1812, the British gained control of all Pacific Fur Company posts. The Treaty of 1818 established joint British and American occupancy of the region west of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. By the 1820s and 1830s, the Hudson's Bay Company dominated the Pacific Northwest from its Columbia District headquarters at Fort Vancouver (built in 1825 by the district's chief factor, John McLoughlin, across the Columbia from present-day Portland).\nIn 1841, the expert trapper and entrepreneur Ewing Young died leaving considerable wealth and no apparent heir, and no system to probate his estate. A meeting followed Young's funeral, at which a probate government was proposed. Doctor Ira Babcock of Jason Lee's Methodist Mission was elected supreme judge. Babcock chaired two meetings in 1842 at Champoeg, (halfway between Lee's mission and Oregon City), to discuss wolves and other animals of contemporary concern. These meetings were precursors to an all-citizen meeting in 1843, which instituted a provisional government headed by an executive committee made up of David Hill, Alanson Beers, and Joseph Gale. This government was the first acting public government of the Oregon Country before annexation by the government of the United States. It was succeeded by a Second Executive Committee, made up of Peter G. Stewart, Osborne Russell, and William J. Bailey, and this committee was itself succeeded by George Abernethy, who was the first and only Governor of Oregon under the provisional government.\nAlso in 1841, Sir George Simpson, governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, reversed the Hudson's Bay Company's long-standing policy of discouraging settlement because it interfered with the lucrative fur trade. He directed that some 200 Red River Colony settlers be relocated to HBC farms near Fort Vancouver, (the James Sinclair expedition), in an attempt to hold Columbia District.\nStarting in 1842\u201343, the Oregon Trail brought many new American settlers to the Oregon Country. Oregon's boundaries were disputed for a time, contributing to tensions between England and the U.S., but the border was defined peacefully in the 1846 Oregon Treaty. The border between the United States and British North America was set at the 49th parallel. The Oregon Territory was officially organized on August 13, 1848.Settlement increased with the Donation Land Claim Act of 1850 and the forced relocation of the native population to Indian reservations in Oregon.\n\n\n=== Statehood ===\nIn December 1844, Oregon passed its Black Exclusion Law, which prohibited African Americans from entering the territory while simultaneously prohibiting slavery. Slave owners who brought their slaves with them were given three years before they were forced to free them. Any African Americans in the region after the law was passed were forced to leave, and those who did not comply were arrested and beaten. They received no less than twenty and no more than thirty-nine stripes across their bare back if they still did not leave. This process could be repeated every six months. Slavery played a major part in Oregon's history and even influenced its path to statehood. The territory's request for statehood was delayed several times, as members of Congress argued among themselves whether the territory should be admitted as a \"free\" or \"slave\" state. Eventually politicians from the south agreed to allow Oregon to enter as a \"free\" state, in exchange for opening slavery to the southwest United States.Oregon was admitted to the Union on February 14, 1859, though no one in Oregon knew it until March 15. Founded as a refuge from disputes over slavery, Oregon had a \"whites only\" clause in its original state Constitution. At the outbreak of the American Civil War, regular U.S. troops were withdrawn and sent east to aid the Union. Volunteer cavalry recruited in California were sent north to Oregon to keep peace and protect the populace. The First Oregon Cavalry served until June 1865.\n\n\n=== Post-Reconstruction ===\nBeginning in the 1880s, the growth of railroads expanded the state's lumber, wheat, and other agricultural markets, and the rapid growth of its cities. Due to the abundance of timber and waterway access via the Willamette River, Portland became a major force in the lumber industry of the Pacific Northwest, and quickly became the state's largest city. It would earn the nickname \"Stumptown\", and would later become recognized as one of the most dangerous port cities in the United States due to racketeering and illegal activities at the turn of the 20th century. In 1902, Oregon introduced direct legislation by the state's citizens through initiatives and referenda, known as the Oregon System.On May 5, 1945, six civilians were killed by a Japanese balloon bomb that exploded on Gearhart Mountain near Bly. They remained the only people on American soil whose deaths were attributed to an enemy balloon bomb explosion during World War II. The bombing site is now located in the Mitchell Recreation Area.\nIndustrial expansion began in earnest following the 1933\u201337 construction of the Bonneville Dam on the Columbia River. Hydroelectric power, food, and lumber provided by Oregon helped fuel the development of the West, although the periodic fluctuations in the U.S. building industry have hurt the state's economy on multiple occasions. Portland, in particular, experienced a population boom between 1900 and 1930, tripling in size; the arrival of World War II also provided the northwest region of the state with an industrial boom, where Liberty ships and aircraft carriers were constructed.During the 1970s, the Pacific Northwest was particularly affected by the 1973 oil crisis, with Oregon suffering a substantial shortage.In 1972, The Oregon Beverage Container Act of 1971, popularly called the Bottle Bill, became the first law of its kind in the United States. The Bottle Bill system in Oregon was created to control litter. In practice, the system promotes recycling, not reusing, and the collected containers are generally destroyed and made into new containers. Ten states currently have similar laws.\nIn 1994, Oregon became the first U.S. state to legalize physician-assisted suicide through the Oregon Death with Dignity Act. A measure to legalize recreational use of marijuana in Oregon was approved on November 4, 2014, making Oregon only the second state at the time to have legalized gay marriage, physician-assisted suicide, and recreational marijuana.\n\n\n== Geography ==\n\nOregon is 295 miles (475 km) north to south at longest distance, and 395 miles (636 km) east to west. With an area of 98,381 square miles (254,810 km2), Oregon is slightly larger than the United Kingdom. It is the ninth largest state in the United States. Oregon's highest point is the summit of Mount Hood, at 11,249 feet (3,429 m), and its lowest point is the sea level of the Pacific Ocean along the Oregon Coast. Oregon's mean elevation is 3,300 feet (1,006 m). Crater Lake National Park, the state's only national park, is the site of the deepest lake in the United States at 1,943 feet (592 m). Oregon claims the D River as the shortest river in the world, though the state of Montana makes the same claim of its Roe River. Oregon is also home to Mill Ends Park (in Portland), the smallest park in the world at 452 square inches (0.29 m2).\nOregon is split into eight geographical regions. In Western Oregon: Oregon Coast (west of the Coast Range), the Willamette Valley, Rogue Valley, Cascade Range and Klamath Mountains; and in Central and Eastern Oregon: the Columbia Plateau, the High Desert, and the Blue Mountains.\nOregon lies in two time zones. Most of Malheur County is in the Mountain Time Zone, while the rest of the state lies in the Pacific Time Zone.\n\n\n=== Geology and terrain ===\n\nWestern Oregon's mountainous regions, home to three of the most prominent mountain peaks of the United States including Mount Hood, were formed by the volcanic activity of the Juan de Fuca Plate, a tectonic plate that poses a continued threat of volcanic activity and earthquakes in the region. The most recent major activity was the 1700 Cascadia earthquake. Washington's Mount St. Helens erupted in 1980, an event visible from northern Oregon and affecting some areas there.The Columbia River, which forms much of Oregon's northern border, also played a major role in the region's geological evolution, as well as its economic and cultural development. The Columbia is one of North America's largest rivers, and one of two rivers to cut through the Cascades (the Klamath River in southern Oregon is the other). About 15,000 years ago, the Columbia repeatedly flooded much of Oregon during the Missoula Floods; the modern fertility of the Willamette Valley is largely the result. Plentiful salmon made parts of the river, such as Celilo Falls, hubs of economic activity for thousands of years.\nToday, Oregon's landscape varies from rain forest in the Coast Range to barren desert in the southeast, which still meets the technical definition of a frontier. Oregon's geographical center is further west than any of the other 48 contiguous states (although the westernmost point of the lower 48 states is in Washington). Central Oregon's geographical features range from high desert and volcanic rock formations resulting from lava beds. The Oregon Badlands Wilderness is in this region of the state.\n\n\n=== Flora and fauna ===\nTypical of a western state, Oregon is home to a unique and diverse array of wildlife. Roughly 60 percent of the state is covered in forest, while the areas west of the Cascades are more densely populated by forest, making up around 80 percent of the landscape. Some 60 percent of Oregon's forests are within federal land. Oregon is the top timber producer of the lower 48 states.\nTypical tree species include the Douglas fir (the state tree), as well as redwood, ponderosa pine, western red cedar, and hemlock. Ponderosa pine are more common in the Blue Mountains in the eastern part of the state and firs are more common in the west.\nMany species of mammals live in the state, which include opossums, shrews, moles, little pocket mice, great basin pocket mice, dark kangaroo mouse, California kangaroo rat, chisel-toothed kangaroo rat, ord's kangaroo rat, bats, rabbits, pikas, mountain beavers, chipmunks, squirrels, yellow-bellied marmots, beavers (the state mammal), porcupines, coyotes, wolves, foxes black bears, raccoons, badgers, skunks, antelopes, cougars, bobcats, lynxes, deer, elk, and moose.\nMarine mammals include seals, sea lions, humpback whales, killer whales, gray whales, blue whales, sperm whales, pacific white-sided dolphins, and bottlenose dolphins.\nNotable birds include American widgeons, mallard ducks, great blue herons, bald eagles, golden eagles, western meadowlarks (the state bird), barn owls, great horned owls, rufous hummingbirds, pileated woodpeckers, wrens, towhees, sparrows, and buntings.Moose have not always inhabited the state but came to Oregon in the 1960s; the Wallowa Valley herd numbered about 60 as of 2013. Gray wolves were extirpated from Oregon around 1930 but have since found their way back; most reside in northeast Oregon, with two packs living in the south-central part. Although their existence in Oregon is unconfirmed, reports of grizzly bears still turn up, and it is probable some still move into eastern Oregon from Idaho.Oregon is home to what is considered the largest single organism in the world, an Armillaria solidipes fungus beneath the Malheur National Forest of eastern Oregon.Oregon has several National Park System sites, including Crater Lake National Park in the southern part of the Cascades, John Day Fossil Beds National Monument east of the Cascades, Lewis and Clark National Historical Park on the north coast, and Oregon Caves National Monument near the south coast.\n\n\n=== Climate ===\n\nMost of Oregon has a generally mild climate, though there is significant variation given the variety of landscapes across the state. The state's western region (west of the Cascade Range) has an oceanic climate, populated by dense evergreen mixed forests. Western Oregon's climate is heavily influenced by the Pacific Ocean; the western third of Oregon is very wet in the winter, moderately to very wet during the spring and fall, and dry during the summer. The relative humidity of Western Oregon is high except during summer days, which are semi-dry to semi-humid; Eastern Oregon typically sees low humidity year-round.The state's southwestern portion, particularly the Rogue Valley, has a Mediterranean climate with drier and sunnier winters and hotter summers, similar to Northern California.Oregon's northeastern portion has a steppe climate, and its high terrain regions have a subarctic climate. Like Western Europe, Oregon, and the Pacific Northwest in general, is considered warm for its latitude, and the state has far milder winters at a given elevation than comparable latitudes elsewhere in North America, such as the Upper Midwest, Ontario, Quebec and New England. However, the state ranks fifth for coolest summer temperatures of any state in the country, after Maine, Idaho, Wyoming, and Alaska.The eastern two thirds of Oregon, which largely comprise high desert, have cold, snowy winters and very dry summers. Much of the east is semiarid to arid like the rest of the Great Basin, though the Blue Mountains are wet enough to support extensive forests. Most of Oregon receives significant snowfall, but the Willamette Valley, where 60 percent of the population lives, has considerably milder winters for its latitude and typically sees only light snowfall.Oregon's highest recorded temperature is 119 \u00b0F (48 \u00b0C) at Pendleton on August 10, 1898, and the lowest recorded temperature is \u221254 \u00b0F (\u221248 \u00b0C) at Seneca on February 10, 1933.\n\n\n=== Cities and towns ===\n\nOregon's population is largely concentrated in the Willamette Valley, which stretches from Eugene in the south (home of the University of Oregon) through Corvallis (home of Oregon State University) and Salem (the capital) to Portland (Oregon's largest city).Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia River, was the first permanent English-speaking settlement west of the Rockies in what is now the United States. Oregon City, at the end of the Oregon Trail, was the Oregon Territory's first incorporated city, and was its first capital from 1848 until 1852, when the capital was moved to Salem. Bend, near the geographic center of the state, is one of the ten fastest-growing metropolitan areas in the United States. In southern Oregon, Medford is a rapidly growing metro area and is home to the Rogue Valley International-Medford Airport, the state's third-busiest airport. To the south, near the California border, is the city of Ashland. Eastern Oregon is sparsely populated, but is home to Hermiston, which with a population of 18,000 is the largest and fastest-growing city in the region.\n\n\n== Demographics ==\n\n\n=== Population ===\n\nThe United States Census Bureau determined that the population of Oregon was 4,237,256 in 2020, based on the 2020 United States census, a 10.71% increase over the 2010 census.Oregon was the nation's \"Top Moving Destination\" in 2014, with two families moving into the state for every one moving out (66.4% to 33.6%). Oregon was also the top moving destination in 2013, and the second-most popular destination in 2010 through 2012.As of the 2010 census, the population of Oregon was 3,831,074. The gender makeup of the state was 49.5% male and 50.5% female. 22.6% of the population were under the age of 18; 63.5% were between the ages of 18 and 64; and 12.5% were 65 years of age or older.\nAccording to the 2016 American Community Survey, 12.4% of Oregon's population were of Hispanic or Latino origin (of any race): Mexican (10.4%), Puerto Rican (0.3%), Cuban (0.1%), and other Hispanic or Latino origin (1.5%). The five largest ancestry groups for White Oregonians were: German (19.1%), Irish (11.7%), English (11.3%), American (5.3%), and Norwegian (3.8%).The state's most populous ethnic group, non-Hispanic White, has declined from 95.8% in 1970 to 77.8% in 2012.As of 2011, 38.7% of Oregon's children under one year of age belonged to minority groups, meaning they had at least one parent who was not a non-Hispanic White. Of the state's total population, 22.6% was under the age 18, and 77.4% were 18 or older.\nThe center of population of Oregon is located in Linn County, in the city of Lyons. Around 60% of Oregon's population resides within the Portland metropolitan area.As of 2009, Oregon's population comprised 361,393 foreign-born residents. Of the foreign-born residents, the three largest groups are originally from countries in: Latin America (47.8%), Asia (27.4%), and Europe (16.5%).\n\nRoma gypsies first reached Oregon in the 1890s. There is a substantial Roma population Willamette Valley and around Portland.\n\n\n=== Religious and secular communities ===\n\nOregon has frequently been cited by statistical agencies for having a smaller percentage of religious communities than other U.S. states. According to a 2009 Gallup poll, Oregon was paired with Vermont as the two \"least religious\" states in the United States.In the same 2009 Gallup poll, 69% of Oregonians identified themselves as being Christian. The largest Christian denominations in Oregon by number of adherents in 2010 were the Roman Catholic Church with 398,738; The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 147,965; and the Assemblies of God with 45,492. Oregon also contains the largest community of Russian Old Believers to be found in the United States. Judaism is the largest non-Christian religion in Oregon with more than 50,000 adherents, 47,000 of whom live in the Portland area. Recently, new kosher food and Jewish educational offerings have led to a rapid increase in Portland's Orthodox Jewish population. The Northwest Tibetan Cultural Association is headquartered in Portland. There are an estimated 6,000 to 10,000 Muslims in Oregon, most of whom live in and around Portland.Most of the remainder of the population had no religious affiliation; the 2008 American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) placed Oregon as tied with Nevada in fifth place of U.S. states having the highest percentage of residents identifying themselves as \"non-religious\", at 24 percent. Secular organizations include the Center for Inquiry (CFI), the Humanists of Greater Portland (HGP), and the United States Atheists (USA).\nDuring much of the 1990s, a group of conservative Christians formed the Oregon Citizens Alliance, and unsuccessfully tried to pass legislation to prevent \"gay sensitivity training\" in public schools and legal benefits for homosexual couples.\nSince 2016, data for births of White Hispanic origin are not collected, but included in one Hispanic group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.\nBirths in table do not sum to 100% because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race.\n\n\n=== Future projections ===\nProjections from the U.S. Census Bureau show Oregon's population increasing to 4,833,918 by 2030, an increase of 41.3% compared to the state's population of 3,421,399 in 2000. The state's own projections forecast a total population of 5,425,408 in 2040.\n\n\n== Economy ==\n\nTotal Employment (2016): 1,551,192\nNumber of employer establishments (2016): 114,551As of 2015, Oregon ranks as the 17th highest in median household income at $60,834. The gross domestic product (GDP) of Oregon in 2013 was $219.6 billion, a 2.7% increase from 2012; Oregon is the 25th wealthiest state by GDP. In 2003, Oregon was 28th in the U.S. by GDP. The state's per capita personal income (PCPI) in 2013 was $39,848, a 1.5% increase from 2012. Oregon ranks 33rd in the U.S. by PCPI, compared to 31st in 2003. The national PCPI in 2013 was $44,765.Oregon's unemployment rate was 5.5% in September 2016, while the U.S. unemployment rate was 5.0% that month. Oregon has the third largest amount of food stamp users in the nation (21% of the population).\n\n\n=== Agriculture ===\n\nOregon's diverse landscapes provide ideal environments for various types of farming. Land in the Willamette Valley owes its fertility to the Missoula Floods, which deposited lake sediment from Glacial Lake Missoula in western Montana onto the valley floor. In 2016, the Willamette Valley region produced over 100 million pounds (45 kt) of blueberries.Oregon is also one of four major world hazelnut growing regions, and produces 95% of the domestic hazelnuts in the United States. While the history of the wine production in Oregon can be traced to before Prohibition, it became a significant industry beginning in the 1970s. In 2005, Oregon ranked third among U.S. states with 303 wineries. Due to regional similarities in climate and soil, the grapes planted in Oregon are often the same varieties found in the French regions of Alsace and Burgundy. In 2014, 71 wineries opened in the state. The total is currently 676, which represents growth of 12% over 2013.In the southern Oregon coast, commercially cultivated cranberries account for about 7 percent of U.S. production, and the cranberry ranks 23rd among Oregon's top 50 agricultural commodities. Cranberry cultivation in Oregon uses about 27,000 acres (110 square kilometers) in southern Coos and northern Curry counties, centered around the coastal city of Bandon. In the northeastern region of the state, particularly around Pendleton, both irrigated and dry land wheat is grown. Oregon farmers and ranchers also produce cattle, sheep, dairy products, eggs and poultry.\n\n\n=== Forestry and fisheries ===\n\nVast forests have historically made Oregon one of the nation's major timber-producing and logging states, but forest fires (such as the Tillamook Burn), over-harvesting, and lawsuits over the proper management of the extensive federal forest holdings have reduced the timber produced. Between 1989 and 2011, the amount of timber harvested from federal lands in Oregon dropped about 90%, although harvest levels on private land have remained relatively constant.Even the shift in recent years towards finished goods such as paper and building materials has not slowed the decline of the timber industry in the state. The effects of this decline have included Weyerhaeuser's acquisition of Portland-based Willamette Industries in January 2002, the relocation of Louisiana-Pacific's corporate headquarters from Portland to Nashville, and the decline of former lumber company towns such as Gilchrist. Despite these changes, Oregon still leads the United States in softwood lumber production; in 2011, 4,134 million board feet (9,760,000 m3) was produced in Oregon, compared with 3,685 million board feet (8,700,000 m3) in Washington, 1,914 million board feet (4,520,000 m3) in Georgia, and 1,708 million board feet (4,030,000 m3) in Mississippi. The slowing of the timber and lumber industry has caused high unemployment rates in rural areas.Oregon has one of the largest salmon-fishing industries in the world, although ocean fisheries have reduced the river fisheries in recent years. Because of the abundance of waterways in the state, it is also a major producer of hydroelectric energy.\n\n\n=== Tourism and entertainment ===\n\nTourism is also a strong industry in the state. Tourism is centered on the state's natural features \u2013 mountains, forests, waterfalls, rivers, beaches and lakes, including Crater Lake National Park, Multnomah Falls, the Painted Hills, the Deschutes River, and the Oregon Caves. Mount Hood and Mount Bachelor also draw visitors year-round for skiing and other snow activities.\n\nPortland is home to the Oregon Museum of Science and Industry, the Portland Art Museum, and the Oregon Zoo, which is the oldest zoo west of the Mississippi River. The International Rose Test Garden is another prominent attraction in the city. Portland has also been named the best city in the world for street food by several publications, including the U.S. News & World Report and CNN. Oregon is home to many breweries, and Portland has the largest number of breweries of any city in the world.The state's coastal region produces significant tourism as well. The Oregon Coast Aquarium comprises 23 acres (9.3 ha) along Yaquina Bay in Newport, and was also home to Keiko the orca whale. It has been noted as one of the top ten aquariums in North America. Fort Clatsop in Warrenton features a replica of Lewis and Clark's encampment at the mouth of the Columbia River in 1805. The Sea Lion Caves in Florence are the largest system of sea caverns in the United States, and also attract many visitors.In Southern Oregon, the Oregon Shakespeare Festival, held in Ashland, is also a tourist draw, as is the Oregon Vortex and the Wolf Creek Inn State Heritage Site, a historic inn where Jack London wrote his 1913 novel Valley of the Moon.Oregon has also historically been a popular region for film shoots due to its diverse landscapes, as well as its proximity to Hollywood (see List of films shot in Oregon). Movies filmed in Oregon include: Animal House, Free Willy, The General, The Goonies, Kindergarten Cop, One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, and Stand By Me. Oregon native Matt Groening, creator of The Simpsons, has incorporated many references from his hometown of Portland into the TV series. Additionally, several television shows have been filmed throughout the state including Portlandia, Grimm, Bates Motel, and Leverage. The Oregon Film Museum is located in the old Clatsop County Jail in Astoria.\n\n\n=== Technology ===\nHigh technology industries located in Silicon Forest have been a major employer since the 1970s. Tektronix was the largest private employer in Oregon until the late 1980s. Intel's creation and expansion of several facilities in eastern Washington County continued the growth that Tektronix had started. Intel, the state's largest for-profit private employer, operates four large facilities, with Ronler Acres, Jones Farm and Hawthorn Farm all located in Hillsboro.The spinoffs and startups that were produced by these two companies led to establishment of the so-called Silicon Forest. The recession and dot-com bust of 2001 hit the region hard; many high technology employers reduced the number of their employees or went out of business. Open Source Development Labs made news in 2004 when they hired Linus Torvalds, developer of the Linux kernel. In 2010, biotechnology giant Genentech opened a $400 million facility in Hillsboro to expand its production capabilities. Oregon is home to several large datacenters that take advantage of cheap power and a climate conducive to reducing cooling costs. Google operates a large datacenter in The Dalles, and Facebook built a large datacenter near Prineville in 2010. Amazon opened a datacenter near Boardman in 2011, and a fulfillment center in Troutdale in 2018.\n\n\n=== Corporate headquarters ===\n\nOregon is also the home of large corporations in other industries. The world headquarters of Nike are located near Beaverton. Medford is home to Harry and David, which sells gift items under several brands. Medford is also home to the national headquarters of Lithia Motors. Portland is home to one of the West's largest trade book publishing houses, Graphic Arts Center Publishing. Oregon is also home to Mentor Graphics Corporation, a world leader in electronic design automation located in Wilsonville and employs roughly 4,500 people worldwide.\nAdidas Corporations American Headquarters is located in Portland and employs roughly 900 full-time workers at its Portland campus. Nike, located in Beaverton, employs roughly 5,000 full-time employees at its 200-acre (81 ha) campus. Nike's Beaverton campus is continuously ranked as a top employer in the Portland area-along with competitor Adidas. Intel Corporation employs 18,600 in Oregon with the majority of these employees located at the company's Hillsboro campus located about 30 minutes west of Portland. Intel has been a top employer in Oregon since 1974.\nThe U.S. Federal Government and Providence Health systems are respective contenders for top employers in Oregon with roughly 12,000 federal workers and 14,000 Providence Health workers.\nIn 2015, a total of seven companies headquartered in Oregon landed in the Fortune 1000: Nike, at 106; Precision Castparts Corp. at 302; Lithia Motors at 482; StanCorp Financial Group at 804; Schnitzer Steel Industries at 853; The Greenbrier Companies at 948; and Columbia Sportswear at 982.\n\n\n=== Taxes and budgets ===\nOregon's biennial state budget, $2.6 billion in 2017, comprises General Funds, Federal Funds, Lottery Funds, and Other Funds.Oregon is one of only five states that have no sales tax. Oregon voters have been resolute in their opposition to a sales tax, voting proposals down each of the nine times they have been presented. The last vote, for 1993's Measure 1, was defeated by a 75\u201325% margin.The state also has a minimum corporate tax of only $150 a year, amounting to 5.6% of the General Fund in the 2005\u201307 biennium; data about which businesses pay the minimum is not available to the public. As a result, the state relies on property and income taxes for its revenue. Oregon has the fifth highest personal income tax in the nation. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Oregon ranked 41st out of the 50 states in taxes per capita in 2005 with an average amount paid of 1,791.45.A few local governments levy sales taxes on services: the city of Ashland, for example, collects a 5% sales tax on prepared food.The City of Portland imposes an Arts Education and Access Income Tax on residents over 18\u2014a flat tax of $35 collected from individuals earning $1,000 or more per year and residing in a household with an annual income exceeding the federal poverty level. The tax funds Portland school teachers, and art focused non-profit organizations in Portland.The State of Oregon also allows transit district to levy an income tax on employers and the self-employed. The State currently collects the tax for TriMet and the Lane Transit District.Oregon is one of six states with a revenue limit. The \"kicker law\" stipulates that when income tax collections exceed state economists' estimates by two percent or more, any excess must be returned to taxpayers. Since the enactment of the law in 1979, refunds have been issued for seven of the eleven biennia. In 2000, Ballot Measure 86 converted the \"kicker\" law from statute to the Oregon Constitution, and changed some of its provisions.\nFederal payments to county governments that were granted to replace timber revenue when logging in National Forests was restricted in the 1990s, have been under threat of suspension for several years. This issue dominates the future revenue of rural counties, which have come to rely on the payments in providing essential services.55% of state revenues are spent on public education, 23% on human services (child protective services, Medicaid, and senior services), 17% on public safety, and 5% on other services.\n\n\n=== Healthcare ===\n\nFor health insurance, as of 2018 Cambia Health Solutions has the highest market share at 21%, followed by Providence Health. In the Portland region, Kaiser Permanente leads. Providence and Kaiser are vertically integrated delivery systems which operate hospitals and offer insurance plans. Aside from Providence and Kaiser, hospital systems which are primarily Oregon-based include Legacy Health mostly covering Portland, Samaritan Health Services with five hospitals in various areas across the state, and Tuality Healthcare in the western Portland metropolitan area. In Southern Oregon, Asante runs several hospitals, including Rogue Regional Medical Center. Some hospitals are operated by multi-state organizations such as PeaceHealth and CommonSpirit Health. Some hospitals such Salem Hospital operate independently of larger systems.\nOregon Health & Science University is a Portland-based medical school that operates two hospitals and clinics.\nThe Oregon Health Plan is the state's Medicaid managed care plan, and it is known for innovations. The Portland area is a mature managed care and two-thirds of Medicare enrollees are in Medicare Advantage plans.\n\n\n== Education ==\n\n\n=== Elementary, middle, and high school ===\nIn the 2013\u20132014 school year, the state had 567,000 students in public schools. There were 197 public school districts, served by 19 education service districts.In 2016, the largest school districts in the state were: Portland Public Schools, comprising 47,323 students; Salem-Keizer School District, comprising 40,565 students; Beaverton School District, comprising 39,625 students; Hillsboro School District, comprising 21,118 students; and North Clackamas School District, comprising 17,053 students.\nApproximately 90.5% of Oregon high school students graduate, improving on the national average of 88.3% as measured from the 2010 United States Census.\n\n\n=== Colleges and universities ===\n\nEspecially since the 1990 passage of Measure 5, which set limits on property tax levels, Oregon has struggled to fund higher education. Since then, Oregon has cut its higher education budget and now ranks 46th in the country in state spending per student. However, 2007 legislation funded the university system far beyond the governor's requested budget though still capping tuition increases at 3% per year. Oregon supports a total of seven public universities and one affiliate. It is home to three public research universities: The University of Oregon (UO) in Eugene and Oregon State University (OSU) in Corvallis, both classified as research universities with very high research activity, and Portland State University which is classified as a research university with high research activity.\nra\nUO is the state's highest nationally ranked and most selective public university by U.S. News & World Report and Forbes. OSU is the state's only land-grant university, has the state's largest enrollment for fall 2014, and is the state's highest ranking university according to Academic Ranking of World Universities, Washington Monthly, and QS World University Rankings. OSU receives more annual funding for research than all other public higher education institutions in Oregon combined. The state's urban Portland State University has Oregon's second largest enrollment.\nThe state has three regional universities: Western Oregon University in Monmouth, Southern Oregon University in Ashland, and Eastern Oregon University in La Grande. The Oregon Institute of Technology has its campus in Klamath Falls. The quasi-public Oregon Health & Science University (OHSU) includes medical, dental, and nursing schools, and graduate programs in biomedical sciences in Portland and a science and engineering school in Hillsboro. The state also supports 17 community colleges.\n\nOregon is home to a wide variety of private colleges, the majority of which are located in the Portland area. The University of Portland and Marylhurst University are both Catholic universities located in or near Portland, affiliated with the Congregation of Holy Cross, and the Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary, respectively. Reed College, a rigorous liberal arts college in Portland, was ranked by Forbes as the 52nd best college in the country in 2015.Other private institutions in Portland include Lewis & Clark College; Multnomah University; Portland Bible College; Warner Pacific College; Cascade College; the National University of Natural Medicine; and Western Seminary, a theological graduate school. Pacific University is in the Portland suburb of Forest Grove. There are also private colleges further south in the Willamette Valley. McMinnville is home to Linfield College, while nearby Newberg is home to George Fox University. Salem is home to two private schools: Willamette University (the state's oldest, established during the provisional period) and Corban University. Also located near Salem is Mount Angel Seminary, one of America's largest Roman Catholic seminaries. The state's second medical school, the College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Northwest, is located in Lebanon. Eugene is home to three private colleges: Northwest Christian University, New Hope Christian College, and Gutenberg College.\n\n\n== Law and government ==\n\nA writer in the Oregon Country book A Pacific Republic, written in 1839, predicted the territory was to become an independent republic. Four years later, in 1843, settlers of the Willamette Valley voted in majority for a republic government. The Oregon Country functioned in this way until August 13, 1848, when Oregon was annexed by the United States and a territorial government was established. Oregon maintained a territorial government until February 14, 1859, when it was granted statehood.Oregon state government has a separation of powers similar to the federal government. It has three branches:\n\na legislative branch (the bicameral Oregon Legislative Assembly),\nan executive branch which includes an \"administrative department\" and Oregon's governor serving as chief executive, and\na judicial branch, headed by the Chief Justice of the Oregon Supreme Court.Governors in Oregon serve four-year terms and are limited to two consecutive terms, but an unlimited number of total terms. Oregon has no lieutenant governor; in the event that the office of governor is vacated, Article V, Section 8a of the Oregon Constitution specifies that the Secretary of State is first in line for succession. The other statewide officers are Treasurer, Attorney General, Superintendent, and Labor Commissioner. The biennial Oregon Legislative Assembly consists of a thirty-member Senate and a sixty-member House. The state supreme court has seven elected justices, currently including the only two openly gay state supreme court justices in the nation. They choose one of their own to serve a six-year term as Chief Justice.\nThe debate over whether to move to annual sessions is a long-standing battle in Oregon politics, but the voters have resisted the move from citizen legislators to professional lawmakers. Because Oregon's state budget is written in two-year increments and, there being no sales tax, state revenue is based largely on income taxes, it is often significantly over- or under-budget. Recent legislatures have had to be called into special sessions repeatedly to address revenue shortfalls resulting from economic downturns, bringing to a head the need for more frequent legislative sessions. Oregon Initiative 71, passed in 2010, mandates the legislature to begin meeting every year, for 160 days in odd-numbered years, and 35 days in even-numbered years.\n\nOregonians have voted for the Democratic presidential candidate in every election since 1988. In 2004 and 2006, Democrats won control of the state Senate, and then the House. Since the late 1990s, Oregon has been represented by four Democrats and one Republican in the U.S. House of Representatives. Since 2009, the state has had two Democratic U.S. senators, Ron Wyden and Jeff Merkley. Oregon voters have elected Democratic governors in every election since 1986, most recently electing Kate Brown over Republican Bud Pierce in a 2016 special election for a two-year term, and re-electing her for a full four-year term over Republican Knute Buehler in 2018.\nThe base of Democratic support is largely concentrated in the urban centers of the Willamette Valley. The eastern two-thirds of the state beyond the Cascade Mountains typically votes Republican; in 2000 and 2004, George W. Bush carried every county east of the Cascades. However, the region's sparse population means the more populous counties in the Willamette Valley usually outweigh the eastern counties in statewide elections.\nIn the 2002 general election, Oregon voters approved a ballot measure to increase the state minimum wage automatically each year according to inflationary changes, which are measured by the consumer price index (CPI). In the 2004 general election, Oregon voters passed ballot measures banning same-sex marriage and restricting land use regulation. In the 2006 general election, voters restricted the use of eminent domain and extended the state's discount prescription drug coverage.In the 2020 general election, Oregon voters approved a ballot measure to decriminalize the possession of small quantities of street drugs such as cocaine and heroin, becoming the first state in the country to do so after the drugs were originally made illegal. The state also approved a ballot measure to create a legal means of administering psilocybin for medicinal use.\n\n\n=== Federal representation ===\nLike all U.S. states, Oregon is represented by two senators. Since the 1980 census, Oregon has had five congressional districts. After Oregon was admitted to the Union, it began with a single member in the House of Representatives (La Fayette Grover, who served in the 35th United States Congress for less than a month). Congressional apportionment increased the size of the delegation following the censuses of 1890, 1910, 1940, and 1980. Following the 2020 census, Oregon will gain a sixth congressional seat. It will be filled in the 2022 Congressional Elections. A detailed list of the past and present Congressional delegations from Oregon is available.\nThe United States District Court for the District of Oregon hears federal cases in the state. The court has courthouses in Portland, Eugene, Medford, and Pendleton. Also in Portland is the federal bankruptcy court, with a second branch in Eugene. Oregon (among other western states and territories) is in the 9th Court of Appeals. One of the court's meeting places is at the Pioneer Courthouse in downtown Portland, a National Historic Landmark built in 1869.\n\n\n=== Politics ===\n\nPolitical opinions in Oregon are geographically split by the Cascade Range, with western Oregon being more liberal and Eastern Oregon being conservative. In a 2008 analysis of the 2004 presidential election, a political analyst found that according to the application of a Likert scale, Oregon boasted both the most liberal Kerry voters and the most conservative Bush voters, making it the most politically polarized state in the country.While Republicans typically win more counties by running up huge margins in the east, the Democratic tilt of the more populated west is usually enough to swing the entire state Democratic. In 2008, for instance, Republican Senate incumbent Gordon H. Smith lost his bid for a third term, even though he carried all but eight counties. His Democratic challenger, Jeff Merkley, won Multnomah County by 142,000 votes, more than double the overall margin of victory.\nDuring Oregon's history, it has adopted many electoral reforms proposed during the Progressive Era, through the efforts of William S. U'Ren and his Direct Legislation League. Under his leadership, the state overwhelmingly approved a ballot measure in 1902 that created the initiative and referendum for citizens to introduce or approve proposed laws or amendments to the state constitution directly, making Oregon the first state to adopt such a system. Today, roughly half of U.S. states do so.In following years, the primary election to select party candidates was adopted in 1904, and in 1908 the Oregon Constitution was amended to include recall of public officials. More recent amendments include the nation's first doctor-assisted suicide law, called the Death with Dignity Act (which was challenged, unsuccessfully, in 2005 by the Bush administration in a case heard by the U.S. Supreme Court), legalization of medical cannabis, and among the nation's strongest anti-urban sprawl and pro-environment laws. More recently, 2004's Measure 37 reflects a backlash against such land-use laws. However, a further ballot measure in 2007, Measure 49, curtailed many of the provisions of 37.\nOf the measures placed on the ballot since 1902, the people have passed 99 of the 288 initiatives and 25 of the 61 referendums on the ballot, though not all of them survived challenges in courts (see Pierce v. Society of Sisters, for an example). During the same period, the legislature has referred 363 measures to the people, of which 206 have passed.\nOregon pioneered the American use of postal voting, beginning with experimentation approved by the Oregon Legislative Assembly in 1981 and culminating with a 1998 ballot measure mandating that all counties conduct elections by mail. It remains one of just two states, the other being Washington, where voting by mail is the only method of voting.\nIn 1994, Oregon adopted the Oregon Health Plan, which made health care available to most of its citizens without private health insurance.In the U.S. Electoral College, Oregon casts seven votes. Oregon has supported Democratic candidates in the last nine elections. Democratic incumbent Barack Obama won the state by a margin of twelve percentage points, with over 54% of the popular vote in 2012. In the 2016 election, Hillary Clinton won Oregon by 11 percentage points. In the 2020 election Joe Biden won Oregon by 16 percentage points over his challenger, the former incumbent president.\n\n\n== Sports ==\n\nOregon is home to three major professional sports teams: the Portland Trail Blazers of the NBA, the Portland Thorns FC of the NWSL and the Portland Timbers of MLS.Until 2011, the only major professional sports team in Oregon was the Portland Trail Blazers of the National Basketball Association. From the 1970s to the 1990s, the Blazers were one of the most successful teams in the NBA in terms of both win-loss record and attendance. In the early 21st century, the team's popularity declined due to personnel and financial issues, but revived after the departure of controversial players and the acquisition of new players such as Brandon Roy and LaMarcus Aldridge, and still later Damian Lillard. The Blazers play in the Moda Center in Portland's Lloyd District, which also is home to the Portland Winterhawks of the junior Western Hockey League.The Portland Timbers play at Providence Park, just west of downtown Portland. The Timbers have a strong following, with the team regularly selling out its games. The Timbers repurposed the formerly multi-use stadium into a soccer-specific stadium in fall 2010, increasing the seating in the process. The Timbers operate Portland Thorns FC, a women's soccer team that has played in the National Women's Soccer League since the league's first season in 2013. The Thorns, who also play at Providence Park, have won two league championships, in the inaugural 2013 season and also in 2017, and have been by far the NWSL's attendance leader in each of the league's seasons.\n\nEugene, Salem and Hillsboro have minor-league baseball teams: the Eugene Emeralds, the Salem-Keizer Volcanoes, and the Hillsboro Hops all play in the Single-A Northwest League. Portland has had minor-league baseball teams in the past, including the Portland Beavers and Portland Rockies, who played most recently at Providence Park when it was known as PGE Park.\nThe Oregon State Beavers and the university of Oregon Ducks football teams of the Pac-12 Conference meet annually in the Oregon\u2013Oregon State football rivalry. Both schools have had recent success in other sports as well: Oregon State won back-to-back college baseball championships in 2006 and 2007, winning a third in 2018; and the University of Oregon won back-to-back NCAA men's cross country championships in 2007 and 2008.\n\n\n== Sister regions ==\nFujian Province,  People's Republic of China\nTaiwan Province,  Republic of China (Taiwan)\nToyama Prefecture,  Japan\nJeollanam-do Province,  Republic of Korea (South Korea)\nIraqi Kurdistan,  Iraq\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nOutline of Oregon (organized list of topics about Oregon)\nIndex of Oregon-related articles\nBibliography of Oregon history\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nOregon at Curlie\nOregon Encyclopedia\nOregon State Databases at the American Library Association\n\n\n=== Government ===\nState of Oregon\nOregon State Legislature\nOregon Constitution\n\n\n=== Tourism and recreation ===\nTravelOregon.com an official website of the Oregon Tourism Commission\nOregon State Parks\nOregon State Facts from the United States Department of Agriculture\n\n\n=== History and culture ===\nOregon Historical Society\nOregon Blue Book, the online version of the state's official directory and fact book\n\n\n=== Maps and geology ===\nReal-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Oregon from the United States Geological Survey\n Geographic data related to Oregon at OpenStreetMap", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/2005_OR_Proof.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/2014-07-06_14_49_35_View_north_along_Harney_County_Route_201_%28Fields-Denio_Road%29_at_the_end_of_Nevada_State_Route_292_%28Denio_Road%29_at_the_Oregon_border_in_Denio%2C_Nevada.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Antilocapra_americana.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Aquarium_tunnel.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Crater_Lake_-_panoramio.jpg", 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The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of its eastern boundary with Idaho. The 42\u00b0 north parallel delineates the southern boundary with California and Nevada.\nOregon has been home to many indigenous nations for thousands of years. The first European traders, explorers, and settlers began exploring what is now Oregon's Pacific coast in the early-mid 1500s. As early as 1565, the Spanish began sending vessels northeast from the Philippines, riding the Kuroshio Current in a sweeping circular route across the northern part of the Pacific. In 1592, Juan de Fuca undertook detailed mapping and studies of ocean currents in the Pacific Northwest, including the Oregon coast as well as the strait now bearing his name. Spanish ships \u2013 250 in as many years \u2013 would typically not land before reaching Cape Mendocino in California, but some landed or wrecked in what is now Oregon. Nehalem tales recount strangers and the discovery of items like chunks of beeswax and a lidded silver vase, likely connected to the 1707 wreck of the San Francisco Xavier.In 1843, an autonomous government was formed in the Oregon Country, and the Oregon Territory was created in 1848. Oregon became the 33rd state of the U.S. on February 14, 1859. Today, with 4 million people over 98,000 square miles (250,000 km2), Oregon is the ninth largest and 27th most populous U.S. state. The capital, Salem, is the second-most populous city in Oregon, with 169,798 residents. Portland, with 647,805, ranks as the 26th among U.S. cities. The Portland metropolitan area, which also includes the city of Vancouver, Washington, to the north, ranks the 25th largest metro area in the nation, with a population of 2,453,168.\nOregon is one of the most geographically diverse states in the U.S., marked by volcanoes, abundant bodies of water, dense evergreen and mixed forests, as well as high deserts and semi-arid shrublands. At 11,249 feet (3,429 m), Mount Hood, a stratovolcano, is the state's highest point. Oregon's only national park, Crater Lake National Park, comprises the caldera surrounding Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. The state is also home to the single largest organism in the world, Armillaria ostoyae, a fungus that runs beneath 2,200 acres (8.9 km2) of the Malheur National Forest.Because of its diverse landscapes and waterways, Oregon's economy is largely powered by various forms of agriculture, fishing, and hydroelectric power. Oregon is also the top lumber producer of the contiguous United States, with the lumber industry dominating the state's economy during the 20th century. Technology is another one of Oregon's major economic forces, beginning in the 1970s with the establishment of the Silicon Forest and the expansion of Tektronix and Intel. Sportswear company Nike, Inc., headquartered in Beaverton, is the state's largest public corporation with an annual revenue of $30.6 billion."}, "nineteen_thirty_United_States_census": {"links": ["National Register of Historic Places listings in California", "Daugherty Hill Wildlife Area", "Green Creek Wildlife Area", "Point Sur State Marine Conservation Area", "Tolowa Dunes State Park", "Paiute cutthroat trout", "Midway Atoll", "Sonoma State Historic Park", "West Hilmar Wildlife Area", "Knoxville Wildlife Area", "twenty twenty United States presidential election", "Naval Air Station North Island", "Phoenix, Arizona", "Barracuda", "Barbara Halliday", "Oaxaca", "Big Sur", "Gross domestic product", "California least tern", "I Love You, California", "List of U.S. states by area", "Riverside County, California", "Hearst San Simeon State Park", "Alpine climate", "Mesquite Wilderness", "nineteen thirty-two Summer Olympics", "Earthquake", "Death Row", "Numbered highways in the United States", "Trinity Alps Wilderness", "Carrizo Plains Ecological Reserve", "Moro Cojo Slough State Marine Reserve", "California Community Colleges System", "Salt Lake City", "Migrant worker", "Seal Beach National Wildlife Refuge", "Piute Creek Ecological Reserve", "Lake Valley State Recreation Area", "San Elijo Lagoon State Marine Conservation Area", "Hollister Hills State Vehicular Recreation Area", "Illinois", "Sheephole Valley Wilderness", "List of California state forests", "California State University", "Central California", "Quail Ridge Reserve", "Malpais Mesa Wilderness", "Salinas Valley", "Santa Barbara Island State Marine Reserve", "Caltrans", "Jackson Demonstration State Forest", "Ward Creek ", "California National Guard", "Sugar pine", "Anderson Marsh State Historic Park", "C\u00e9sar E. 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It is bordered by Nevada to the east, Arizona to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west, Oregon to the north, and the Mexican state of Baja California to the south. With over 39.5 million residents across a total area of approximately 163,696 square miles (423,970 km2), it is the most populous and the third-largest U.S. state by area. It is also the most populated subnational entity in North America and the 34th most populous in the world. The Greater Los Angeles area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nation's second and fifth most populous urban regions respectively, with the former having more than 18.7 million residents and the latter having over 9.6 million. Sacramento is the state's capital, while Los Angeles is the most populous city in the state and the second most populous city in the country (after New York City). Los Angeles County is the country's most populous, while San Bernardino County is the largest county by area in the country. San Francisco, which is both a city and county, is the second most densely populated major city in the country (after New York City) and the fifth most densely populated county in the country, behind four of New York City's five boroughs.\nThe economy of California, with a gross state product of $3.2 trillion as of 2019, is the largest sub-national economy in the world. If it were a country, it would be the 37th most populous country and the fifth largest economy as of 2020. The Greater Los Angeles area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nation's second- and third-largest urban economies ($1.0 trillion and $0.5 trillion respectively as of 2020), after the New York metropolitan area ($1.8 trillion). The San Francisco Bay Area Combined Statistical Area had the nation's highest gross domestic product per capita ($106,757) among large primary statistical areas in 2018, and is home to four of the world's 10 largest companies by market capitalization and four of the world's 10 richest people.What is now California was first settled by various Native Californian tribes before being explored by a number of Europeans during the 16th and 17th centuries. The Spanish Empire then claimed and colonized it. In 1804, it was included in Alta California province within the Viceroyalty of New Spain. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821, following its successful war for independence, but was ceded to the United States in 1848 after the Mexican\u2013American War. The western portion of Alta California was then organized and admitted as the 31st state on September 9, 1850, following the Compromise of 1850. The California Gold Rush started in 1848 and led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale immigration from other parts of the United States and abroad and an accompanying economic boom.\nNotable contributions to popular culture, for example in entertainment, and sports, have their origins in California. The state also has made noteworthy contributions in the fields of communication, information, innovation, environmentalism, economics, and politics. It is the home of Hollywood, the oldest and largest film industry in the world, which has had a profound effect on global entertainment. It is considered the origin of the hippie counterculture, beach and car culture, and the personal computer, among other innovations. The San Francisco Bay Area and the Greater Los Angeles Area are widely seen as centers of the global technology and entertainment industries, respectively. California's economy is very diverse: 58% of it is based on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific, and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5% of the state's economy, California's agriculture industry has the highest output of any U.S. state. California's ports and harbors handle about a third of all U.S. imports, most originating in Pacific Rim international trade.\nCalifornia shares a border with Oregon to the north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, and the Mexican state of Baja California to the south. The state's diverse geography ranges from the Pacific Coast and metropolitan areas in the west to the Sierra Nevada mountains in the east, and from the redwood and Douglas fir forests in the northwest to the Mojave Desert in the southeast. The Central Valley, a major agricultural area, dominates the state's center. Although California is well-known for its warm Mediterranean climate and monsoon seasonal weather, the large size of the state results in climates that vary from moist temperate rainforest in the north to arid desert in the interior, as well as snowy alpine in the mountains. All these factors lead to an enormous demand for water; in total numbers, California is the largest consumer of water on the entire continent of North America. Over time, droughts and wildfires have increased in frequency, become less seasonal and more year-round, further straining California's water security.\n\n\n== Etymology ==\n\nThe Spaniards gave the name Las Californias to the peninsula of Baja California and to Alta California, the region that became the present-day state of California.\nThe name likely derived from the mythical island of California in the fictional story of Queen Calafia, as recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandi\u00e1n by Garci Rodr\u00edguez de Montalvo. This work was the fifth in a popular Spanish chivalric romance series that began with Amadis de Gaula. Queen Calafia's kingdom was said to be a remote land rich in gold and pearls, inhabited by beautiful black women who wore gold armor and lived like Amazons, as well as griffins and other strange beasts. In the fictional paradise, the ruler Queen Calafia fought alongside Muslims and her name may have been chosen to echo the title of a Muslim leader, the Caliph. It is possible the name California was meant to imply the island was a Caliphate.\nKnow ye that at the right hand of the Indies there is an island called California, very close to that part of the Terrestrial Paradise, which was inhabited by black women without a single man among them, and they lived in the manner of Amazons. They were robust of body with strong passionate hearts and great virtue. The island itself is one of the wildest in the world on account of the bold and craggy rocks. \nShortened forms of the state's name include CA, Cal, Cali, Calif, Califas, and US-CA.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== First inhabitants ===\n\nSettled by successive waves of arrivals during at least the last 13,000 years, California was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse areas in pre-Columbian North America. Various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct ethnic groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their political organization with bands, tribes, villages, and on the resource-rich coasts, large chiefdoms, such as the Chumash, Pomo and Salinan. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups.\n\n\n=== Spanish rule ===\n\nThe first Europeans to explore the California coast were the members of a Spanish sailing expedition led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodr\u00edguez Cabrillo; they entered San Diego Bay on September 28, 1542, and reached at least as far north as San Miguel Island. Privateer and explorer Francis Drake explored and claimed an undefined portion of the California coast in 1579, landing north of the future city of San Francisco. The first Asians to set foot on what would be the United States occurred in 1587, when Filipino sailors arrived in Spanish ships at Morro Bay. Sebasti\u00e1n Vizca\u00edno explored and mapped the coast of California in 1602 for New Spain, putting ashore in Monterey.Despite the on-the-ground explorations of California in the 16th century, Rodr\u00edguez's idea of California as an island persisted. Such depictions appeared on many European maps well into the 18th century.After the Portol\u00e0 expedition of 1769\u201370, Spanish missionaries led by Junipero Serra began setting up 21 California Missions on or near the coast of Alta (Upper) California, beginning in San Diego. During the same period, Spanish military forces built several forts (presidios) and three small towns (pueblos). The San Francisco Mission grew into the city of San Francisco, and two of the pueblos grew into the cities of Los Angeles and San Jose. Several other smaller cities and towns also sprang up surrounding the various Spanish missions and pueblos, which remain to this day.\nThe Spanish colonization led to mass deaths among the natives through epidemics of various diseases for which the indigenous peoples had no natural immunity, such as measles and diphtheria. The establishment of the Spanish systems of government and social structure, which the Spanish settlers had brought with them, also technologically and culturally overwhelmed the societies of the earlier indigenous peoples.During this same period, sailors from the Russian Empire explored along the California coast and in 1812 established a trading post at Fort Ross. Russia's early 19th-century coastal settlements in California were positioned just north of the northernmost edge of the area of Spanish settlement in San Francisco Bay, and were the southernmost Russian settlements in North America. The Russian settlements associated with Fort Ross were spread from Point Arena to Tomales Bay.\n\n\n=== Mexican rule ===\n\nIn 1821, the Mexican War of Independence gave Mexico (including California) independence from Spain. For the next 25 years, Alta California remained as a remote, sparsely populated, northwestern administrative district of the newly independent country of Mexico.\nThe missions, which controlled most of the best land in the state, were secularized by 1834 and became the property of the Mexican government. The governor granted many square leagues of land to others with political influence. These huge ranchos or cattle ranches emerged as the dominant institutions of Mexican California. The ranchos developed under ownership by Californios (Hispanics native of California) who traded cowhides and tallow with Boston merchants. Beef did not become a commodity until the 1849 California Gold Rush.\nFrom the 1820s, trappers and settlers from the United States and the future Canada arrived in Northern California. These new arrivals used the Siskiyou Trail, California Trail, Oregon Trail and Old Spanish Trail to cross the rugged mountains and harsh deserts in and surrounding California.\n\nThe early government of the newly independent Mexico was highly unstable, and in a reflection of this, from 1831 onwards, California also experienced a series of armed disputes, both internal and with the central Mexican government. During this tumultuous political period Juan Bautista Alvarado was able to secure the governorship during 1836\u20131842. The military action which first brought Alvarado to power had momentarily declared California to be an independent state, and had been aided by Anglo-American residents of California, including Isaac Graham. In 1840, one hundred of those residents who did not have passports were arrested, leading to the Graham Affair, which was resolved in part with the intercession of Royal Navy officials.\n\nOne of the largest ranchers in California was John Marsh. After failing to obtain justice against squatters on his land from the Mexican courts, he determined that California should become part of the United States. Marsh conducted a letter-writing campaign espousing the California climate, the soil, and other reasons to settle there, as well as the best route to follow, which became known as \"Marsh's route\". His letters were read, reread, passed around, and printed in newspapers throughout the country, and started the first wagon trains rolling to California. He invited immigrants to stay on his ranch until they could get settled, and assisted in their obtaining passports.After ushering in the period of organized emigration to California, Marsh became involved in a military battle between the much-hated Mexican general, Manuel Micheltorena and the California governor he had replaced, Juan Bautista Alvarado. The armies of each met at the Battle of Providencia near Los Angeles. Marsh had been forced against his will to join Micheltorena's army. Ignoring his superiors, during the battle, he signaled the other side for a parley. There were many settlers from the United States fighting on both sides. He convinced these men that they had no reason to be fighting each other. As a result of Marsh's actions, they abandoned the fight, Micheltorena was defeated, and California-born Pio Pico was returned to the governorship. This paved the way to California's ultimate acquisition by the United States.\n\n\n=== California Republic and conquest ===\n\nIn 1846, a group of American settlers in and around Sonoma rebelled against Mexican rule during the Bear Flag Revolt. Afterwards, rebels raised the Bear Flag (featuring a bear, a star, a red stripe and the words \"California Republic\") at Sonoma. The Republic's only president was William B. Ide, who played a pivotal role during the Bear Flag Revolt. This revolt by American settlers served as a prelude to the later American military invasion of California and was closely coordinated with nearby American military commanders.\nThe California Republic was short lived; the same year marked the outbreak of the Mexican\u2013American War (1846\u201348). When Commodore John D. Sloat of the United States Navy sailed into Monterey Bay and began the military occupation of California by the United States, Northern California capitulated in less than a month to the United States forces. After a series of defensive battles in Southern California, the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed by the Californios on January 13, 1847, securing American control in California.\n\n\n=== Early American period ===\n\nFollowing the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (February 2, 1848) that ended the war, the westernmost portion of the annexed Mexican territory of Alta California soon became the American state of California, and the remainder of the old territory was then subdivided into the new American Territories of Arizona, Nevada, Colorado and Utah. The even more lightly populated and arid lower region of old Baja California remained as a part of Mexico. In 1846, the total settler population of the western part of the old Alta California had been estimated to be no more than 8,000, plus about 100,000 Native Americans, down from about 300,000 before Hispanic settlement in 1769.In 1848, only one week before the official American annexation of the area, gold was discovered in California, this being an event which was to forever alter both the state's demographics and its finances. Soon afterward, a massive influx of immigration into the area resulted, as prospectors and miners arrived by the thousands. The population burgeoned with United States citizens, Europeans, Chinese and other immigrants during the great California Gold Rush. By the time of California's application for statehood in 1850, the settler population of California had multiplied to 100,000. By 1854, more than 300,000 settlers had come. Between 1847 and 1870, the population of San Francisco increased from 500 to 150,000. California was suddenly no longer a sparsely populated backwater, but seemingly overnight it had grown into a major population center.\nThe seat of government for California under Spanish and later Mexican rule had been located in Monterey from 1777 until 1845. Pio Pico, the last Mexican governor of Alta California, had briefly moved the capital to Los Angeles in 1845. The United States consulate had also been located in Monterey, under consul Thomas O. Larkin.\nIn 1849, a state Constitutional Convention was first held in Monterey. Among the first tasks of the Convention was a decision on a location for the new state capital. The first full legislative sessions were held in San Jose (1850\u20131851). Subsequent locations included Vallejo (1852\u20131853), and nearby Benicia (1853\u20131854); these locations eventually proved to be inadequate as well. The capital has been located in Sacramento since 1854 with only a short break in 1862 when legislative sessions were held in San Francisco due to flooding in Sacramento.\nOnce the state's Constitutional Convention had finalized its state constitution, it applied to the U.S. Congress for admission to statehood. On September 9, 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1850, California became a free state and September 9 a state holiday.\nDuring the American Civil War (1861\u20131865), California sent gold shipments eastwards to Washington in support of the Union. However, due to the existence of a large contingent of pro-South sympathizers within the state, the state was not able to muster any full military regiments to send eastwards to officially serve in the Union war effort. Still, several smaller military units within the Union army were unofficially associated with the state of California, such as the \"California 100 Company\", due to a majority of their members being from California.\nAt the time of California's admission into the Union, travel between California and the rest of the continental United States had been a time-consuming and dangerous feat. Nineteen years later, and seven years after it was greenlighted by President Lincoln, the First Transcontinental Railroad was completed in 1869. California was then reachable from the eastern States in a week's time.\nMuch of the state was extremely well suited to fruit cultivation and agriculture in general. Vast expanses of wheat, other cereal crops, vegetable crops, cotton, and nut and fruit trees were grown (including oranges in Southern California), and the foundation was laid for the state's prodigious agricultural production in the Central Valley and elsewhere.\nIn the nineteenth century, a large number of migrants from China traveled to the state as part of the Gold Rush or to seek work. Even though the Chinese proved indispensable in building the transcontinental railroad from California to Utah, perceived job competition with the Chinese led to anti-Chinese riots in the state, and eventually the US ended migration from China partially as a response to pressure from California with the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act.\n\n\n==== Indigenous peoples ====\n\nUnder earlier Spanish and Mexican rule, California's original native population had precipitously declined, above all, from Eurasian diseases to which the indigenous people of California had not yet developed a natural immunity. Under its new American administration, California's harsh governmental policies towards its own indigenous people did not improve. As in other American states, many of the native inhabitants were soon forcibly removed from their lands by incoming American settlers such as miners, ranchers, and farmers. Although California had entered the American union as a free state, the \"loitering or orphaned Indians\" were de facto enslaved by their new Anglo-American masters under the 1853 Act for the Government and Protection of Indians. There were also massacres in which hundreds of indigenous people were killed.\nBetween 1850 and 1860, the California state government paid around 1.5 million dollars (some 250,000 of which was reimbursed by the federal government) to hire militias whose purpose was to protect settlers from the indigenous populations. In later decades, the native population was placed in reservations and rancherias, which were often small and isolated and without enough natural resources or funding from the government to sustain the populations living on them. As a result, the rise of California was a calamity for the native inhabitants. Several scholars and Native American activists, including Benjamin Madley and Ed Castillo, have described the actions of the California government as a genocide.\n\n\n=== 1900\u2013present ===\n\nIn the twentieth century, thousands of Japanese people migrated to the US and California specifically to attempt to purchase and own land in the state. However, the state in 1913 passed the Alien Land Act, excluding Asian immigrants from owning land. During World War II, Japanese Americans in California were interned in concentration camps such as at Tule Lake and Manzanar. In 2020, California officially apologized for this internment.Migration to California accelerated during the early 20th century with the completion of major transcontinental highways like the Lincoln Highway and Route 66. In the period from 1900 to 1965, the population grew from fewer than one million to the greatest in the Union. In 1940, the Census Bureau reported California's population as 6.0% Hispanic, 2.4% Asian, and 89.5% non-Hispanic white.To meet the population's needs, major engineering feats like the California and Los Angeles Aqueducts; the Oroville and Shasta Dams; and the Bay and Golden Gate Bridges were built across the state. The state government also adopted the California Master Plan for Higher Education in 1960 to develop a highly efficient system of public education.\nMeanwhile, attracted to the mild Mediterranean climate, cheap land, and the state's wide variety of geography, filmmakers established the studio system in Hollywood in the 1920s. California manufactured 8.7 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking third (behind New York and Michigan) among the 48 states. California however easily ranked first in production of military ships during the war (transport, cargo, [merchant ships] such as Liberty ships, Victory ships, and warships) at drydock facilities in San Diego, Los Angeles, and the San Francisco Bay Area. After World War II, California's economy greatly expanded due to strong aerospace and defense industries, whose size decreased following the end of the Cold War. Stanford University and its Dean of Engineering Frederick Terman began encouraging faculty and graduates to stay in California instead of leaving the state, and develop a high-tech region in the area now known as Silicon Valley. As a result of these efforts, California is regarded as a world center of the entertainment and music industries, of technology, engineering, and the aerospace industry, and as the United States center of agricultural production. Just before the Dot Com Bust, California had the fifth-largest economy in the world among nations. Yet since 1991, and starting in the late 1980s in Southern California, California has seen a net loss of domestic migrants in most years. This is often referred to by the media as the California exodus.\n\nIn the mid and late twentieth century, a number of race-related incidents occurred in the state. Tensions between police and African Americans, combined with unemployment and poverty in inner cities, led to violent riots, such as the 1965 Watts riots and 1992 Rodney King riots. California was also the hub of the Black Panther Party, a group known for arming African Americans to combat perceived racial injustice. Additionally, Mexican, Filipino, and other migrant farm workers rallied in the state around Cesar Chavez for better pay in the 1960s and 1970s.During the 20th century, two great disasters happened in California. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake and 1928 St. Francis Dam flood remain the deadliest in U.S history.Although air pollution problems have been reduced, health problems associated with pollution have continued. The brown haze known as \"smog\" has been substantially abated after the passage of federal and state restrictions on automobile exhaust.An energy crisis in 2001 led to rolling blackouts, soaring power rates, and the importation of electricity from neighboring states. Southern California Edison and Pacific Gas and Electric Company came under heavy criticism.Housing prices in urban areas continued to increase; a modest home which in the 1960s cost $25,000 would cost half a million dollars or more in urban areas by 2005. More people commuted longer hours to afford a home in more rural areas while earning larger salaries in the urban areas. Speculators bought houses they never intended to live in, expecting to make a huge profit in a matter of months, then rolling it over by buying more properties. Mortgage companies were compliant, as everyone assumed the prices would keep rising. The bubble burst in 2007-8 as housing prices began to crash and the boom years ended. Hundreds of billions in property values vanished and foreclosures soared as many financial institutions and investors were badly hurt.In the twenty-first century, droughts and frequent wildfires attributed to climate change have occurred in the state. From 2011 to 2017, a persistent drought was the worst in its recorded history. The 2018 wildfire season was the state's deadliest and most destructive.\n\n\n== Geography ==\n\nCalifornia is the third-largest state in the United States in area, after Alaska and Texas. California is often geographically bisected into two regions, Southern California, comprising the 10 southernmost counties, and Northern California, comprising the 48 northernmost counties. It is bordered by Oregon to the north, Nevada to the east and northeast, Arizona to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west and it shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California to the south (with which it makes up part of The Californias region of North America, alongside Baja California Sur).\nIn the middle of the state lies the California Central Valley, bounded by the Sierra Nevada in the east, the coastal mountain ranges in the west, the Cascade Range to the north and by the Tehachapi Mountains in the south. The Central Valley is California's productive agricultural heartland.\nDivided in two by the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta, the northern portion, the Sacramento Valley serves as the watershed of the Sacramento River, while the southern portion, the San Joaquin Valley is the watershed for the San Joaquin River. Both valleys derive their names from the rivers that flow through them. With dredging, the Sacramento and the San Joaquin Rivers have remained deep enough for several inland cities to be seaports.\nThe Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta is a critical water supply hub for the state. Water is diverted from the delta and through an extensive network of pumps and canals that traverse nearly the length of the state, to the Central Valley and the State Water Projects and other needs. Water from the Delta provides drinking water for nearly 23 million people, almost two-thirds of the state's population as well as water for farmers on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley.\nSuisun Bay lies at the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. The water is drained by the Carquinez Strait, which flows into San Pablo Bay, a northern extension of San Francisco Bay, which then connects to the Pacific Ocean via the Golden Gate strait.\nThe Channel Islands are located off the Southern coast, while the Farallon Islands lie west of San Francisco.\nThe Sierra Nevada (Spanish for \"snowy range\") includes the highest peak in the contiguous 48 states, Mount Whitney, at 14,505 feet (4,421 m). The range embraces Yosemite Valley, famous for its glacially carved domes, and Sequoia National Park, home to the giant sequoia trees, the largest living organisms on Earth, and the deep freshwater lake, Lake Tahoe, the largest lake in the state by volume.\nTo the east of the Sierra Nevada are Owens Valley and Mono Lake, an essential migratory bird habitat. In the western part of the state is Clear Lake, the largest freshwater lake by area entirely in California. Although Lake Tahoe is larger, it is divided by the California/Nevada border. The Sierra Nevada falls to Arctic temperatures in winter and has several dozen small glaciers, including Palisade Glacier, the southernmost glacier in the United States.\nThe Tulare Lake was the largest freshwater lake west of the Mississippi River. A remnant of Pleistocene-era Lake Corcoran, Tulare Lake dried up by the early 20th century after its tributary rivers were diverted for agricultural irrigation and municipal water uses.About 45 percent of the state's total surface area is covered by forests, and California's diversity of pine species is unmatched by any other state. California contains more forestland than any other state except Alaska. Many of the trees in the California White Mountains are the oldest in the world; an individual bristlecone pine is over 5,000 years old.In the south is a large inland salt lake, the Salton Sea. The south-central desert is called the Mojave; to the northeast of the Mojave lies Death Valley, which contains the lowest and hottest place in North America, the Badwater Basin at \u2212279 feet (\u221285 m). The horizontal distance from the bottom of Death Valley to the top of Mount Whitney is less than 90 miles (140 km). Indeed, almost all of southeastern California is arid, hot desert, with routine extreme high temperatures during the summer. The southeastern border of California with Arizona is entirely formed by the Colorado River, from which the southern part of the state gets about half of its water.\nA majority of California's cities are located in either the San Francisco Bay Area or the Sacramento metropolitan area in Northern California; or the Los Angeles area, the Inland Empire, or the San Diego metropolitan area in Southern California. The Los Angeles Area, the Bay Area, and the San Diego metropolitan area are among several major metropolitan areas along the California coast.\nAs part of the Ring of Fire, California is subject to tsunamis, floods, droughts, Santa Ana winds, wildfires, landslides on steep terrain, and has several volcanoes. It has many earthquakes due to several faults running through the state, the largest being the San Andreas Fault. About 37,000 earthquakes are recorded each year, but most are too small to be felt.\n\n\n=== Climate ===\n\nAlthough most of the state has a Mediterranean climate, due to the state's large size the climate ranges from polar to subtropical. The cool California Current offshore often creates summer fog near the coast. Farther inland, there are colder winters and hotter summers. The maritime moderation results in the shoreline summertime temperatures of Los Angeles and San Francisco being the coolest of all major metropolitan areas of the United States and uniquely cool compared to areas on the same latitude in the interior and on the east coast of the North American continent. Even the San Diego shoreline bordering Mexico is cooler in summer than most areas in the contiguous United States. Just a few miles inland, summer temperature extremes are significantly higher, with downtown Los Angeles being several degrees warmer than at the coast. The same microclimate phenomenon is seen in the climate of the Bay Area, where areas sheltered from the sea experience significantly hotter summers than nearby areas closer to the ocean.\nNorthern parts of the state have more rain than the south. California's mountain ranges also influence the climate: some of the rainiest parts of the state are west-facing mountain slopes. Northwestern California has a temperate climate, and the Central Valley has a Mediterranean climate but with greater temperature extremes than the coast. The high mountains, including the Sierra Nevada, have an alpine climate with snow in winter and mild to moderate heat in summer.\n\nCalifornia's mountains produce rain shadows on the eastern side, creating extensive deserts. The higher elevation deserts of eastern California have hot summers and cold winters, while the low deserts east of the Southern California mountains have hot summers and nearly frostless mild winters. Death Valley, a desert with large expanses below sea level, is considered the hottest location in the world; the highest temperature in the world, 134 \u00b0F (56.7 \u00b0C), was recorded there on July 10, 1913. The lowest temperature in California was \u221245 \u00b0F (\u221243 \u00b0C) on January 20, 1937 in Boca.The table below lists average temperatures for January and August in a selection of places throughout the state; some highly populated and some not. This includes the relatively cool summers of the Humboldt Bay region around Eureka, the extreme heat of Death Valley, and the mountain climate of Mammoth in the Sierra Nevada.\n\n\n=== Ecology ===\n\nCalifornia is one of the richest and most diverse parts of the world, and includes some of the most endangered ecological communities. California is part of the Nearctic realm and spans a number of terrestrial ecoregions.California's large number of endemic species includes relict species, which have died out elsewhere, such as the Catalina ironwood (Lyonothamnus floribundus). Many other endemics originated through differentiation or adaptive radiation, whereby multiple species develop from a common ancestor to take advantage of diverse ecological conditions such as the California lilac (Ceanothus). Many California endemics have become endangered, as urbanization, logging, overgrazing, and the introduction of exotic species have encroached on their habitat.\n\n\n=== Flora and fauna ===\n\nCalifornia boasts several superlatives in its collection of flora: the largest trees, the tallest trees, and the oldest trees. California's native grasses are perennial plants. After European contact, these were generally replaced by invasive species of European annual grasses; and, in modern times, California's hills turn a characteristic golden-brown in summer.Because California has the greatest diversity of climate and terrain, the state has six life zones which are the lower Sonoran Desert; upper Sonoran (foothill regions and some coastal lands), transition (coastal areas and moist northeastern counties); and the Canadian, Hudsonian, and Arctic Zones, comprising the state's highest elevations.\n\nPlant life in the dry climate of the lower Sonoran zone contains a diversity of native cactus, mesquite, and paloverde. The Joshua tree is found in the Mojave Desert. Flowering plants include the dwarf desert poppy and a variety of asters. Fremont cottonwood and valley oak thrive in the Central Valley. The upper Sonoran zone includes the chaparral belt, characterized by forests of small shrubs, stunted trees, and herbaceous plants. Nemophila, mint, Phacelia, Viola, and the California poppy (Eschscholzia californica, the state flower) also flourish in this zone, along with the lupine, more species of which occur here than anywhere else in the world.The transition zone includes most of California's forests with the redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) and the \"big tree\" or giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum), among the oldest living things on earth (some are said to have lived at least 4,000 years). Tanbark oak, California laurel, sugar pine, madrona, broad-leaved maple, and Douglas-fir also grow here. Forest floors are covered with swordfern, alumnroot, barrenwort, and trillium, and there are thickets of huckleberry, azalea, elder, and wild currant. Characteristic wild flowers include varieties of mariposa, tulip, and tiger and leopard lilies.The high elevations of the Canadian zone allow the Jeffrey pine, red fir, and lodgepole pine to thrive. Brushy areas are abundant with dwarf manzanita and ceanothus; the unique Sierra puffball is also found here. Right below the timberline, in the Hudsonian zone, the whitebark, foxtail, and silver pines grow. At about 10,500 feet (3,200 m), begins the Arctic zone, a treeless region whose flora include a number of wildflowers, including Sierra primrose, yellow columbine, alpine buttercup, and alpine shooting star.\n\nCommon plants that have been introduced to the state include the eucalyptus, acacia, pepper tree, geranium, and Scotch broom. The species that are federally classified as endangered are the Contra Costa wallflower, Antioch Dunes evening primrose, Solano grass, San Clemente Island larkspur, salt marsh bird's beak, McDonald's rock-cress, and Santa Barbara Island liveforever. As of December 1997, 85 plant species were listed as threatened or endangered.In the deserts of the lower Sonoran zone, the mammals include the jackrabbit, kangaroo rat, squirrel, and opossum. Common birds include the owl, roadrunner, cactus wren, and various species of hawk. The area's reptilian life include the sidewinder viper, desert tortoise, and horned toad. The upper Sonoran zone boasts mammals such as the antelope, brown-footed woodrat, and ring-tailed cat. Birds unique to this zone are the California thrasher, bushtit, and California condor.In the transition zone, there are Colombian black-tailed deer, black bears, gray foxes, cougars, bobcats, and Roosevelt elk. Reptiles such as the garter snakes and rattlesnakes inhabit the zone. In addition, amphibians such as the water puppy and redwood salamander are common too. Birds such as the kingfisher, chickadee, towhee, and hummingbird thrive here as well.The Canadian zone mammals include the mountain weasel, snowshoe hare, and several species of chipmunks. Conspicuous birds include the blue-fronted jay, Sierra chickadee, Sierra hermit thrush, water ouzel, and Townsend's solitaire. As one ascends into the Hudsonian zone, birds become scarcer. While the Sierra rosy finch is the only bird native to the high Arctic region, other bird species such as the hummingbird and Clark's nutcracker. Principal mammals found in this region include the Sierra coney, white-tailed jackrabbit, and the bighorn sheep. As of April 2003, the bighorn sheep was listed as endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The fauna found throughout several zones are the mule deer, coyote, mountain lion, northern flicker, and several species of hawk and sparrow.\n\nAquatic life in California thrives, from the state's mountain lakes and streams to the rocky Pacific coastline. Numerous trout species are found, among them rainbow, golden, and cutthroat. Migratory species of salmon are common as well. Deep-sea life forms include sea bass, yellowfin tuna, barracuda, and several types of whale. Native to the cliffs of northern California are seals, sea lions, and many types of shorebirds, including migratory species.As of April 2003, 118 California animals were on the federal endangered list; 181 plants were listed as endangered or threatened. Endangered animals include the San Joaquin kitfox, Point Arena mountain beaver, Pacific pocket mouse, salt marsh harvest mouse, Morro Bay kangaroo rat (and five other species of kangaroo rat), Amargosa vole, California least tern, California condor, loggerhead shrike, San Clemente sage sparrow, San Francisco garter snake, five species of salamander, three species of chub, and two species of pupfish. Eleven butterflies are also endangered and two that are threatened are on the federal list. Among threatened animals are the coastal California gnatcatcher, Paiute cutthroat trout, southern sea otter, and northern spotted owl. California has a total of 290,821 acres (1,176.91 km2) of National Wildlife Refuges. As of September 2010, 123 California animals were listed as either endangered or threatened on the federal list. Also, as of the same year, 178 species of California plants were listed either as endangered or threatened on this federal list.\n\n\n=== Rivers ===\n\nThe most prominent river system within California is formed by the Sacramento River and San Joaquin River, which are fed mostly by snowmelt from the west slope of the Sierra Nevada, and respectively drain the north and south halves of the Central Valley. The two rivers join in the Sacramento\u2013San Joaquin River Delta, flowing into the Pacific Ocean through San Francisco Bay. Many major tributaries feed into the Sacramento\u2013San Joaquin system, including the Pit River, Feather River and Tuolumne River.\nThe Klamath and Trinity Rivers drain a large area in far northwestern California. The Eel River and Salinas River each drain portions of the California coast, north and south of San Francisco Bay, respectively. The Mojave River is the primary watercourse in the Mojave Desert, and the Santa Ana River drains much of the Transverse Ranges as it bisects Southern California. The Colorado River forms the state's southeast border with Arizona.\nMost of California's major rivers are dammed as part of two massive water projects: the Central Valley Project, providing water for agriculture in the Central Valley, and the California State Water Project diverting water from northern to southern California. The state's coasts, rivers, and other bodies of water are regulated by the California Coastal Commission.\n\n\n=== Regions ===\n\n\n== Demographics ==\n\n\n=== Population ===\nThe United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of California was 39,368,078 on July 1, 2020, a 5.67% increase since the 2010 United States Census. The population is projected to reach forty million by 2020 and fifty million by 2060.Between 2000 and 2009, there was a natural increase of 3,090,016 (5,058,440 births minus 2,179,958 deaths). During this time period, international migration produced a net increase of 1,816,633 people while domestic migration produced a net decrease of 1,509,708, resulting in a net in-migration of 306,925 people. The state of California's own statistics show a population of 38,292,687 for January 1, 2009. However, according to the Manhattan Institute for Policy Research, since 1990 almost 3.4 million Californians have moved to other states, with most leaving to Texas, Nevada, and Arizona. According to the Department of Finance, California's population declined by 182,083 people in 2020, the first time that there has been a net decrease in production since 1900.Within the Western hemisphere California is the second most populous sub-national administrative entity (behind the state of S\u00e3o Paulo in Brazil) and third most populous sub-national entity of any kind outside Asia (in which wider category it also ranks behind England in the United Kingdom, which has no administrative functions). California's population is greater than that of all but 34 countries of the world. The Greater Los Angeles Area is the 2nd-largest metropolitan area in the United States, after the New York metropolitan area, while Los Angeles, with nearly half the population of New York City, is the second-largest city in the United States. Conversely, San Francisco, with nearly one-quarter the population density of Manhattan, is the most densely populated city in California and one of the most densely populated cities in the United States. Also, Los Angeles County has held the title of most populous United States county for decades, and it alone is more populous than 42 United States states. Including Los Angeles, four of the top 15 most populous cities in the U.S. are in California: Los Angeles (2nd), San Diego (8th), San Jose (10th), and San Francisco (13th). The center of population of California is located in the town of Buttonwillow, Kern County.As of 2018, the average life expectancy in California was 80.8 years, above the national average of 78.7, which is the second highest in the country.\n\n\n=== Cities and towns ===\n\nThe state has 482 incorporated cities and towns, of which 460 are cities and 22 are towns. Under California law, the terms \"city\" and \"town\" are explicitly interchangeable; the name of an incorporated municipality in the state can either be \"City of (Name)\" or \"Town of (Name)\".Sacramento became California's first incorporated city on February 27, 1850. San Jose, San Diego, and Benicia tied for California's second incorporated city, each receiving incorporation on March 27, 1850. Jurupa Valley became the state's most recent and 482nd incorporated municipality, on July 1, 2011.The majority of these cities and towns are within one of five metropolitan areas: the Los Angeles Metropolitan Area, the San Francisco Bay Area, the Riverside-San Bernardino Area, the San Diego metropolitan area, or the Sacramento metropolitan area.\n\n\n==== Migration ====\nStarting in the year 2010, for the first time since the California Gold Rush, California-born residents make up the majority of the state's population. Along with the rest of the United States, California's immigration pattern has also shifted over the course of the late 2000s to early 2010s. Immigration from Latin American countries has dropped significantly with most immigrants now coming from Asia. In total for 2011, there were 277,304 immigrants. Fifty-seven percent came from Asian countries versus 22% from Latin American countries. Net immigration from Mexico, previously the most common country of origin for new immigrants, has dropped to zero / less than zero since more Mexican nationals are departing for their home country than immigrating. As a result, it is projected that Hispanic citizens will constitute 49% of the population by 2060, instead of the previously projected 2050, due primarily to domestic births.The state's population of undocumented immigrants has been shrinking in recent years, due to increased enforcement and decreased job opportunities for lower-skilled workers. The number of migrants arrested attempting to cross the Mexican border in the Southwest decreased from a high of 1.1 million in 2005 to 367,000 in 2011. Despite these recent trends, illegal aliens constituted an estimated 7.3 percent of the state's population, the third highest percentage of any state in the country, totaling nearly 2.6 million. In particular, illegal immigrants tended to be concentrated in Los Angeles, Monterey, San Benito, Imperial, and Napa Counties\u2014the latter four of which have significant agricultural industries that depend on manual labor. More than half of illegal immigrants originate from Mexico. The state of California and some California cities, including Los Angeles, Oakland and San Francisco, have adopted sanctuary policies.\n\n\n=== Race and ethnicity ===\nAccording to the United States Census Bureau in 2018 the population self-identifies as (alone or in combination):\n72.1% White (including Hispanic Whites)\n36.8% Non-Hispanic whites\n15.3% Asian\n6.5% Black or African American\n1.6% Native American and Alaska Native\n0.5% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander\n3.9% Two or more racesBy ethnicity, in 2018 the population was 60.7% non-Hispanic (of any race) and 39.3% Hispanic or Latino (of any race). Hispanics are the largest single ethnic group in California. Non-Hispanic whites constituted 36.8% of the state's population. Californios are the Hispanic residents native to California, who make up the Spanish-speaking community that has existed in California since 1542, of varying Mexican American/Chicano, Criollo Spaniard, and Mestizo origin.As of 2011, 75.1% of California's population younger than age 1 were minorities, meaning they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white (white Hispanics are counted as minorities).In terms of total numbers, California has the largest population of White Americans in the United States, an estimated 22,200,000 residents. The state has the 5th largest population of African Americans in the United States, an estimated 2,250,000 residents. California's Asian American population is estimated at 4.4 million, constituting a third of the nation's total. California's Native American population of 285,000 is the most of any state.According to estimates from 2011, California has the largest minority population in the United States by numbers, making up 60% of the state population. Over the past 25 years, the population of non-Hispanic whites has declined, while Hispanic and Asian populations have grown. Between 1970 and 2011, non-Hispanic whites declined from 80% of the state's population to 40%, while Hispanics grew from 32% in 2000 to 38% in 2011. It is currently projected that Hispanics will rise to 49% of the population by 2060, primarily due to domestic births rather than immigration. With the decline of immigration from Latin America, Asian Americans now constitute the fastest growing racial/ethnic group in California; this growth is primarily driven by immigration from China, India and the Philippines, respectively.\n\n\n=== Languages ===\nEnglish serves as California's de jure and de facto official language. In 2010, the Modern Language Association of America estimated that 57.02% (19,429,309) of California residents age 5 and older spoke only English at home, while 42.98% spoke another language at home. According to the 2007 American Community Survey, 73% of people who speak a language other than English at home are able to speak English \"well\" or \"very well,\" while 9.8% of them could not speak English at all. Like most U.S. states (32 out of 50), California law enshrines English as its official language, and has done so since the passage of Proposition 63 by California voters. Various government agencies do, and are often required to, furnish documents in the various languages needed to reach their intended audiences.In total, 16 languages other than English were spoken as primary languages at home by more than 100,000 persons, more than any other state in the nation. New York State, in second place, had nine languages other than English spoken by more than 100,000 persons. The most common language spoken besides English was Spanish, spoken by 28.46% (9,696,638) of the population. With Asia contributing most of California's new immigrants, California had the highest concentration nationwide of Vietnamese and Chinese speakers, the second highest concentration of Korean, and the third highest concentration of Tagalog speakers.California has historically been one of the most linguistically diverse areas in the world, with more than 70 indigenous languages derived from 64 root languages in six language families. A survey conducted between 2007 and 2009 identified 23 different indigenous languages among California farmworkers. All of California's indigenous languages are endangered, although there are now efforts toward language revitalization.As a result of the state's increasing diversity and migration from other areas across the country and around the globe, linguists began noticing a noteworthy set of emerging characteristics of spoken American English in California since the late 20th century. This variety, known as California English, has a vowel shift and several other phonological processes that are different from varieties of American English used in other regions of the United States.\n\n\n== Culture ==\n\nThe culture of California is a Western culture and most clearly has its modern roots in the culture of the United States, but also, historically, many Hispanic Californio and Mexican influences. As a border and coastal state, Californian culture has been greatly influenced by several large immigrant populations, especially those from Latin America and Asia.California has long been a subject of interest in the public mind and has often been promoted by its boosters as a kind of paradise. In the early 20th century, fueled by the efforts of state and local boosters, many Americans saw the Golden State as an ideal resort destination, sunny and dry all year round with easy access to the ocean and mountains. In the 1960s, popular music groups such as The Beach Boys promoted the image of Californians as laid-back, tanned beach-goers.\nThe California Gold Rush of the 1850s is still seen as a symbol of California's economic style, which tends to generate technology, social, entertainment, and economic fads and booms and related busts.\n\n\n=== Mass media and entertainment ===\n\nHollywood and the rest of the Los Angeles area is a major global center for entertainment, with the U.S. film industry's \"Big Five\" major film studios (Columbia, Disney, Paramount, Universal, and Warner Bros.) being based in or around the area.\nThe four major American television broadcast networks (ABC, CBS, Fox and NBC) all have production facilities and offices in the state. All four, plus the two major Spanish-language networks (Telemundo and Univision) each have at least two owned-and-operated TV stations in California, one in Los Angeles and one in the San Francisco Bay Area.\nThe San Francisco Bay Area is home to several prominent internet media and social media companies, including three of the \"Big Five\" technology companies (Apple, Facebook, and Google) as well as other services such as Netflix, Pandora Radio, Twitter, Yahoo!, and YouTube.\nOne of the oldest radio stations in the United States still in existence, KCBS (AM) in the Bay Area, was founded in 1909. Universal Music Group, one of the \"Big Four\" record labels, is based in Santa Monica. California is also the birthplace of several international music genres, including the Bakersfield sound, Bay Area thrash metal, g-funk, nu metal, stoner rock, surf music, West Coast hip hop, and West Coast jazz.\n\n\n=== Religion ===\n\nThe largest religious denominations by number of adherents as a percentage of California's population in 2014 were the Catholic Church with 28 percent, Evangelical Protestants with 20 percent, and Mainline Protestants with 10 percent. Together, all kinds of Protestants accounted for 32 percent. Those unaffiliated with any religion represented 27 percent of the population. The breakdown of other religions is 1% Muslim, 2% Hindu and 2% Buddhist. This is a change from 2008, when the population identified their religion with the Catholic Church with 31 percent; Evangelical Protestants with 18 percent; and Mainline Protestants with 14 percent. In 2008, those unaffiliated with any religion represented 21 percent of the population. The breakdown of other religions in 2008 was 0.5% Muslim, 1% Hindu and 2% Buddhist. The American Jewish Year Book placed the total Jewish population of California at about 1,194,190 in 2006. According to the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) the largest denominations by adherents in 2010 were the Catholic Church with 10,233,334; The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 763,818; and the Southern Baptist Convention with 489,953.The first priests to come to California were Catholic missionaries from Spain. Catholics founded 21 missions along the California coast, as well as the cities of Los Angeles and San Francisco. California continues to have a large Catholic population due to the large numbers of Mexicans and Central Americans living within its borders. California has twelve dioceses and two archdioceses, the Archdiocese of Los Angeles and the Archdiocese of San Francisco, the former being the largest archdiocese in the United States.\nA Pew Research Center survey revealed that California is somewhat less religious than the rest of the states: 62 percent of Californians say they are \"absolutely certain\" of their belief in God, while in the nation 71 percent say so. The survey also revealed 48 percent of Californians say religion is \"very important\", compared to 56 percent nationally.\n\n\n=== Sports ===\n\nCalifornia has nineteen major professional sports league franchises, far more than any other state. The San Francisco Bay Area has six major league teams spread in its three major cities: San Francisco, San Jose, and Oakland, while the Greater Los Angeles Area is home to ten major league franchises. San Diego and Sacramento each have one major league team. The NFL Super Bowl has been hosted in California 11 times at four different stadiums: Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, the Rose Bowl, Stanford Stadium, and San Diego's Qualcomm Stadium. A twelfth, Super Bowl 50, was held at Levi's Stadium in Santa Clara on February 7, 2016.California has long had many respected collegiate sports programs. California is home to the oldest college bowl game, the annual Rose Bowl, among others.\nCalifornia is the only U.S. state to have hosted both the Summer and Winter Olympics. The 1932 and 1984 summer games were held in Los Angeles. Squaw Valley Ski Resort in the Lake Tahoe region hosted the 1960 Winter Olympics. Los Angeles will host the 2028 Summer Olympics, marking the fourth time that California will have hosted the Olympic Games. Multiple games during the 1994 FIFA World Cup took place in California, with the Rose Bowl hosting eight matches (including the final), while Stanford Stadium hosted six matches.\n\n\n=== Education ===\n\nPublic secondary education consists of high schools that teach elective courses in trades, languages, and liberal arts with tracks for gifted, college-bound and industrial arts students. California's public educational system is supported by a unique constitutional amendment that requires a minimum annual funding level for grades K\u201312 and community colleges that grow with the economy and student enrollment figures.In 2016, California's K\u201312 public school per-pupil spending was ranked 22nd in the nation ($11,500 per student vs. $11,800 for the U.S. average).For 2012, California's K\u201312 public schools ranked 48th in the number of employees per student, at 0.102 (the U.S. average was 0.137), while paying the 7th most per employee, $49,000 (the U.S. average was $39,000).A 2007 study concluded that California's public school system was \"broken\" in that it suffered from over-regulation.California's public postsecondary education offers three separate systems:\n\nThe research university system in the state is the University of California (UC), a public university system. As of fall 2011, the University of California had a combined student body of 234,464 students. There are ten general UC campuses, and a number of specialized campuses in the UC system, as the UC San Francisco, which is entirely dedicated to graduate education in health care, and is home to the UCSF Medical Center, the highest ranked hospital in California. The system was originally intended to accept the top one-eighth of California high school students, but several of the schools have become even more selective. The UC system was originally given exclusive authority in awarding PhDs, but this has since changed and the CSU is also able to award several Doctoral degrees.\nThe California State University (CSU) system has almost 430,000 students. The CSU was originally intended to accept the top one-third of California high school students, but several of the schools have become much more selective. The CSU was originally set up to award only bachelor's and master's degrees, but has since been granted the authority to award several Doctoral degrees.\nThe California Community Colleges System provides lower division coursework as well as basic skills and workforce training. It is the largest network of higher education in the U.S., composed of 112 colleges serving a student population of over 2.6 million.California is also home to such notable private universities as Stanford University, the University of Southern California, the California Institute of Technology, and the Claremont Colleges. California has hundreds of other private colleges and universities, including many religious and special-purpose institutions.\n\n\n=== Twinned regions ===\nCalifornia has twinning arrangements with the region of Catalonia in Spain\nand with the Province of Alberta in Canada.\n\n\n== Economy ==\n\nCalifornia's economy ranks among the largest in the world. As of 2019, the gross state product (GSP) was $3.2 trillion ($80,600 per capita), the largest in the United States. California is responsible for one seventh of the nation's gross domestic product (GDP). As of 2018, California's nominal GDP is larger than all but four countries (the United States, China, Japan, and Germany). In terms of Purchasing power parity (PPP), it is larger than all but eight countries (the United States, China, India, Japan, Germany, Russia, Brazil and Indonesia). California's economy is larger than Africa and Australia and is almost as large as South America.\nTotal Non farm Employment (2016): 14,600,349\nTotal employer establishments (2016): 922,477The five largest sectors of employment in California are trade, transportation, and utilities; government; professional and business services; education and health services; and leisure and hospitality. In output, the five largest sectors are financial services, followed by trade, transportation, and utilities; education and health services; government; and manufacturing. As of March 2021, California has an unemployment rate of 8.3%.California's economy is dependent on trade and international related commerce accounts for about one-quarter of the state's economy. In 2008, California exported $144 billion worth of goods, up from $134 billion in 2007 and $127 billion in 2006.\nComputers and electronic products are California's top export, accounting for 42 percent of all the state's exports in 2008.Agriculture is an important sector in California's economy. Farming-related sales more than quadrupled over the past three decades, from $7.3 billion in 1974 to nearly $31 billion in 2004. This increase has occurred despite a 15 percent decline in acreage devoted to farming during the period, and water supply suffering from chronic instability. Factors contributing to the growth in sales-per-acre include more intensive use of active farmlands and technological improvements in crop production. In 2008, California's 81,500 farms and ranches generated $36.2 billion products revenue. In 2011, that number grew to $43.5 billion products revenue. The Agriculture sector accounts for two percent of the state's GDP and employs around three percent of its total workforce. According to the USDA in 2011, the three largest California agricultural products by value were milk and cream, shelled almonds, and grapes.Per capita GDP in 2007 was $38,956, ranking eleventh in the nation. Per capita income varies widely by geographic region and profession. The Central Valley is the most impoverished, with migrant farm workers making less than minimum wage. According to a 2005 report by the Congressional Research Service, the San Joaquin Valley was characterized as one of the most economically depressed regions in the United States, on par with the region of Appalachia. Using the supplemental poverty measure, California has a poverty rate of 23.5%, the highest of any state in the country. However, using the official measure the poverty rate was only 13.3% as of 2017. Many coastal cities include some of the wealthiest per-capita areas in the United States. The high-technology sectors in Northern California, specifically Silicon Valley, in Santa Clara and San Mateo counties, have emerged from the economic downturn caused by the dot-com bust.\nIn 2019, there were 1,042,027 millionaire households in the state, more than any other state in the nation. In 2010, California residents were ranked first among the states with the best average credit score of 754.\n\n\t\t\n\n\n=== State finances ===\n\nState spending increased from $56 billion in 1998 to $127 billion in 2011. California, with 12% of the United States population, has one-third of the nation's welfare recipients. California has the third highest per capita spending on welfare among the states, as well as the highest spending on welfare at $6.67 billion. In January 2011, California's total debt was at least $265 billion. On June 27, 2013, Governor Jerry Brown signed a balanced budget (no deficit) for the state, its first in decades; however the state's debt remains at $132 billion.With the passage of Proposition 30 in 2012 and Proposition 55 in 2016, California now levies a 13.3% maximum marginal income tax rate with ten tax brackets, ranging from 1% at the bottom tax bracket of $0 annual individual income to 13.3% for annual individual income over $1,000,000 (though the top brackets are only temporary until Proposition 55 expires at the end of 2030). While Proposition 30 also enacted a minimum state sales tax of 7.5%, this sales tax increase was not extended by Proposition 55 and reverted to a previous minimum state sales tax rate of 7.25% in 2017. Local governments can and do levy additional sales taxes in addition to this minimum rate.All real property is taxable annually; the ad valorem tax is based on the property's fair market value at the time of purchase or the value of new construction. Property tax increases are capped at 2% annually or the rate of inflation (whichever is lower), per Proposition 13.\n\n\n== Infrastructure ==\n\n\n=== Energy ===\n\nBecause it is the most populous state in the United States, California is one of the country's largest users of energy. However because of its high energy rates, conservation mandates, mild weather in the largest population centers and strong environmental movement, its per capita energy use is one of the smallest of any state in the United States. Due to the high electricity demand, California imports more electricity than any other state, primarily hydroelectric power from states in the Pacific Northwest (via Path 15 and Path 66) and coal- and natural gas-fired production from the desert Southwest via Path 46.As a result of the state's strong environmental movement, California has some of the most aggressive renewable energy goals in the United States, with a target for California to obtain a third of its electricity from renewables by 2020. Currently, several solar power plants such as the Solar Energy Generating Systems facility are located in the Mojave Desert. California's wind farms include Altamont Pass, San Gorgonio Pass, and Tehachapi Pass. The Tehachapi area is also where the Tehachapi Energy Storage Project is located. Several dams across the state provide hydro-electric power. It would be possible to convert the total supply to 100% renewable energy, including heating, cooling and mobility, by 2050.The state's crude oil and natural gas deposits are located in the Central Valley and along the coast, including the large Midway-Sunset Oil Field. Natural gas-fired power plants typically account for more than one-half of state electricity generation.\nCalifornia is also home to two major nuclear power plants: Diablo Canyon and San Onofre, the latter having been shut down in 2013. More than 1,700 tons of radioactive waste are stored at San Onofre, which sits in an area where there is a record of past tsunamis. Voters banned the approval of new nuclear power plants since the late 1970s because of concerns over radioactive waste disposal. In addition, several cities such as Oakland, Berkeley and Davis have declared themselves as nuclear-free zones.\n\n\n=== Transportation ===\n\nCalifornia's vast terrain is connected by an extensive system of controlled-access highways ('freeways'), limited-access roads ('expressways'), and highways. California is known for its car culture, giving California's cities a reputation for severe traffic congestion. Construction and maintenance of state roads and statewide transportation planning are primarily the responsibility of the California Department of Transportation, nicknamed \"Caltrans\". The rapidly growing population of the state is straining all of its transportation networks, and California has some of the worst roads in the United States. The Reason Foundation's 19th Annual Report on the Performance of State Highway Systems ranked California's highways the third-worst of any state, with Alaska second, and Rhode Island first.The state has been a pioneer in road construction. One of the state's more visible landmarks, the Golden Gate Bridge, was the longest suspension bridge main span in the world at 4,200 feet (1,300 m) between 1937 (when it opened) and 1964. With its orange paint and panoramic views of the bay, this highway bridge is a popular tourist attraction and also accommodates pedestrians and bicyclists. The San Francisco\u2013Oakland Bay Bridge (often abbreviated the \"Bay Bridge\"), completed in 1936, transports about 280,000 vehicles per day on two-decks. Its two sections meet at Yerba Buena Island through the world's largest diameter transportation bore tunnel, at 76 feet (23 m) wide by 58 feet (18 m) high. The Arroyo Seco Parkway, connecting Los Angeles and Pasadena, opened in 1940 as the first freeway in the Western United States. It was later extended south to the Four Level Interchange in downtown Los Angeles, regarded as the first stack interchange ever built.Los Angeles International Airport (LAX), the 4th busiest airport in the world in 2018, and San Francisco International Airport (SFO), the 25th busiest airport in the world in 2018, are major hubs for trans-Pacific and transcontinental traffic. There are about a dozen important commercial airports and many more general aviation airports throughout the state.\nCalifornia also has several important seaports. The giant seaport complex formed by the Port of Los Angeles and the Port of Long Beach in Southern California is the largest in the country and responsible for handling about a fourth of all container cargo traffic in the United States. The Port of Oakland, fourth largest in the nation, also handles trade entering from the Pacific Rim to the rest of the country. The Port of Stockton is the farthest inland port on the west coast of the United States.\n\nThe California Highway Patrol is the largest statewide police agency in the United States in employment with more than 10,000 employees. They are responsible for providing any police-sanctioned service to anyone on California's state-maintained highways and on state property.\nThe California Department of Motor Vehicles is by far the largest in North America. By the end of 2009, the California DMV had 26,555,006 driver's licenses and ID cards on file. In 2010, there were 1.17 million new vehicle registrations in force.Inter-city rail travel is provided by Amtrak California; the three routes, the Capitol Corridor, Pacific Surfliner, and San Joaquin, are funded by Caltrans. These services are the busiest intercity rail lines in the United States outside the Northeast Corridor and ridership is continuing to set records. The routes are becoming increasingly popular over flying, especially on the LAX-SFO route. Integrated subway and light rail networks are found in Los Angeles (Metro Rail) and San Francisco (MUNI Metro). Light rail systems are also found in San Jose (VTA), San Diego (San Diego Trolley), Sacramento (RT Light Rail), and Northern San Diego County (Sprinter). Furthermore, commuter rail networks serve the San Francisco Bay Area (ACE, BART, Caltrain, SMART), Greater Los Angeles (Metrolink), and San Diego County (Coaster).\nThe California High-Speed Rail Authority was created in 1996 by the state to implement an extensive 800-mile (1,300 km) rail system. Construction was approved by the voters during the November 2008 general election, with the first phase of construction estimated to cost $64.2 billion.Nearly all counties operate bus lines, and many cities operate their own city bus lines as well. Intercity bus travel is provided by Greyhound, Megabus, and Amtrak Thruway Motorcoach.\n\n\n=== Water ===\n\nCalifornia's interconnected water system is the world's largest, managing over 40,000,000 acre-feet (49 km3) of water per year, centered on six main systems of aqueducts and infrastructure projects. Water use and conservation in California is a politically divisive issue, as the state experiences periodic droughts and has to balance the demands of its large agricultural and urban sectors, especially in the arid southern portion of the state. The state's widespread redistribution of water also invites the frequent scorn of environmentalists.\nThe California Water Wars, a conflict between Los Angeles and the Owens Valley over water rights, is one of the most well-known examples of the struggle to secure adequate water supplies. Former California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger said: \"We've been in crisis for quite some time because we're now 38 million people and not anymore 18 million people like we were in the late 60s. So it developed into a battle between environmentalists and farmers and between the south and the north and between rural and urban. And everyone has been fighting for the last four decades about water.\"\n\n\n== Government and politics ==\n\n\n=== State government ===\n\nThe capital of California is located within Sacramento.\nThe state is organized into three branches of government\u2014the executive branch consisting of the governor and the other independently elected constitutional officers; the legislative branch consisting of the Assembly and Senate; and the judicial branch consisting of the Supreme Court of California and lower courts. The state also allows ballot propositions: direct participation of the electorate by initiative, referendum, recall, and ratification. Before the passage of California Proposition 14 (2010), California allowed each political party to choose whether to have a closed primary or a primary where only party members and independents vote. After June 8, 2010, when Proposition 14 was approved, excepting only the United States president and county central committee offices, all candidates in the primary elections are listed on the ballot with their preferred party affiliation, but they are not the official nominee of that party. At the primary election, the two candidates with the top votes will advance to the general election regardless of party affiliation. If at a special primary election, one candidate receives more than 50% of all the votes cast, they are elected to fill the vacancy and no special general election will be held.\n\n\n=== Executive branch ===\nThe California executive branch consists of the governor and seven other elected constitutional officers: lieutenant governor, attorney general, secretary of state, state controller, state treasurer, insurance commissioner, and state superintendent of public instruction. They serve four-year terms and may be re-elected only once.\n\n\n=== Legislative branch ===\nThe California State Legislature consists of a 40-member Senate and 80-member Assembly. Senators serve four-year terms and Assembly members two. Members of the Assembly are subject to term limits of three terms, and members of the Senate are subject to term limits of two terms.\n\n\n=== Judicial branch ===\nCalifornia's legal system is explicitly based upon English common law (as is the case with all other states except Louisiana) but carries a few features from Spanish civil law, such as community property. California's prison population grew from 25,000 in 1980 to over 170,000 in 2007. Capital punishment is a legal form of punishment and the state has the largest \"Death Row\" population in the country (though Oklahoma and Texas are far more active in carrying out executions).California's judiciary system is the largest in the United States with a total of 1,600 judges (the federal system has only about 840). At the apex is the seven-member Supreme Court of California, while the California Courts of Appeal serve as the primary appellate courts and the California Superior Courts serve as the primary trial courts. Justices of the Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal are appointed by the governor, but are subject to retention by the electorate every 12 years. The administration of the state's court system is controlled by the Judicial Council, composed of the chief justice of the California Supreme Court, 14 judicial officers, four representatives from the State Bar of California, and one member from each house of the state legislature.\n\n\n=== Local government ===\n\n\n==== Counties ====\n\nCalifornia is divided into 58 counties. Per Article 11, Section 1, of the Constitution of California, they are the legal subdivisions of the state. The county government provides countywide services such as law enforcement, jails, elections and voter registration, vital records, property assessment and records, tax collection, public health, health care, social services, libraries, flood control, fire protection, animal control, agricultural regulations, building inspections, ambulance services, and education departments in charge of maintaining statewide standards. In addition, the county serves as the local government for all unincorporated areas. Each county is governed by an elected board of supervisors.\n\n\n==== City and town governments ====\nIncorporated cities and towns in California are either charter or general-law municipalities. General-law municipalities owe their existence to state law and are consequently governed by it; charter municipalities are governed by their own city or town charters. Municipalities incorporated in the 19th century tend to be charter municipalities. All ten of the state's most populous cities are charter cities. Most small cities have a council\u2013manager form of government, where the elected city council appoints a city manager to supervise the operations of the city. Some larger cities have a directly-elected mayor who oversees the city government. In many council-manager cities, the city council selects one of its members as a mayor, sometimes rotating through the council membership\u2014but this type of mayoral position is primarily ceremonial. The Government of San Francisco is the only consolidated city-county in California, where both the city and county governments have been merged into one unified jurisdiction.\n\n\n==== School districts and special districts ====\n\nAbout 1,102 school districts, independent of cities and counties, handle California's public education. California school districts may be organized as elementary districts, high school districts, unified school districts combining elementary and high school grades, or community college districts.There are about 3,400 special districts in California. A special district, defined by California Government Code \u00a7 16271(d) as \"any agency of the state for the local performance of governmental or proprietary functions within limited boundaries\", provides a limited range of services within a defined geographic area. The geographic area of a special district can spread across multiple cities or counties, or could consist of only a portion of one. Most of California's special districts are single-purpose districts, and provide one service.\n\n\n=== Federal representation ===\n\nThe state of California sends 53 members to the House of Representatives, the nation's largest congressional state delegation. Consequently California also has the largest number of electoral votes in national presidential elections, with 55. The current speaker of the House of Representatives is the representative of California's 12th district, Nancy Pelosi; Kevin McCarthy, representing the state's 23rd district, is the House Minority Leader.California is represented by U.S. senators Dianne Feinstein, a native and former mayor of San Francisco, and Alex Padilla, a native and former secretary of state of California. Former U.S. senator Kamala Harris, a native, former district attorney from San Francisco, former attorney general of California, resigned on January 18, 2021 to assume her role as the current Vice President of the United States. In the 1992 U.S. Senate election, California became the first state to elect a Senate delegation entirely composed of women, due to the victories of Feinstein and Barbara Boxer. Set to follow the Vice President-Elect, Gov. Newsom appointed Secretary of State Alex Padilla to finish the rest of Harris's term which ends in 2022, Padilla has vowed to run for the full term in that election cycle. Padilla was sworn-in on January 20, 2021, the same day as the Inauguration of President-Elect Joe Biden as well as Harris.\n\n\n=== Armed forces ===\nIn California, as of 2009, the U.S. Department of Defense had a total of 117,806 active duty servicemembers of which 88,370 were Sailors or Marines, 18,339 were Airmen, and 11,097 were Soldiers, with 61,365 Department of Defense civilian employees. Additionally, there were a total of 57,792 Reservists and Guardsman in California.In 2010, Los Angeles County was the largest origin of military recruits in the United States by county, with 1,437 individuals enlisting in the military. However, as of 2002, Californians were relatively under-represented in the military as a proportion to its population.In 2000, California, had 2,569,340 veterans of United States military service: 504,010 served in World War II, 301,034 in the Korean War, 754,682 during the Vietnam War, and 278,003 during 1990\u20132000 (including the Persian Gulf War). As of 2010, there were 1,942,775 veterans living in California, of which 1,457,875 served during a period of armed conflict, and just over four thousand served before World War II (the largest population of this group of any state).California's military forces consist of the Army and Air National Guard, the naval and state military reserve (militia), and the California Cadet Corps.\nOn August 5, 1950, a nuclear-capable United States Air Force Boeing B-29 Superfortress bomber carrying a nuclear bomb crashed shortly after takeoff from Fairfield-Suisun Air Force Base. Brigadier General Robert F. Travis, command pilot of the bomber, was among the dead.\n\n\n=== Ideology ===\n\nCalifornia has an idiosyncratic political culture compared to the rest of the country, and is sometimes regarded as a trendsetter. In socio-cultural mores and national politics, Californians are perceived as more liberal than other Americans, especially those who live in the inland states. In the 2016 United States presidential election, California had the third highest percentage of Democratic votes behind the District of Columbia and Hawaii. In the 2020 United States presidential election, it had the 6th highest behind the District of Columbia, Vermont, Massachusetts, Maryland, and Hawaii. According to the Cook Political Report, California contains five of the 15 most Democratic congressional districts in the United States.\nAmong the political idiosyncrasies, California was the second state to recall their state governor, the second state to legalize abortion, and the only state to ban marriage for gay couples twice by vote (including Proposition 8 in 2008). Voters also passed Proposition 71 in 2004 to fund stem cell research, making California the second state to legalize stem cell research after New Jersey, and Proposition 14 in 2010 to completely change the state's primary election process. California has also experienced disputes over water rights; and a tax revolt, culminating with the passage of Proposition 13 in 1978, limiting state property taxes. California voters have rejected affirmative action on multiple occasions, most recently in November 2020.\nThe state's trend towards the Democratic Party and away from the Republican Party can be seen in state elections. From 1899 to 1939, California had Republican governors. Since 1990, California has generally elected Democratic candidates to federal, state and local offices, including current Governor Gavin Newsom; however, the state has elected Republican Governors, though many of its Republican Governors, such as Arnold Schwarzenegger, tend to be considered moderate Republicans and more centrist than the national party.\nSeveral political movements have advocated for Californian independence. The California National Party and the California Freedom Coalition both advocate for Californian independence along the lines of progressivism and civic nationalism. The Yes California movement attempted to organize an independence referendum via ballot initiative for 2019, which was then postponed.The Democrats also now hold a supermajority in both houses of the state legislature. There are 60 Democrats and 20 Republicans in the Assembly; and 29 Democrats and 11 Republicans in the Senate.\nThe trend towards the Democratic Party is most obvious in presidential elections. From 1952 through 1988, California was a Republican leaning state, with the party carrying the state's electoral votes in nine of ten elections, with 1964 as the exception. Southern California Republicans Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan were both elected twice as the 37th and 40th U.S. Presidents, respectively. However, Democrats have won all of California's electoral votes for the last eight elections, starting in 1992.\nIn the United States House, the Democrats held a 34\u201319 edge in the CA delegation of the 110th United States Congress in 2007. As the result of gerrymandering, the districts in California were usually dominated by one or the other party, and few districts were considered competitive. In 2008, Californians passed Proposition 20 to empower a 14-member independent citizen commission to redraw districts for both local politicians and Congress. After the 2012 elections, when the new system took effect, Democrats gained four seats and held a 38\u201315 majority in the delegation. Following the 2018 midterm House elections, Democrats won 46 out of 53 congressional house seats in California, leaving Republicans with seven.\nIn general, Democratic strength is centered in the populous coastal regions of the Los Angeles metropolitan area and the San Francisco Bay Area. Republican strength is still greatest in eastern parts of the state. Orange County had remained largely Republican until the 2016 and 2018 elections, in which a majority of the county's votes were cast for Democratic candidates. One study ranked Berkeley, Oakland, Inglewood and San Francisco in the top 20 most liberal American cities; and Bakersfield, Orange, Escondido, Garden Grove, and Simi Valley in the top 20 most conservative cities.In February 2021, out of the 25,166,581 people eligible to vote, 22,154,304 people were registered to vote. Of the people registered, the three largest registered groups were Democrats (10,228,144), Republicans (5,347,377), and No Party Preference (5,258,223). Los Angeles County had the largest number of registered Democrats (3,043,535) and Republicans (995,112) of any county in the state.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nIndex of California-related articles\nOutline of California\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Works cited ===\nCohen, Saul Bernard (2003). Geopolitics of the World System. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8476-9907-0.\nRolle, Andrew (1998) [1963]. California: A History (5th ed.). Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson. ISBN 0-88295-938-7.\nStarr, Kevin (2007). California: A History. Modern Library Chronicles. 23. Random House Digital, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8129-7753-0.\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nChartkoff, Joseph L.; Chartkoff, Kerry Kona (1984). The archaeology of California. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1157-9. OCLC 11351549.\nFagan, Brian (2003). Before California: An archaeologist looks at our earliest inhabitants. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-2794-2. OCLC 226025645.\nHart, James D. (1978). A Companion to California. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-502400-5.\nMatthews, Glenna. The Golden State in the Civil War: Thomas Starr King, the Republican Party, and the Birth of Modern California. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.\nMoratto, Michael J.; Fredrickson, David A. (1984). California archaeology. Orlando: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-506182-7. OCLC 228668979.\nNewmark, Harris (1916). Sixty Years in Southern California 1853-1913. New York: The Knickerbacker Press.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nState of California\nCalifornia State Guide, from the Library of Congress\n Geographic data related to California at OpenStreetMap\ndata.ca.gov: open data portal from California state agencies\nCalifornia State Facts from USDA\nCalifornia Drought: Farm and Food Impacts from USDA, Economic Research Service\nCalifornia at Curlie\n1973 documentary featuring aerial views of the California coastline from Mt. Shasta to Los Angeles\nTime-Lapse Tilt-Shift Portrait of California by Ryan and Sheri Killackey\nhttps://jupiter.ai/books/d8Wv/#Page_289/\nEarly City Views (los Angeles) Archived October 13, 2020, at the Wayback Machine", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/%22I_Love_You%2C_California%22_-_Regional_anthem_of_California.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/1_yosemite_valley_tunnel_view_2010.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/2005_CA_Proof.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/20200910-FS-Sierra-tls-122_%2850333277868%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/2dMass3.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/AB_60_Signing_Ceremony_%2810073731574%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Badwater_elevation_sign.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Beale-afb-main-gate-sign.jpg", 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"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Sacramento%2C-California---State-Capitol.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/SanFranciscoharbor1851c_sharp.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/80/Yokayo-People-at-Ukiah-California-1916.JPG"], "summary": "California is a state in the Western United States. It is bordered by Nevada to the east, Arizona to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west, Oregon to the north, and the Mexican state of Baja California to the south. With over 39.5 million residents across a total area of approximately 163,696 square miles (423,970 km2), it is the most populous and the third-largest U.S. state by area. It is also the most populated subnational entity in North America and the 34th most populous in the world. The Greater Los Angeles area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nation's second and fifth most populous urban regions respectively, with the former having more than 18.7 million residents and the latter having over 9.6 million. Sacramento is the state's capital, while Los Angeles is the most populous city in the state and the second most populous city in the country (after New York City). Los Angeles County is the country's most populous, while San Bernardino County is the largest county by area in the country. San Francisco, which is both a city and county, is the second most densely populated major city in the country (after New York City) and the fifth most densely populated county in the country, behind four of New York City's five boroughs.\nThe economy of California, with a gross state product of $3.2 trillion as of 2019, is the largest sub-national economy in the world. If it were a country, it would be the 37th most populous country and the fifth largest economy as of 2020. The Greater Los Angeles area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nation's second- and third-largest urban economies ($1.0 trillion and $0.5 trillion respectively as of 2020), after the New York metropolitan area ($1.8 trillion). The San Francisco Bay Area Combined Statistical Area had the nation's highest gross domestic product per capita ($106,757) among large primary statistical areas in 2018, and is home to four of the world's 10 largest companies by market capitalization and four of the world's 10 richest people.What is now California was first settled by various Native Californian tribes before being explored by a number of Europeans during the 16th and 17th centuries. The Spanish Empire then claimed and colonized it. In 1804, it was included in Alta California province within the Viceroyalty of New Spain. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821, following its successful war for independence, but was ceded to the United States in 1848 after the Mexican\u2013American War. The western portion of Alta California was then organized and admitted as the 31st state on September 9, 1850, following the Compromise of 1850. The California Gold Rush started in 1848 and led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale immigration from other parts of the United States and abroad and an accompanying economic boom.\nNotable contributions to popular culture, for example in entertainment, and sports, have their origins in California. The state also has made noteworthy contributions in the fields of communication, information, innovation, environmentalism, economics, and politics. It is the home of Hollywood, the oldest and largest film industry in the world, which has had a profound effect on global entertainment. It is considered the origin of the hippie counterculture, beach and car culture, and the personal computer, among other innovations. The San Francisco Bay Area and the Greater Los Angeles Area are widely seen as centers of the global technology and entertainment industries, respectively. California's economy is very diverse: 58% of it is based on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific, and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5% of the state's economy, California's agriculture industry has the highest output of any U.S. state. California's ports and harbors handle about a third of all U.S. imports, most originating in Pacific Rim international trade.\nCalifornia shares a border with Oregon to the north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, and the Mexican state of Baja California to the south. The state's diverse geography ranges from the Pacific Coast and metropolitan areas in the west to the Sierra Nevada mountains in the east, and from the redwood and Douglas fir forests in the northwest to the Mojave Desert in the southeast. The Central Valley, a major agricultural area, dominates the state's center. Although California is well-known for its warm Mediterranean climate and monsoon seasonal weather, the large size of the state results in climates that vary from moist temperate rainforest in the north to arid desert in the interior, as well as snowy alpine in the mountains. All these factors lead to an enormous demand for water; in total numbers, California is the largest consumer of water on the entire continent of North America. Over time, droughts and wildfires have increased in frequency, become less seasonal and more year-round, further straining California's water security."}, "Elliot_Rothman": {"links": ["Kate & Leopold", "Law & Order", "Craig Lucas", "Married and maiden names", "Pollock ", "Synecdoche, New York", "Say It Isn't So ", "The Purple Rose of Cairo", "Day Zero", "John Rothmann", "Arrested Development ", "Broadway theatre", "VIAF ", "United ninety-three ", "Copycat ", "White Collar ", "Dinner Rush", "Sophie's Choice ", "Stardust Memories", "The Understudy ", "The Door in the Floor", "The Report ", "The Ringer ", "Union ", "Where the Rivers Flow North", "The Devil's Advocate ", "Off-Broadway", "Big ", "Arranged", "The Hoax", "Daredevil ", "Law & Order: Criminal Intent", "Bachelor of Arts", "Unfaithful ", "Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter", "Knots ", "Bombshell ", "Brooklyn Lobster", "Revival ", "Guiding Light", "Affluenza ", "Three O'Clock High", "Maryland", "The Devil Wears Prada ", "Adam ", "Northern Borders", "Ryan's Hope", "Good Kids", "IMDb", "That Awkward Moment", "Golden Years ", "Picture Perfect ", "Prelude to a Kiss ", "Mr. Wonderful ", "Onion News Network", "The Boy Who Cried Bitch", "Taxi ", "Ghostbusters", "Witness to the Mob", "Yale University", "Glenn Shadix", "Hitchcock ", "Hello Again ", "Master of Fine Arts", "General", "I Heart Huckabees", "Jingle All the Way", "NYPD Blue", "Jessica Harper", "Blue Bloods ", "The Siege ", "Bloodhounds of Broadway ", "Enchanted ", "One Mississippi ", "A Further Gesture", "The Boost", "Richard Nelson ", "Zelig", "Actor", "The Accidental Husband", "The Day the Earth Stood Still ", "The Pickle", "September eleven attacks", "Baltimore", "Choose ", "Gettysburg ", "Jingle All The Way", "Internet Broadway Database", "Dark Matter ", "Yale School of Drama", "The First $twenty Million Is Always the Hardest", "Law & Order: Special Victims Unit", "Damages ", "Rescue Me ", "Reservation Road", "ISNI ", "According to Greta", "Wesleyan University", "The Associate ", "Sheldon Whitehouse", "Easy ", "Welcome to Mooseport", "Small Engine Repair ", "Prime ", "Thomas Rothman", "Heartburn ", "John F. Reynolds", "See You in the Morning ", "Harold Rosenberg"], "content": "John Mahr Rothman (born June 3, 1949) is an American film, television, and stage actor.\n\n\n== Life and career ==\nRothman was born in Baltimore, Maryland, the son of Elizabeth D. (n\u00e9e Davidson) and Donald N. Rothman, a lawyer. He is the brother of film executive Thomas Rothman.A graduate of Wesleyan University and the Yale School of Drama, his Broadway stage credits include Richard Nelson's Some Americans Abroad and the 2007 revival of Craig Lucas's Prelude to a Kiss. \nHe performed in numerous Off-Broadway productions including his own one-person play The Impossible H. L. Mencken.\nRothman portrayed Union General John F. Reynolds in Gettysburg (1993). He has appeared on such shows as Guiding Light, Blue Bloods, Law & Order, and Arrested Development.\nRothman also appeared in such comedic movies as Ghostbusters (1984), Big (1988), Jingle All the Way (1996), Say It Isn't So (2001), Welcome to Mooseport (2004), and Taxi (2004), and portrayed real-life September 11 terror victim Edward Felt in the 2006 film United 93.\n\n\n== Filmography ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nJohn Rothman at IMDb\nJohn Rothman at the Internet Broadway Database \nJohn Rothman on Rotten Tomatoes", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/archive/8/8a/20190821112659%21OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "John Mahr Rothman (born June 3, 1949) is an American film, television, and stage actor."}, "Chicken": {"links": ["Wikidata", "Hawk", "tenth edition of Systema Naturae", "Chlamydia psittaci", "Wayback Machine", "Empathy in chickens", "Cocka-doodle-doo", "Joseph Wolf", "Erasure ", "Sebright chicken", "Egg tooth", "Pall ", "Long-crowing chicken", "Gules ", "Serpent ", "Free-range eggs", "Gregarious", "Blinders ", "Babylonia", "Chief ", "Doves as symbols", "Canton ", "Spanish colonization of the Americas", "Sahara Desert", "Hen and Chicken Islands", "Stafford knot", "Coccidiosis", "Omnivore", "Label ", "Yale ", "Carl Linnaeus", "PMID ", "Cock egg", "Folklore", "Fowl", "Savoy knot", "Clostridium botulinum", "Sri Lankan junglefowl", "Dragon", "Infectious bronchitis virus", "Bird", "Domestic animals", "Castrated", "Rubber chicken", "Chickenpox", "Domestic guineafowl", "Lacy knot", "Heraldic knot", "Temple Grandin", "Unicorn", "Scaly leg", "Salmonella", "Page Smith", "Burgher arms", "Griffin", "Middle Ages", "Lizard", "Syria", "Egg ", "The Independent", "Wild man", "Shakespeare knot", "Trinomen", "Feral chicken", "List of pigeon breeds", "Ornithology", "Chicken manure", "Feather", "Free range", "Birds in music", "John Gould", "Yale University Press", "INaturalist", "Chicago Tribune", "Tibial dyschondroplasia", "Private Officer of Arms", "Lydia", "Corvus ", "Crosses in heraldry", "Crown ", "Feather cloak", "Henry Constantine Richter", "ABC News", "Mon ", "Seal ", "Carnation ", "Bergische Kr\u00e4her", "Chooks ", "Joseph Crawhall III", "List of turkey breeds", "Yardbird", "Polynesia", "Civic heraldry", "Intensive animal farming", "Waterfowl hunting", "Pseudogene", "Cockatrice", "Fletching", "Avibacterium", "Blazon", "Coat of arms", "Poultry farming", "Campylobacteriosis", "Avian influenza", "Roger Tory Peterson", "Free-range", "Vert ", "Avian sarcoma leukosis virus", "Quartering ", "University of Pennsylvania Press", "Attitude ", "Aigrette", "Battery Hen Welfare Trust", "EPPO Code", "Rule of tincture", "Omphalitis", "John James Audubon", "Animal cruelty", "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention", "Division of the field", "Hippogriff", "Early feeding", "Human genome", "Los Angeles Times", "Poussin ", "Deer", "Easter Island", "Cultural references to chickens", "Educational toy", "Argent", "Tuscaloosa News", "Earl H. 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"Trafford knot", "Bookplate", "Broiler industry", "Egg binding", "Gallid alphaherpesvirus one", "Furnished cages", "Azure ", "Erysipelas", "Morvillier knot", "Plume hunting", "Aspergillosis", "Sea-lion", "Fowl cholera", "Logotype", "Common cold", "Organic ", "Bird conservation", "Marek's disease", "Tyger ", "Bend ", "Curlie", "Panther ", "Hinckaert knot", "Candidiasis", "Tabard", "Poultry farming in the United States", "The Firebird", "Chicken coop", "Swan Lake", "Botulism", "National Biodiversity Network", "Debeaking", "State-of-the-art", "Martlet", "Enfield ", "Knemidokoptes mutans", "Progesterone", "Hypothalamus", "American English", "Niels Krabbe", "Pasteurella multocida", "Domestic pigeon", "Bear in heraldry", "Murrey", "Women in heraldry", "Silkie", "Hemoglobin", "Cambridge University Press", "Cormorant fishing", "Virus", "Wake knot", "Chile", "Grey junglefowl", "Chicken ", "Cloaca", "Roman Empire", "Impalement ", "Amphiptere", "Abnormal behaviour of birds in captivity", "Chicken or the egg", "Mycoplasma", "Rose ", "Mapuche", "Candida ", "Trophy of arms", "Hound ", "Broodiness", "Fess", "Birdwatching", "Saltire", "Achievement ", "Leghorn chicken", "Papal armorial", "List of oldest heraldry", "Comb ", "Ermine ", "Cultural depictions of ravens", "Cockerels", "Japanese quail"], "content": "The chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), a subspecies of the red junglefowl, is a type of domesticated fowl, originally from  Southeastern Asia. Rooster or cock is a term for an adult male bird, and younger male may be called a cockerel. A male that has been castrated is a capon. The adult female bird is called a hen and a sexually immature female is called a pullet.\nOriginally raised for cockfighting or for special ceremonies, chickens were not kept for food until the Hellenistic period (4th\u20132nd centuries BCE). Humans now keep chickens primarily as a source of food (consuming both their meat and eggs) and as pets.\nChickens are one of the most common and widespread domestic animals, with a total population of 23.7 billion as of 2018, up from more than 19 billion in 2011. There are more chickens in the world than any other bird. There are numerous cultural references to chickens \u2013 in myth, folklore and religion, and in language and literature.\nGenetic studies have pointed to multiple maternal origins in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia, but the clade found in the Americas, Europe, the Middle East and Africa originated from the Indian subcontinent. From ancient India, the chicken spread to Lydia in western Asia Minor, and to Greece by the 5th century BCE. Fowl have been known in Egypt since the mid-15th century BCE, with the \"bird that gives birth every day\" having come from the land between Syria and Shinar, Babylonia, according to the annals of Thutmose III.\n\n\n== Terminology ==\nAn adult male is a called a cock or rooster (in the United States) and an adult female is called a hen.Other terms are:\n\nbiddy: newly hatched chicken\ncapon: castrated or neutered male chicken\nchick: young chicken\nchook : chicken (Australia, informal)\ncockerel: young male chicken less than a year old\npullet: young female chicken less than a year old. In the poultry industry, a pullet is a sexually immature chicken less than 22 weeks of age.\nyardbird: chicken (southern United States, dialectal)\"Chicken\" was originally a term only for an immature, or at least young, bird. But thanks to its usage on restaurant menus has now become the most common term for the subspecies in general, especially in American English. \"Chicken\" as a specie, and in older sources was typically referred as common fowl or domestic fowl.Chicken may also mean a chick (see for example Hen and Chicken Islands).\n\n\n== Etymology ==\nAccording to Merriam-Webster, the term \"rooster\" (i.e. a roosting bird) originated in the mid- or late 18th century as a euphemism to avoid the sexual connotation of the original English \"cock\", and is widely used throughout North America. \"Roosting\" is the action of perching aloft to sleep at night, which is done by both sexes.\n\n\n== General biology and habitat ==\n \nChickens are omnivores.  In the wild, they often scratch at the soil to search for seeds, insects and even animals as large as lizards, small snakes, or young mice.The average chicken may live for five to ten years, depending on the breed.  The world's oldest known chicken was a hen which died of heart failure at the age of 16 years according to the Guinness World Records.\nRoosters can usually be differentiated from hens by their striking plumage of long flowing tails and shiny, pointed feathers on their necks (hackles) and backs (saddle), which are typically of brighter, bolder colours than those of females of the same breed.  However, in some breeds, such as the Sebright chicken, the rooster has only slightly pointed neck feathers, the same colour as the hen's. The identification can be made by looking at the comb, or eventually from the development of spurs on the male's legs (in a few breeds and in certain hybrids, the male and female chicks may be differentiated by colour). Adult chickens have a fleshy crest on their heads called a comb, or cockscomb, and hanging flaps of skin either side under their beaks called wattles. Collectively, these and other fleshy protuberances on the head and throat are called caruncles.  Both the adult male and female have wattles and combs, but in most breeds these are more prominent in males.\nA muff or beard is a mutation found in several chicken breeds which causes extra feathering under the chicken's face, giving the appearance of a beard.\nDomestic chickens are not capable of long-distance flight, although lighter chickens are generally capable of flying for short distances, such as over fences or into trees (where they would naturally roost). Chickens may occasionally fly briefly to explore their surroundings, but generally do so only to flee perceived danger.\n\n\n=== Behavior ===\n\n\n==== Social behaviour ====\n\nChickens are gregarious birds and live together in flocks. They have a communal approach to the incubation of eggs and raising of young. Individual chickens in a flock will dominate others, establishing a \"pecking order\", with dominant individuals having priority for food access and nesting locations. Removing hens or roosters from a flock causes a temporary disruption to this social order until a new pecking order is established. Adding hens, especially younger birds, to an existing flock can lead to fighting and injury.\nWhen a rooster finds food, he may call other chickens to eat first. He does this by clucking in a high pitch as well as picking up and dropping the food. This behaviour may also be observed in mother hens to call their chicks and encourage them to eat.\nA rooster's crowing is a loud and sometimes shrill call and sends a territorial signal to other roosters. However, roosters may also crow in response to sudden disturbances within their surroundings. Hens cluck loudly after laying an egg, and also to call their chicks. Chickens also give different warning calls when they sense a predator approaching from the air or on the ground.\n\n\n==== Crowing ====\n\nRoosters almost always start crowing before four months of age. Although it is possible for a hen to crow as well, crowing (together with hackles development) is one of the clearest signs of being a rooster.\n\n\n===== Rooster crowing contests =====\nRooster crowing contests, also known as crowing contests, are a traditional sport in several countries, such as Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, the United States, Indonesia and Japan. The oldest contests are held with longcrowers. Depending on the breed, either the duration of the crowing or the times the rooster crows within a certain time is measured.\n\n\n==== Courtship ====\nTo initiate courting, some roosters may dance in a circle around or near a hen (\"a circle dance\"), often lowering the wing which is closest to the hen.  The dance triggers a response in the hen and when she responds to his \"call\", the rooster may mount the hen and proceed with the mating.\nMore specifically, mating typically involves the following sequence:  1. Male approaching the hen.  2. Male pre-copulatory waltzing.  3. Male waltzing.  4. Female crouching (receptive posture) or stepping aside or running away (if unwilling to copulate). 5. Male mounting. 6. Male treading with both feet  on hen's back. 7. Male tail bending (following successful copulation).\n\n\n==== Nesting and laying behaviour ====\n\nHens will often try to lay in nests that already contain eggs and have been known to move eggs from neighbouring nests into their own.  The result of this behaviour is that a flock will use only a few preferred locations, rather than having a different nest for every bird.  Hens will often express a preference to lay in the same location. It is not unknown for two (or more) hens to try to share the same nest at the same time. If the nest is small, or one of the hens is particularly determined, this may result in chickens trying to lay on top of each other.  There is evidence that individual hens prefer to be either solitary or gregarious nesters.\n\n\n==== Broodiness ====\nUnder natural conditions, most birds lay only until a clutch is complete, and they will then incubate all the eggs. Hens are then said to \"go broody\".  The broody hen will stop laying and instead will focus on the incubation of the eggs (a full clutch is usually about 12 eggs). She will \"sit\" or \"set\" on the nest, fluff up or pecking in defense if disturbed or removed. The hen will rarely leave the nest to eat, drink, or dust-bathe. While brooding, the hen maintains the nest at a constant temperature and humidity, as well as turning the eggs regularly during the first part of the incubation. To stimulate broodiness, owners may place several artificial eggs in the nest. To discourage it, they may place the hen in an elevated cage with an open wire floor.\n\nBreeds artificially developed for egg production rarely go broody, and those that do often stop part-way through the incubation. However, other breeds, such as the Cochin, Cornish and Silkie, do regularly go broody, and they make excellent mothers, not only for chicken eggs but also for those of other species \u2014 even those with much smaller or larger eggs and different incubation periods, such as quail, pheasants, ducks, turkeys, or geese.\n\n\n==== Hatching and early life ====\nFertile chicken eggs hatch at the end of the incubation period, about 21 days. Development of the chick starts only when incubation begins, so all chicks hatch within a day or two of each other, despite perhaps being laid over a period of two weeks or so.  Before hatching, the hen can hear the chicks peeping inside the eggs, and will gently cluck to stimulate them to break out of their shells. The chick begins by \"pipping\"; pecking a breathing hole with its egg tooth towards the blunt end of the egg, usually on the upper side.  The chick then rests for some hours, absorbing the remaining egg yolk and withdrawing the blood supply from the membrane beneath the shell (used earlier for breathing through the shell).  The chick then enlarges the hole, gradually turning round as it goes, and eventually severing the blunt end of the shell completely to make a lid.  The chick crawls out of the remaining shell, and the wet down dries out in the warmth of the nest.\nHens usually remain on the nest for about two days after the first chick hatches, and during this time the newly hatched chicks feed by absorbing the internal yolk sac. Some breeds sometimes start eating cracked eggs, which can become habitual. Hens fiercely guard their chicks, and brood them when necessary to keep them warm, at first often returning to the nest at night. She leads them to food and water and will call them toward edible items, but seldom feeds them directly. She continues to care for them until they are several weeks old.\n\n\n==== Defensive behaviour ====\nChickens may occasionally gang up on a weak or inexperienced predator. At least one credible report exists of a young fox killed by hens. A group of hens have been recorded in attacking a hawk that had entered their coop.If a chicken is threatened by predators, stress, or is sick, there is a chance that they will puff up their feathers.\n\n\n=== Reproduction ===\nSperm transfer occurs by cloacal contact between the male and female, in a maneuver known as the \"cloacal kiss\". As with birds in general, reproduction is controlled by a neuroendocrine system, the Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone-I neurons in the hypothalamus. Locally to the reproductive system itself, reproductive hormones such as estrogen, progesterone, gonadotropins (luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone) initiate and maintain sexual maturation changes. Over time there is reproductive decline, thought to be due to GnRH-I-N decline. Because there is significant inter-individual variability in egg-producing duration, it is believed to be possible to breed for further extended useful lifetime in egg-layers.\n\n\n=== Embryology ===\n\nChicken embryos have long been used as model systems to study developing embryos. Large numbers of embryos can be  provided by commercial chicken farmers who sell fertilized eggs which can be easily opened and used to observe the developing embryo. Equally important, embryologists can carry out experiments on such embryos, close the egg again and study the effect later on. For instance, many important discoveries in the area of limb development have been made using chicken embryos, such as the discovery of the apical ectodermal ridge (AER) and the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA) by John W. Saunders.In 2006, scientists researching the ancestry of birds \"turned on\" a chicken recessive gene, talpid2, and found that the embryo jaws initiated formation of teeth, like those found in ancient bird fossils. John Fallon, the overseer of the project, stated that chickens have \"...retained the ability to make teeth, under certain conditions... .\"\n\n\n=== Genetics and genomics ===\nGiven its eminent role in farming, meat production, but also research, the house chicken was the first bird genome to be sequenced. At 1.21 Gb, the chicken genome is considerably smaller than other vertebrate genomes, such as the human genome (3 Gb). The final gene set contained 26,640 genes (including noncoding genes and pseudogenes), with a total of 19,119 protein-coding genes in annotation release 103 (2017), a similar number of protein-coding genes as in the human genome.\n\n\n=== Physiology ===\nPopulations of chickens from high altitude regions like Tibet have special physiological adaptations that result in a higher hatching rate in low oxygen environments. When eggs are placed in a hypoxic environment, chicken embryos from these populations express much more hemoglobin than embryos from other chicken populations. This hemoglobin also has a greater affinity for oxygen, allowing hemoglobin to bind to oxygen more readily.\n\n\n== Breeding ==\n\n\n=== Origins ===\n\nGalliformes, the order of bird that chickens belong to, is directly linked to the survival of birds when all other dinosaurs went extinct. Water or ground-dwelling fowl, similar to modern partridges, survived the Cretaceous\u2013Paleogene extinction event that killed all tree-dwelling birds and dinosaurs. Some of these evolved into the modern galliformes, of which domesticated chickens are a main model. They are descended primarily from the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) and are scientifically classified as the same species. As such, domesticated chickens can and do freely interbreed with populations of red junglefowl. Subsequent hybridization of the domestic chicken with grey junglefowl, Sri Lankan junglefowl and green junglefowl occurred; a gene for yellow skin, for instance, was incorporated into domestic birds through hybridization with the grey junglefowl (G. sonneratii).  In a study published in 2020, it was found that chickens shared between 71% - 79% of their genome with red junglefowl, with the period of domestication dated to 8,000 years ago.\n\nThe traditional view is that chickens were first domesticated for cockfighting in Asia, Africa, and Europe. In the last decade, there have been a number of genetic studies to clarify the origins. According to one early study, a single domestication event of the red junglefowl in what now is the country of Thailand gave rise to the modern chicken with minor transitions separating the modern breeds. The red junglefowl, known as the bamboo fowl in many Southeast Asian languages, is well adapted to take advantage of the vast quantities of seed produced during the end of the multi-decade bamboo seeding cycle, to boost its own reproduction. In domesticating the chicken, humans took advantage of this predisposition for prolific reproduction of the red junglefowl when exposed to large amounts of food.Exactly when and where the chicken was domesticated remains a controversial issue. Genomic studies estimate that the chicken was domesticated 8,000 years ago in South East Asia and spread to China and India 2000\u20133000 years later.  Archaeological evidence supports domestic chickens in Southeast Asia well before 6000 BC, China by 6000 BC and India by 2000 BC. A landmark 2020 Nature study that fully sequenced 863 chickens across the world suggests that all domestic chickens originate from a single domestication event of red junglefowl whose present-day distribution is predominantly in southwestern China, northern Thailand and Myanmar. These domesticated chickens spread across Southeast and South Asia where they interbred with local wild species of junglefowl, forming genetically and geographically distinct groups. Analysis of the most popular commercial breed shows that the White Leghorn breed possesses a mosaic of divergent ancestries inherited from subspecies of red junglefowl.Middle Eastern chicken remains go back to a little earlier than 2000 BC in Syria; chickens went southward only in the 1st millennium BC. They reached Egypt for purposes of cockfighting about 1400 BC, and became widely bred only in Ptolemaic Egypt (about 300 BC). Phoenicians spread chickens along the Mediterranean coasts as far as Iberia. During the Hellenistic period (4th-2nd centuries BC), in the Southern Levant, chickens began to be widely domesticated for food. This change occurred at least 100 years before domestication of chickens spread to Europe.\nChickens reached Europe circa 800 BC. Breeding increased under the Roman Empire, and was reduced in the Middle Ages.  Genetic sequencing of chicken bones from archaeological sites in Europe revealed that in the High Middle Ages chickens became less aggressive and began to lay eggs earlier in the breeding season.Three possible routes of introduction into Africa around the early first millennium AD could have been through the Egyptian Nile Valley, the East Africa Roman-Greek or Indian trade, or from Carthage and the Berbers, across the Sahara. The earliest known remains are from Mali, Nubia, East Coast, and South Africa and date back to the middle of the first millennium AD.Domestic chicken in the Americas before Western contact is still an ongoing discussion, but blue-egged chickens, found only in the Americas and Asia, suggest an Asian origin for early American chickens.A lack of data from Thailand, Russia, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa makes it difficult to lay out a clear map of the spread of chickens in these areas; better description and genetic analysis of local breeds threatened by extinction may also help with research into this area.\n\n\n==== South America ====\nAn unusual variety of chicken that has its origins in South America is the Araucana, bred in southern Chile by the Mapuche people. Araucanas lay blue-green eggs. Additionally, some Araucanas are tailless, and some have tufts of feathers around their ears. It has long been suggested that they pre-date the arrival of European chickens brought by the Spanish and are evidence of pre-Columbian trans-Pacific contacts between Asian or Pacific Oceanic peoples, particularly the Polynesians, and South America. In 2007, an international team of researchers reported the results of their analysis of chicken bones found on the Arauco Peninsula in south-central Chile. Radiocarbon dating suggested that the chickens were pre-Columbian, and DNA analysis showed that they were related to prehistoric populations of chickens in Polynesia. These results appeared to confirm that the chickens came from Polynesia and that there were transpacific contacts between Polynesia and South America before Columbus's arrival in the Americas.However, a later report looking at the same specimens concluded:\n\nA published, apparently pre-Columbian, Chilean specimen and six pre-European Polynesian specimens also cluster with the same European/Indian subcontinental/Southeast Asian sequences, providing no support for a Polynesian introduction of chickens to South America. In contrast, sequences from two archaeological sites on Easter Island group with an uncommon haplogroup from Indonesia, Japan, and China and may represent a genetic signature of an early Polynesian dispersal. Modeling of the potential marine carbon contribution to the Chilean archaeological specimen casts further doubt on claims for pre-Columbian chickens, and definitive proof will require further analyses of ancient DNA sequences and radiocarbon and stable isotope data from archaeological excavations within both Chile and Polynesia.\n\nThe debate for and against a Polynesian origin for South American chickens continued with this 2014 paper and subsequent responses in PNAS.\n\n\n== Use by humans ==\n\n\n=== Farming ===\n\nMore than 50 billion chickens are reared annually as a source of  meat and eggs. In the United States alone, more than 8 billion chickens are slaughtered each year for meat, and more than 300 million chickens are reared for egg production.The vast majority of poultry are raised in factory farms. According to the Worldwatch Institute, 74 percent of the world's poultry meat and 68 percent of eggs are produced this way. An alternative to intensive poultry farming is free-range farming.\nFriction between these two main methods has led to long-term issues of ethical consumerism. Opponents of intensive farming argue that it harms the environment, creates human health risks and is inhumane. Advocates of intensive farming say that their highly efficient systems save land and food resources owing to increased productivity, and that the animals are looked after in state-of-the-art environmentally controlled facilities.\n\n\n==== Reared for meat ====\n\nChickens farmed for meat are called broilers. Chickens will naturally live for six or more years, but broiler breeds typically take less than six weeks to reach slaughter size. A free range or organic broiler will usually be slaughtered at about 14 weeks of age.\n\n\n==== Reared for eggs ====\n\nChickens farmed primarily for eggs are called layer hens. In total, the UK alone consumes more than 34 million eggs per day. Some hen breeds can produce over 300 eggs per year, with \"the highest authenticated rate of egg laying being 371 eggs in 364 days\".  After 12 months of laying, the commercial hen's egg-laying ability starts to decline to the point where the flock is commercially unviable.  Hens, particularly from battery cage systems, are sometimes infirm or have lost a significant amount of their feathers, and their life expectancy has been reduced from around seven years to less than two years.  In the UK and Europe, laying hens are then slaughtered and used in processed foods or sold as \"soup hens\".  In some other countries, flocks are sometimes force moulted, rather than being slaughtered, to re-invigorate egg-laying.  This involves complete withdrawal of food (and sometimes water) for 7\u201314 days or sufficiently long to cause a body weight loss of 25 to 35%, or up to 28 days under experimental conditions. This stimulates the hen to lose her feathers, but also re-invigorates egg-production.  Some flocks may be force-moulted several times.  In 2003, more than 75% of all flocks were moulted in the US.\n\n\n=== As pets ===\n\nKeeping chickens as pets became increasingly popular in the 2000s among urban and suburban residents. Many people obtain chickens for their egg production but often name them and treat them as any other pet like cats or dogs. Chickens provide companionship and have individual personalities. While many do not cuddle much, they will eat from one's hand, jump onto one's lap, respond to and follow their handlers, as well as show affection.Chickens are social, inquisitive, intelligent birds, and many find their behaviour entertaining. Certain breeds, such as Silkies and many bantam varieties, are generally docile and are often recommended as good pets around children with disabilities. Many people feed chickens in part with kitchen food scraps.\n\n\n=== Cockfighting ===\n\nA cockfight is a contest held in a ring called a cockpit between two cocks known as gamecocks. This term, denoting a cock kept for game, sport, pastime or entertainment, appears in 1646, after \"cock of the game\" used by George Wilson in the earliest known book on the secular sport, The Commendation of Cocks and Cock Fighting of 1607. Gamecocks are not typical farm chickens. The cocks are specially bred and trained for increased stamina and strength. The comb and wattle are removed from a young gamecock because, if left intact, they would be a disadvantage during a match. This process is called dubbing. Sometimes the cocks are given drugs to increase their stamina or thicken their blood, which increases their chances of winning. Cockfighting is considered a traditional sporting event by some, and an example of animal cruelty by others and is therefore outlawed in most countries. Usually wagers are made on the outcome of the match, with the survivor or last bird standing declared winner.\nChickens were originally used for cockfighting, a sport where 2 male chickens or \"cocks\" fight each other until one dies or becomes badly injured. Cocks possess congenital aggression toward all other cocks to contest with females. Studies suggest that cockfights have existed even up to the Indus Valley Civilisation as a pastime. Today it is commonly associated with religious worship, pastime, and gambling in Asian and some South American countries. While not all fights are to the death, most use metal spurs as a \"weapon\" attached above or below the chicken's own spur and with this typically results in death in one or both cocks. If chickens are in practice owners place gloves on the spurs to prevent injuries. Cockfighting has been banned in most western countries and debated by animal rights activist for its brutality.\n\n\n=== Artificial incubation ===\n\nIncubation can successfully occur artificially in machines that provide the correct, controlled environment for the developing chick. The average incubation period for chickens is 21 days but may depend on the temperature and humidity in the incubator. Temperature regulation is the most critical factor for a successful hatch. Variations of more than 1 \u00b0C (1.8 \u00b0F) from the optimum temperature of 37.5 \u00b0C (99.5 \u00b0F) will reduce hatch rates. Humidity is also important because the rate at which eggs lose water by evaporation depends on the ambient relative humidity. Evaporation can be assessed by candling, to view the size of the air sac, or by measuring weight loss. Relative humidity should be increased to around 70% in the last three days of incubation to keep the membrane around the hatching chick from drying out after the chick cracks the shell. Lower humidity is usual in the first 18 days to ensure adequate evaporation. The position of the eggs in the incubator can also influence hatch rates. For best results, eggs should be placed with the pointed ends down and turned regularly (at least three times per day) until one to three days before hatching. If the eggs aren't turned, the embryo inside may stick to the shell and may hatch with physical defects. Adequate ventilation is necessary to provide the embryo with oxygen. Older eggs require increased ventilation.\nMany commercial incubators are industrial-sized with shelves holding tens of thousands of eggs at a time, with rotation of the eggs a fully automated process. Home incubators are boxes holding from 6 to 75 eggs; they are usually electrically powered, but in the past some were heated with an oil or paraffin lamp.\n\n\n== Diseases and ailments ==\n\nChickens are susceptible to several parasites, including lice, mites, ticks, fleas, and intestinal worms, as well as other diseases.  Despite the name, they are not affected by chickenpox, which is generally restricted to humans.Chickens can carry and transmit salmonella in their dander and feces. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention advise against bringing them indoors or letting small children handle them.Some of the diseases that can affect chickens are shown below:\n\n\n== History ==\n\nAn early domestication of chickens in Southeast Asia is probable, since the word for domestic chicken (*manuk) is part of the reconstructed Proto-Austronesian language (see Austronesian languages). Chickens, together with dogs and pigs, were the domestic animals of the Lapita culture, the first Neolithic culture of Oceania.The first pictures of chickens in Europe are found on Corinthian pottery of the 7th century BC.Chickens were spread by Polynesian seafarers and reached Easter Island in the 12th century AD, where they were the only domestic animal, with the possible exception of the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans). They were housed in extremely solid chicken coops built from stone, which was first reported as such to Linton Palmer in 1868, who also \"expressed his doubts about this\".\n\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n=== Roosters ===\nRooster Flag (disambiguation)\nCock egg\nChicken laugh\nRooster of Barcelos\nRed Junglefowl\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nGreen-Armytage, Stephen (October 2000). Extraordinary Chickens. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-3343-9.\nSmith, Page; Charles Daniel (April 2000). The Chicken Book. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-8203-2213-1.\nBiswas, Siddharth (April 2014). \"Gallus gallus domesticus Linnaeus, 1758: Keep safe your domestic fowl from your domestic foul\". Ambient Science. 1 (1): 41\u201343. doi:10.21276/ambi.2014.01.1.nn02.\nAndrew Lawler (2014). Why Did the Chicken Cross the World?: The Epic Saga of the Bird that Powers Civilization. Atria Books. ISBN 978-1-4767-2989-3.\n\n\n== External links ==\n Media related to Roosters at Wikimedia Commons\n\nChickens at Curlie\nVideo: Chick hatching from egg", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/1911_EB_Chicken_skull.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/A_95_year_old_woman_with_her_pet_rooster%2C_Havana%2C_Cuba.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Azure%2C_a_bend_Or.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Backyard_heritage_chickens_eating_kitchen_food_waste.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/BatteryChicken5DaysOutOfCage.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Brown_Leghorn_rooster_in_Australia.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Canterino_Gallo.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Cascais_Costa_do_Esteril_52_%2836583204550%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Chicken_anatomy.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Chicken_eggs.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Coat-elements.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Cocks_Fighting.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Cr%C3%A1neoAve.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Didactic_model_of_a_chicken--FMVZ_USP-29.jpeg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Egg_incubator.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Embryo.ogv", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Falconry_Book_of_Frederick_II_1240s_detail_falconers.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Female_pair.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Florida_chicken_house.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Fourrure_h%C3%A9raldique_Hermine.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Fourrure_h%C3%A9raldique_Vair.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/GLW_2_global_distributions_of_c%29_chickens.tif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Gallus_gallus_male_Kaziranga_0.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Hen_Comb.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Hen_with_chicks%2C_Raisen_district%2C_MP%2C_India.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Joseph_Crawhall_-_Spanish_Cock_And_Snail.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Kr%C3%A4hrufBergischerKr%C3%A4her.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/K%C3%BCken_vor_dem_ersten_Ausflug.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Laitila_vaakuna.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Lavender_Orpington_Chicken.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Lavender%E2%80%99s_Portrait.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/More_chicks.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Red_Junglefowl_hen_India.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Red_Pencil_Icon.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Red_junglefowl_hm.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Rooster_crowing_small.ogv", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%BF_%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2IMG20191207080730-01.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Rooster_portrait2.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg"], "summary": "The chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), a subspecies of the red junglefowl, is a type of domesticated fowl, originally from  Southeastern Asia. Rooster or cock is a term for an adult male bird, and younger male may be called a cockerel. A male that has been castrated is a capon. The adult female bird is called a hen and a sexually immature female is called a pullet.\nOriginally raised for cockfighting or for special ceremonies, chickens were not kept for food until the Hellenistic period (4th\u20132nd centuries BCE). Humans now keep chickens primarily as a source of food (consuming both their meat and eggs) and as pets.\nChickens are one of the most common and widespread domestic animals, with a total population of 23.7 billion as of 2018, up from more than 19 billion in 2011. There are more chickens in the world than any other bird. There are numerous cultural references to chickens \u2013 in myth, folklore and religion, and in language and literature.\nGenetic studies have pointed to multiple maternal origins in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia, but the clade found in the Americas, Europe, the Middle East and Africa originated from the Indian subcontinent. From ancient India, the chicken spread to Lydia in western Asia Minor, and to Greece by the 5th century BCE. Fowl have been known in Egypt since the mid-15th century BCE, with the \"bird that gives birth every day\" having come from the land between Syria and Shinar, Babylonia, according to the annals of Thutmose III."}, "Knemidokoptes_mutans": {"links": ["Taxonomy ", "National Biodiversity Network", "Holothyrida", "Nuttalliella", "Parasitiformes", "Trigynaspida", "Enarthronota", "Opilioacariformes", "Global Biodiversity Information Facility", "Knemidokoptes", "Argasidae", "Tick", "Oribatida", "Wikidata", "Psoroptidia", "Neothyridae", "Binomial nomenclature", "Sarcoptiformes", "Allothyridae", "Prostigmata", "Trombidiformes", "Brachypylina", "Acariformes", "Epidermoptidae", "Holothyridae", "Ixodidae", "EPPO Code", "Sejina", "Animal", "Mite", "Sphaerolichida", "Mesostigmata", "Arachnida", "Mixonomata", "Palaeosomata", "Endeostigmata", "Acari", "Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera", "INaturalist", "Parhyposomata", "Arthropoda", "Holosomata", "Monogynaspida"], "content": "Knemidokoptes mutans is a species of mite. It was described by Robin and Lanquentin in 1859. There are no listed subspecies.\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Tectodamaeus_yaoi.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Amblyomma_americanum_tick.jpg"], "summary": "Knemidokoptes mutans is a species of mite. It was described by Robin and Lanquentin in 1859. There are no listed subspecies."}, "Knemidokoptes": {"links": ["Barcode of Life Data System", "Knemidokoptes pilae", "Synonym ", "Wikidata", "Encyclopedia of Life", "Sarcoptiformes", "National Center for Biotechnology Information", "National Biodiversity Network", "INaturalist", "Taxonomy ", "Knemidokoptidae", "Wikispecies", "Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera", "Mites", "ISBN ", "Atlantic canary", "Arthropoda", "Parakeet", "Animalia", "Knemidokoptes mutans", "Gallinaceous birds", "Global Biodiversity Information Facility", "EPPO Code", "Arachnida"], "content": "Knemidokoptes is a genus of parasitic mites in the family Knemidokoptidae that infect the skin or feather follicles of birds, especially gallinaceous birds (chickens, pheasants, and relatives) as well as parakeets and canaries.\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Knemidocoptes-mite.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Tectodamaeus_yaoi.jpg"], "summary": "Knemidokoptes is a genus of parasitic mites in the family Knemidokoptidae that infect the skin or feather follicles of birds, especially gallinaceous birds (chickens, pheasants, and relatives) as well as parakeets and canaries."}, "Canterbury": {"links": ["University college", "Henry IV of England", "St Lawrence Ground", "Polyphony", "Caer", "Canterbury City Council", "Canterbury Guildhall", "Swanley", "Tour de France", "nineteen ninety-nine Cricket World Cup", "Blondie ", "Kent Fire and Rescue Service", "Labour Party ", "Lydd", "Geoffrey Fisher", "John Marsh ", "Peter Maxwell Davies", "Southern Counties East Football League", "Nackington", "John of England", "Spanish Netherlands", "Dr. Feelgood ", "Municipal Corporations Act eighteen thirty-five", "South Eastern Railway ", "Sean Kerly", "Battle of Maidstone", "Canterbury South railway station", "Kent Police", "Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Rainham, Kent", "Soft Heap", "Queen Elizabeth II", "St 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Somerset Maugham", "Canterbury Parkway railway station", "Heritage site", "Lower Hardres", "Roman baths", "Kingston, Kent", "Trevor Pinnock", "Sackbut", "Tenterden", "Sub-Roman Britain", "City of Canterbury", "Whitefriars Shopping Centre", "Paddock Wood", "Bridge, Kent", "Soft Machine", "Upper Hardres", "Geographic coordinate system", "List of places in Kent", "KMFM Canterbury", "Dover", "\u00c6lfheah of Canterbury", "Paris", "Fordwich", "Flag of Kent", "Christian pilgrimage", "Fellow of the British Academy", "List of windmills in Kent", "Christopher Marlowe", "Catch ", "Dartford", "Westgate, Canterbury", "St Augustine's College, Canterbury", "Anno Domini", "The Who", "Grade II* listed buildings in Kent", "Simon Langton Grammar School for Boys", "Ordnance Survey National Grid", "Edmund Reid", "Saint-Omer", "South Eastern & Chatham Railway", "First World War"], "content": "Canterbury ( (listen), ) is a cathedral city and UNESCO World Heritage Site, situated in the heart of the City of Canterbury, a local government district of Kent, England. It lies on the River Stour.\nThe Archbishop of Canterbury is the primate of the Church of England and the worldwide Anglican Communion owing to the importance of St Augustine, who served as the apostle to the pagan Kingdom of Kent around the turn of the 7th century. The city's cathedral became a major focus of pilgrimage following the 1170 martyrdom of Thomas Becket, although it had already been a well-trodden pilgrim destination since the murder of St Alphege by the men of King Canute in 1012. A journey of pilgrims to Becket's shrine served as the frame for Geoffrey Chaucer's 14th-century classic The Canterbury Tales.\nCanterbury is a popular tourist destination: consistently one of the most-visited cities in the United Kingdom, the city's economy is heavily reliant upon tourism. The city has been occupied since Paleolithic times and served as the capital of the Celtic Cantiaci and Jute Kingdom of Kent. Many historical structures fill the area, including a city wall founded in Roman times and rebuilt in the 14th century, the ruins of St Augustine's Abbey and a Norman castle, and the oldest extant school in the world, the King's School. Modern additions include the Marlowe Theatre and the St Lawrence Ground, home of the Kent County Cricket Club. There is also a substantial student population, brought about by the presence of the University of Kent, Canterbury Christ Church University, the University for the Creative Arts, and the Girne American University Canterbury campus. Canterbury remains, however, a small city in terms of geographical size and population, when compared with other British cities.\n\n\n== Name ==\nThe Roman settlement of Durovernum Cantiacorum (\"Kentish Durovernum\") occupied the location of an earlier British town whose ancient British name has been reconstructed as *Durou\u032fernon (\"stronghold by the alder grove\"), although the name is sometimes supposed to have derived from various British names for the Stour. (Medieval variants of the Roman name include Dorobernia and Dorovernia.) In Sub-Roman Britain, it was known in Old Welsh as Cair Ceint (\"stronghold of Kent\"). Occupied by the Jutes, it became known in Old English as Cantwareburh (\"stronghold of the Kentish men\"), which developed into the present name.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Early history ===\n\nThe Canterbury area has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Lower Paleolithic axes, and Neolithic and Bronze Age pots have been found in the area. Canterbury was first recorded as the main settlement of the Celtic tribe of the Cantiaci, which inhabited most of modern-day Kent. In the 1st century AD, the Romans captured the settlement and named it Durovernum Cantiacorum. The Romans rebuilt the city, with new streets in a grid pattern, a theatre, a temple, a forum, and public baths. Although they did not maintain a major military garrison, its position on Watling Street relative to the major Kentish ports of Rutupiae (Richborough), Dubrae (Dover), and Lemanae (Lymne) gave it considerable strategic importance. In the late 3rd century, to defend against attack from barbarians, the Romans built an earth bank around the city and a wall with seven gates, which enclosed an area of 130 acres (53 ha).\n\nDespite being counted as one of the 28 cities of Sub-Roman Britain, it seems that after the Romans left Britain in 410 Durovernum Cantiacorum was abandoned for around 100 years, except by a few farmers and gradually decayed. Over the next 100 years, an Anglo-Saxon community formed within the city walls, as Jutish refugees arrived, possibly intermarrying with the locals. In 597, Pope Gregory the Great sent Augustine to convert its King \u00c6thelberht to Christianity. After the conversion, Canterbury, being a Roman town, was chosen by Augustine as the centre for his episcopal see in Kent, and an abbey and cathedral were built. Augustine thus became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. The town's new importance led to its revival, and trades developed in pottery, textiles, and leather. By 630, gold coins were being struck at the Canterbury mint. In 672, the Synod of Hertford gave the see of Canterbury authority over the entire English Church.In 842 and 851, Canterbury suffered great loss of life during Danish raids. In 978, Archbishop Dunstan refounded the abbey built by Augustine, and named it St Augustine's Abbey. The siege of Canterbury saw a large Viking army besiege Canterbury in 1011, culminating in the city being pillaged and the eventual murder of Archbishop Alphege in 19 April 1012. Remembering the destruction caused by the Danes, the inhabitants of Canterbury did not resist William the Conqueror's invasion in 1066. William immediately ordered a wooden motte-and-bailey castle to be built by the Roman city wall. In the early 12th century, the castle was rebuilt with stone.\n\nAfter the murder of the Archbishop Thomas Becket at the cathedral in 1170, Canterbury became one of the most notable towns in Europe, as pilgrims from all parts of Christendom came to visit his shrine. This pilgrimage provided the framework for Geoffrey Chaucer's 14th-century collection of stories, The Canterbury Tales. Canterbury Castle was captured by the French Prince Louis during his 1215 invasion of England, before the death of John caused his English supporters to desert his cause and support the young Henry III.Canterbury is associated with several saints from this period who lived in Canterbury:\n\nSaint Augustine of Canterbury\nSaint Anselm of Canterbury\nSaint Thomas Becket\nSaint Mellitus\nSaint Theodore of Tarsus\nSaint Dunstan\nSaint Adrian of Canterbury\nSaint Alphege\nSaint \u00c6thelberht of Kent\n\n\n=== 14th\u201317th centuries ===\n\nThe Black Death hit Canterbury in 1348. At 10,000, Canterbury had the 10th largest population in England; by the early 16th century, the population had fallen to 3,000. In 1363, during the Hundred Years' War, a Commission of Inquiry found that disrepair, stone-robbing and ditch-filling had led to the Roman wall becoming eroded. Between 1378 and 1402, the wall was virtually rebuilt, and new wall towers were added. In 1381, during Wat Tyler's Peasants' Revolt, the castle and Archbishop's Palace were sacked, and Archbishop Sudbury was beheaded in London. Sudbury is still remembered annually by the Christmas mayoral procession to his tomb at Canterbury Cathedral. In 1413 Henry IV became the only sovereign to be buried at the cathedral. In 1448 Canterbury was granted a City Charter, which gave it a mayor and a high sheriff; the city still has a Lord Mayor and Sheriff. In 1504 the cathedral's main tower, the Bell Harry Tower, was completed, ending 400 years of building.\n\nCardinal Wolsey visited in June 1518 and was given a present of fruit, nuts, and marchpane. In 1519 a public cage for talkative women and other wrongdoers was set up next to the town's pillory at the Bullstake, now the Buttermarket. In 1522 a stone cross with gilt lead stars was erected at the same place, and painted with bice and gilded by Florence the painter. During the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the city's priory, nunnery and three friaries were closed. St Augustine's Abbey, the 14th richest in England at the time, was surrendered to the Crown, and its church and cloister were levelled. The rest of the abbey was dismantled over the next 15 years, although part of the site was converted to a palace. Thomas Becket's shrine in the cathedral was demolished and all the gold, silver and jewels were removed to the Tower of London, and Becket's images, name and feasts were obliterated throughout the kingdom, ending the pilgrimages.\nBy the 17th century, Canterbury's population was 5,000; of whom 2,000 were French-speaking Protestant Huguenots, who had begun fleeing persecution and war in the Spanish Netherlands in the mid-16th century. The Huguenots introduced silk weaving into the city, which by 1676 had outstripped wool weaving.In 1620 Robert Cushman negotiated the lease of the Mayflower at 59 Palace Street for the purpose of transporting the Pilgrims to America. Charles I and Henrietta Maria came in 1625 and musicians played while the couple entered the town under a velvet canopy held by six men holding poles.In 1647, during the English Civil War, riots broke out when Canterbury's puritan mayor banned church services on Christmas Day. The rioters' trial the following year led to a Kent revolt against the Parliamentarian forces, contributing to the start of the second phase of the war. However, Canterbury surrendered peacefully to the Parliamentarians after their victory at the Battle of Maidstone.\n\n\n=== 18th century\u2013present ===\n\nThe city's first newspaper, the Kentish Post, was founded in 1717. It merged with the newly founded Kentish Gazette in 1768.By 1770, the castle had fallen into disrepair, and many parts of it were demolished during the late 18th century and early 19th century.  In 1787 all the gates in the city wall, except for Westgate\u2014the city jail\u2014were demolished as a result of a commission that found them impeding to new coach travel. Canterbury Prison was opened in 1808 just outside the city boundary. By 1820 the city's silk industry had been killed by imported Indian muslins; its trade was thereafter mostly limited to hops and wheat. The Canterbury & Whitstable Railway (The Crab and Winkle Way), the world's first passenger railway, was opened in 1830; bankrupt by 1844, it was purchased by the South Eastern Railway, which connected the town to its larger network in 1846. The London, Chatham & Dover Railway arrived in 1860; the competition and cost-cutting between the lines was resolved by merging them as the South Eastern & Chatham in 1899. In 1848, St Augustine's Abbey was refurbished for use as a missionary college for the Church of England's representatives in the British colonies. Between 1830 and 1900, the city's population grew from 15,000 to 24,000.\n\nDuring the First World War, a number of barracks and voluntary hospitals were set up around the city, and in 1917 a German bomber crash-landed near Broad Oak Road.During the Second World War, 10,445 bombs dropped during 135 separate raids destroyed 731 homes and 296 other buildings in the city, including the missionary college and Simon Langton Girls' Grammar Schools. 119 civilian lives were lost through enemy action in the borough. The most devastating raid was on 1 June 1942 during the Baedeker Blitz. On that day alone, 43 people were killed and nearly 100 sustained wounds. Some 800 buildings were destroyed with 1,000 seriously damaged. Although its library was destroyed, the cathedral did not sustain extensive bomb damage and the local Fire Wardens doused any flames on the wooden roof. On 31 October 1942, the Luftwaffe made a further raid on Canterbury when thirty Focke-Wulf fighter-bombers, supported by sixty fighter escorts, launched a low-level raid on Canterbury. Civilians were strafed and bombed throughout the city resulting in twenty-eight bombs dropped and 30 people killed. Three German planes were shot down by the Royal Air Force.\nBefore the end of the war, architect Charles Holden drew up plans to redevelop the city centre, but locals were so opposed that the Citizens' Defence Association was formed and swept to power in the 1945 municipal elections. Rebuilding of the city centre eventually began 10 years after the war. A ring road was constructed in stages outside the city walls some time afterwards to alleviate growing traffic problems in the city centre, which was later pedestrianised. The biggest expansion of the city occurred in the 1960s, with the arrival of the University of Kent at Canterbury and Christ Church College.\n\nThe 1980s saw visits from Pope John Paul II and Queen Elizabeth II, and the beginning of the annual Canterbury Festival. Canterbury received its own radio station in CTFM, now KMFM Canterbury, in 1997. Between 1999 and 2005, the Whitefriars Shopping Centre underwent major redevelopment. In 2000, during the redevelopment, a major archaeological project was undertaken by the Canterbury Archaeological Trust, known as the Big Dig, which was supported by Channel Four's Time Team.Another famous visitor was Mahatma Gandhi, who came to the city\nin October 1931; he met Hewlett Johnson, the pro-communist then Dean of Canterbury.\nThe extensive restoration of the cathedral that was underway in mid 2018 was part of a 2016-2021 schedule that includes replacement of the nave roof, improved landscaping and accessibility, new visitor facilities and a general external restoration. The so-called Canterbury Journey project was expected to cost nearly \u00a325 million.\n\n\n== Governance ==\nThe Member of Parliament for the Canterbury constituency, which includes Whitstable, is Rosie Duffield of the Labour Party.\nThe city became a county corporate in 1461, and later a county borough under the Local Government Act 1888. In 1974 it lost its status as the smallest county borough in England, after the Local Government Act 1972, and came under the control of Kent County Council. Canterbury, along with Whitstable and Herne Bay, is now in the City of Canterbury local government district. The city's urban area consists of the six electoral wards of Barton, Blean Forest, Northgate, St Stephens, Westgate, and Wincheap. These wards have eleven of the fifty seats on the Canterbury City Council. Six of these seats are held by the Liberal Democrats, four by the Conservatives and one by Labour. Canterbury City Council's meeting place is the former Church of the Holy Cross. After it was declared redundant and de-consecrated in 1972, it was acquired by the city council and converted for municipal use: it was officially re-opened by the Prince of Wales as the new Canterbury Guildhall and meeting place of the city council on 9 November 1978.\n\n\n== Geography ==\n\nCanterbury is in east Kent, about 55 miles (89 km) east-southeast of London. The coastal towns of Herne Bay and Whitstable are 6 miles (10 km) to the north, and Faversham is 8 miles (13 km) to the northwest. Nearby villages include Chartham, Rough Common, Sturry and Tyler Hill. The civil parish of Thanington Without is to the southwest; the rest of the city is unparished. St Dunstan's, St Stephen's, Longport, Stuppington, Wincheap and Hales Place are suburbs of the city.\nThe city is on the River Stour or Great Stour, flowing from its source at Lenham north-east through Ashford to the English Channel at Sandwich. As it flows north-east, the river divides west of the city, one branch flowing through the city centre, and the other around the position of the former walls. The two branches create several river islands before finally recombining around the town of Fordwich on the edge of the marshland north east of the city. The Stour is navigable on the tidal section to Fordwich, although above this point canoes and other small craft can be used. Punts and rowed river boats are available for hire in Canterbury.\nThe geology of the area consists mainly of brickearth overlying chalk. Tertiary sands overlain by London clay form St. Thomas's Hill and St. Stephen's Hill about a mile northwest of the city centre.\n\n\n== Climate ==\nCanterbury experiences an oceanic climate (K\u00f6ppen climate classification Cfb), similar to almost all of the United Kingdom. Canterbury enjoys mild temperatures all year round, being between 1.8 \u00b0C (35.2 \u00b0F) and 22.8 \u00b0C (73 \u00b0F). There is relatively little rainfall throughout the year.\n\n\n== Demography ==\n\nAt the 2001 UK census, the total population of the city itself was 43,432, and 135,278 within the Canterbury district. In 2011, the total district population was counted as 151,200, with an 11.7% increase from 2001.By 2011, the population of the city had grown to over 55,000.In both cases, the city concentrates about one third of the district population.\nBy 2001, residents of the city had an average age of 37.1 years, younger than the 40.2 average of the district and the 38.6 average for England. Of the 17,536 households, 35% were one-person households, 39% were couples, 10% were lone parents, and 15% other. Of those aged 16\u201374 in the city, 27% had a higher education qualification, higher than the 20% national average.\nCompared with the rest of England, the city had an above-average proportion of foreign-born residents, at around 12%. Ninety-five percent of residents were recorded as white; the largest minority group was recorded as Asian, at 1.8% of the population. Religion was recorded as 68.2% Christian, 1.1% Muslim, 0.5% Buddhist, 0.8% Hindu, 0.2% Jewish, and 0.1% Sikh. The rest either had no religion, an alternative religion, or did not state their religion.\n\n\n== Economy ==\n\nCanterbury district retained approximately 4,761 businesses, up to 60,000 full and part-time employees and was worth \u00a31.3 billion in 2001. This made the district the second largest economy in Kent. Today, the three primary sectors are tourism, higher education and retail.\n\nIn 2015, the value of tourism to the city of Canterbury was over \u00a3450 million; 7.2 million people visited that year. A full 9,378 jobs were supported by tourism, an increase of 6% over the previous year. The two universities provided an even greater benefit. In 2014/2015, the University of Kent and Canterbury Christ Church University were worth \u00a3909m to city's economy and accounted for 16% of all jobs.Unemployment in the city has dropped significantly since 2001 owing to the opening of the Whitefriars shopping complex which introduced thousands of job opportunities. The city's economy benefits mainly from significant economic projects such as the Canterbury Enterprise Hub, Lakesview International Business Park and the Whitefriars retail development.The registered unemployment rate as of September 2011 stood at 5.7%. By May 2018, the rate had dropped to 1.8%; in fact, Kent in general had a moderate unemployment rate of 2%. This data considers only people claiming either Jobseekers Allowance or Universal Credit principally for the reason of being unemployed. It does not include those without access to such benefits. At the time, the national rate was 4.2%.\n\n\n== Culture ==\n\n\n=== Landmarks ===\n\nCanterbury Cathedral is the Mother Church of the Anglican Communion and seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Founded in 597 AD by Augustine, it forms a World Heritage Site, along with the Saxon St. Martin's Church and the ruins of St Augustine's Abbey. With one million visitors per year, it is one of the most visited places in the country. Services are held at the cathedral three or more times a day.The Roman Museum houses an in situ mosaic pavement dating from around 300 AD. Surviving structures from the Roman times include Queningate, a blocked gate in the city wall, and the Dane John Mound, once part of a Roman cemetery. The Dane John Gardens were built beside the mound in the 18th century, and a memorial was placed on the mound's summit. A windmill was on the mound between 1731 and 1839.\nThe Westgate is now a museum relating to its history as a jail. The medieval church of St Alphege became redundant in 1982 but had a new lease of life as the Canterbury Urban Studies Centre, later renamed the Canterbury Environment Centre; the building is used by the King's School. The Old Synagogue, now the King's School Music Room, is one of only two Egyptian Revival synagogues still standing. The city centre contains many timber-framed 16th and 17th century houses, however there are far fewer than there were before the Second World War, as many were damaged during the Baedeker Blitz. Many are still standing, including the \"Old Weaver's House\" used by the Huguenots. St Martin's Mill is the only surviving mill out of the six known to have stood in Canterbury. It was built in 1817 and worked until 1890; it is now a house conversion. St Thomas of Canterbury Church is the only Roman Catholic church in the city and contains relics of Thomas Becket.Canterbury Heritage Museum housed many exhibits, including the Rupert Bear Museum. The museum has now closed despite a campaign for it to remain open. The Canterbury Tales visitor attraction, an interactive tour through Chaucer's tales using costumed characters and waxworks, announced its permanent closure in April 2020. The ruins of the Norman Canterbury Castle have remained closed to the public since 2017 due to falling masonry, with plans for the site to reopen in 2021.Herne Bay Times has reported that the Heritage at Risk Register includes 19 listed buildings in Canterbury which need urgent repair but for which the council has insufficient funds.\n\n\n=== Theatres ===\nThe city's theatre and concert hall is the Marlowe Theatre named after Christopher Marlowe, who was born in the city in Elizabethan times. He was baptised in the city's St George's Church, which was destroyed during the Second World War.  The old Marlowe Theatre was located in St Margaret's Street and housed a repertory theatre. The Gulbenkian Theatre, at the University of Kent, also serves the city, housing also a cinema and caf\u00e9. The Marlowe Theatre was completely rebuilt and reopened in October 2011.\nBesides the two theatres, theatrical performances take place at several areas of the city, for instance the cathedral and St Augustine's Abbey. The premiere of Murder in the Cathedral by T. S. Eliot took place at Canterbury Cathedral.The oldest surviving Tudor theatre in Canterbury is now the Shakespeare, formerly known as Casey's. There are several theatre groups based in Canterbury, including the University of Kent Students' Union's T24 Drama Society, The Canterbury Players and Kent Youth Theatre.\n\n\n==== Marlowe Theatre ====\nThe redeveloped Marlowe Theatre is (at the time of writing) the largest theatre in the region, offering touring productions and concerts. The programme includes musicals, drama, ballet, contemporary dance, classical orchestras, opera, children's shows, pantomime, stand-up comedy and concerts. There is also a second performance space called the Marlowe Studio, dedicated to creative activity and the programming of new work.\nThe Marlowe Theatre can be seen from many points throughout the city centre, considering it is the only modern and tall structure.\n\n\n=== Music ===\n\n\n==== The cathedral ====\n\n\n===== Medieval =====\nPolyphonic music written for the monks of Christ Church Priory (the cathedral) survives from the 13th century. The cathedral may have had an organ as early as the 12th century, though the names of organists are only recorded from the early 15th century.\nOne of the earliest named composers associated with Canterbury Cathedral was Leonel Power, who was appointed master of the new Lady Chapel choir formed in 1438.\n\n\n===== Post-Reformation =====\nThe Reformation brought a period of decline in the cathedral's music which was revived under Dean Thomas Neville in the early 17th century. Neville introduced instrumentalists into the cathedral's music who played cornett and sackbut, probably members of the city's band of waits. The cathedral acquired sets of recorders, lutes and viols for the use of the choir boys and lay-clerks.\n\n\n==== The city ====\n\n\n===== Early modern =====\nAs was common in English cities in the Middle Ages, Canterbury employed a town band known as the Waits. There are records of payments to the Waits starting from 1402, though they probably existed earlier than this. The Waits were disbanded by the city authorities in 1641 for 'misdemeanors' but were reinstated in 1660 when they played for the visit of King Charles II on his return from exile. Waits were eventually abolished nationally by the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835. A modern early music group called The Canterbury Waits has revived the name.The Canterbury Catch Club was a musical and social club which met in the city between 1779 and 1865. The club (male only) met weekly in the winter. It employed an orchestra to assist in performances in the first half of the evening. After the interval, the members sang catches and glees from the club's extensive music library (now deposited at the Cathedral Archives in Canterbury).\n\n\n===== Contemporary =====\nThe city gave its name to a musical genre known as the Canterbury Sound or Canterbury Scene, a group of progressive rock, avant-garde and jazz musicians established within the city during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Some very notable Canterbury bands were Soft Machine, Caravan, Matching Mole, Egg, Hatfield and the North, National Health, Gilgamesh, Soft Heap, Khan and In Cahoots. Over the years, with band membership changes and new bands evolving, the term has been used to describe a musical style or subgenre, rather than a regional group of musicians.\nDuring the 1970-80s the Canterbury 'Odeon' now the site of the 'New Marlow' played host to many of the Punk and new wave bands of the era including, The Clash, The Ramones, Blondie, Sham69, Magazine, XTC, Dr Feelgood, Elvis Costello and The Attractions, and The Stranglers.\nThe University of Kent has hosted concerts by bands including Led Zeppelin and The Who. Ian Dury, front man of the 70s rock band Ian Dury and the Blockheads, taught Fine Art at UCA Canterbury and also performed in the city in the early incarnation of his band Kilburn and the High Roads. During the late seventies and early eighties the Canterbury Odeon hosted a number of major acts, including The Cure and Joy Division. The Marlowe Theatre is also used for many musical performances, such as Don McLean in 2007, and Fairport Convention in 2008. A regular music and dance venue is the Westgate Hall.\nThe Canterbury Choral Society gives regular concerts in Canterbury Cathedral, specialising in the large-scale choral works of the classical repertory. The Canterbury Orchestra, founded in 1953, is a thriving group of enthusiastic players who regularly tackle major works from the symphonic repertoire.\nOther musical groups include the Canterbury Singers (also founded in 1953), Cantemus, and the City of Canterbury Chamber Choir.\nThe University of Kent has a Symphony Orchestra, a University Choir, a Chamber Choir, and a University Concert Band and Big Band.The Canterbury Festival takes place over two weeks in October each year in Canterbury and the surrounding towns. It includes a wide range of musical events ranging from opera and symphony concerts to world music, jazz, folk, etc., with a Festival Club, a Fringe and Umbrella events. Canterbury also hosted the annual Lounge On The Farm festival in July, which mainly saw performances from rock, indie and dance artists. It was cancelled in 2015 and is yet to return.\n\n\n==== Composers ====\nComposers with an association with Canterbury include\n\nThomas Tallis (c. 1505\u20131585), became a lay clerk (singing man) at Canterbury Cathedral c. 1540 and was subsequently appointed a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal in 1543.\nJohn Ward (1571\u20131638), born in Canterbury, a chorister at Canterbury Cathedral, composed madrigals, works for viol consort, services, and anthems.\nOrlando Gibbons (1583\u20131625), organist, composer and Gentleman of the Chapel Royal, who died in Canterbury and was buried in the cathedral.\nWilliam Flackton (1709\u20131798), born in Canterbury, a chorister at Canterbury Cathedral, was an organist, viola player and composer.\nJohn Marsh (1752\u20131828), lawyer, amateur composer and concert organiser, wrote two symphonies for the Canterbury Orchestra before moving to Chichester in 1784.\nThomas Clark (1775\u20131859), shoemaker and organist at the Methodist church in Canterbury, composer of 'West Gallery' hymns and psalm tunes.\nSir George Job Elvey (1816\u20131893), organist and composer, was born in Canterbury and trained as a chorister at the cathedral.\nAlan Ridout (1934\u20131996) educator and broadcaster, composer of church, orchestral and chamber music.\nSir Peter Maxwell Davies (1934-2016) was appointed an Honorary Fellow of Canterbury Christ Church University at a ceremony in Canterbury Cathedral.\nMany Canterbury Cathedral organists composed services, anthems, hymns, etc.\n\n\n=== Sport ===\n\nSt Lawrence Ground is notable as one of the two grounds used regularly for first-class cricket that have a tree within the boundary (the other is the City Oval in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa). It is the home ground of Kent County Cricket Club and has hosted several One Day Internationals, including one England match during the 1999 Cricket World Cup.Canterbury City F.C. reformed in 2007 as a community interest company and currently compete in the Southern Counties East Football League. The previous incarnation of the club folded in 2001. Canterbury RFC were founded in 1926 and became the first East Kent club to achieve National League status and currently play in the fourth tier, National League 2 South.The Tour de France has visited the city twice. In 1994 the tour passed through, and in 2007 it held the finish for Stage 1.Canterbury Hockey Club is one of the largest clubs in the country and enter teams in both the Men's and Women's England Hockey Leagues.  Former Olympic gold medal winner Sean Kerly also a member of the club.Sporting activities for the public are provided at the Kingsmead Leisure Centre, which has a 33-metre (108 ft) swimming pool and a sports hall for football, basketball, and badminton.\n\n\n== Transport in the city ==\n\n\n=== Railway ===\n\nCanterbury was the terminus of the Canterbury & Whitstable Railway (known locally as the Crab and Winkle line), which was a pioneer line, opening on 3 May 1830 and closing in 1953. The Canterbury & Whitstable was the first regular passenger steam railway in the world. The first station in Canterbury was at North Lane.\nCanterbury has two railway stations, called Canterbury West and Canterbury East (despite both stations being west of the city centre, Canterbury West is to the northwest and Canterbury East is to the southwest). Both stations are operated by Southeastern. Canterbury West station, on the South Eastern Railway from Ashford, was opened on 6 February 1846, and on 13 April the line to Ramsgate was completed. Canterbury West is served by High Speed 1 trains to London St Pancras, slower stopping services to London Charing Cross and London Victoria as well as by trains to Ramsgate and Margate. Canterbury East, the more central of the two stations, was opened by the London, Chatham & Dover Railway on 9 July 1860. Services from London Victoria stop at Canterbury East and continue to Dover.\nBecause the two main lines into the city were built by rival companies, there is no direct interchange between Canterbury West and Canterbury East. A proposed Canterbury Parkway railway station would allow this, as well as acting as a further station for commuters avoiding the city centre.Canterbury used to be served by two other stations. North Lane station was the southern terminus of the Canterbury & Whitstable Railway between 1830 and 1846. Canterbury South was on the Elham Valley Railway. The station opened in 1889 and closed, along with the rest of the railway, in 1947.\n\n\n=== Road ===\n\nCanterbury is by-passed by the A2 London to Dover Road. It is about 45 miles (72 km) from the M25 London orbital motorway, and 61 miles (98 km) from central London by road. One of the other main roads through Canterbury is the A28 from Ashford to Ramsgate and Margate.\nThe City Council has invested in Park and Ride systems around the city's outskirts, with three sites: at Wincheap, New Dover Road and Sturry Road. There are plans to build direct access sliproads to and from the London directions of the A2 where it meets the congested Wincheap (at present there are only slips from the A28 to and from the direction of Dover) to allow more direct access to Canterbury from the A2, but these are currently subject to local discussion. In 2011 a third junction was constructed, linking the A28 to the northbound A2; this leaves just the A2 southbound exit missing, but since this would cut across the Park & Ride car park and meet the A28 at an already complicated junction, it is not expected to be added in the near term.The hourly National Express 007 coach service to and from Victoria Coach Station, which leaves from the main bus station, is typically scheduled to take two hours.\nEurolines coaches run from the bus station to London and Paris.\nStagecoach in East Kent runs most local bus routes in Canterbury as well as long-distance services. The group runs a special 'Unibus' service, with the buses running on 100% bio fuel from the city centre to the University of Kent.\n\n\n=== Cycling and walking ===\nIn the city centre, National Cycle Routes 1 and 18 cross and go off towards Whitstable on the Crab and Winkle Way (1), and Chartham via the Great Stour Way (18), providing easy access by bike from the west of the city. There are also multiple cycle routes into the city centre from Nackington Road (Simon Langton Boys School), Hales Place, the University, St Dunstans and Harbledown, Blean, Rough Common and St Stephens. Footpaths scatter the city and give access to beauty spots such as on New House Lane and Stuppington with views of the city and Cathedral. Kent Cycle Hire runs a private hire service to cycle to Whitstable and Herne Bay, and from the University to the high street. Next to buses, cycling is the most popular transport option in Canterbury due to good cycle routes and the flat of the valley in the City centre and immediate suburbs.\n\n\n== Education ==\n\n\n=== Universities and colleges ===\n\nThe city has an estimated 31,000 students (the highest student/permanent resident ratio in the UK). It is home to three universities, together with several other higher education institutions and colleges. at the 2001 census, 22% of the population aged 16\u201374 were full-time students, compared with 7% throughout England.The three universities are: The University of Kent, Canterbury Christ Church University, the University for the Creative Arts.\nThe University of Kent's main campus is situated over 600 acres (243 ha) on St. Stephen's Hill, a mile north of Canterbury city centre. Formerly called the University of Kent at Canterbury, it was founded in 1965, with a smaller campus opened in 2000 in the town of Chatham. As of 2014, it had around 20,000 students.\n\nCanterbury Christ Church University was founded as a teacher training college in 1962 by the Church of England. In 1978 its range of courses began to expand into other subjects, and in 1995 it was given the power to become a University college. In 2005 it was granted full university status, and as of 2007 it had around 15,000 students.As of 2021, the University of Kent and Canterbury Christchurch university will share a medical school.The University for the Creative Arts is the oldest higher education institution in the city, having been founded in 1882 by Thomas Sidney Cooper as the Sidney Cooper School of Art. Near the University of Kent is the Franciscan International Study Centre, a place of study for the worldwide Franciscan Order. Chaucer College is an independent college for Japanese and other students within the campus of the University of Kent. Canterbury College, formerly Canterbury College of Technology, offers a mixture of vocation, further and higher education courses for school leavers and adults.\n\n\n=== Primary and secondary schools ===\n\nSt John's Church of England Primary School was founded as a Board School in 1876. The original neo-Classical school building on St John's Place is now a private house, with the school housed in larger buildings at the end of the street.\nIndependent secondary schools include Kent College, St Edmund's School and the King's School, the oldest in the United Kingdom. St. Augustine established a school shortly after his arrival in Canterbury in 597, and it is from this that the King's School grew. The documented history of the school only began after the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th century, when the school acquired its present name, referring to Henry VIII. The Kings School in Canterbury is one of the top public schools in the United Kingdom, regularly featuring in the top ten most expensive school fees lists.\nThe city's secondary grammar schools are Barton Court Grammar School, Simon Langton Grammar School for Boys and Simon Langton Girls' Grammar School; all of which in 2008 had over 93% of their pupils gain five or more GCSEs at grades A* to C, including English and maths. The non-selective state secondary schools are The Canterbury High School, St Anselm's Catholic School and the Church of England's Archbishop's School; all of which in 2008 had more than 30% of their pupils gain five or more GCSEs at grades A* to C including English and maths.\n\n\n== Local media ==\n\n\n=== Newspapers ===\nCanterbury's first newspaper was the Kentish Post, founded in 1717. It changed its name to the Kentish Gazette in 1768 and is still being published, claiming to be the country's second oldest surviving newspaper. It is currently produced as a paid-for newspaper produced by the KM Group, based in nearby Whitstable. This newspaper covers the East Kent area and has a circulation of about 25,000.Three free weekly newspapers provide news on the Canterbury district: yourcanterbury, the Canterbury Times and Canterbury Extra. The Canterbury Times is owned by the Daily Mail and General Trust and has a circulation of about 55,000. The Canterbury Extra is owned by the KM Group and also has a circulation of about 55,000. yourcanterbury is published by KOS Media, which also prints the popular county paper Kent on Sunday. It also runs a website giving daily updated news and events for the city.\n\n\n=== Radio and television ===\nCanterbury is served by 2 local radio stations, KMFM Canterbury and CSR 97.4FM.\nKMFM Canterbury broadcasts on 106FM. It was formerly known as KMFM106, and before the KM Group took control it was known as CTFM, based on the local postcode being CT. Previously based in the city, the station's studios and presenters were moved to Ashford in 2008.CSR 97.4FM, an acronym for \"Community Student Radio\", broadcasts on 97.4FM from studios at both the University of Kent and Canterbury Christ Church University. The station is run by a collaboration of education establishments in the city including the two universities. The transmitter is based at the University of Kent, offering a good coverage of the city. CSR replaced two existing radio stations: C4 Radio, which served Canterbury Christ Church University, and UKC Radio, which served the University of Kent.\nThere are 2 other stations that cover parts of the city. Canterbury Hospital Radio (CHR) serves the patients of the Kent and Canterbury Hospital, and Simon Langton Boys School has a radio station, SLBSLive, which can only be picked up on the school grounds.\nThe city receives BBC One South East and ITV Meridian from the main transmitter at Dover, and a local relay situated at Chartham.\n\n\n== Notable people ==\nPeople born in Canterbury include:\n\nAphra Behn, restoration playwright and novelist\nOrlando Bloom, actor\nGideon Coe, BBC Radio 6 Music presenter\nColin Cokayne-Frith, first-class cricketer and British Army officer\nThomas Sidney Cooper, Victorian animal painter\nKatie Derham, former ITV News journalist, television presenter and BBC Radio 3 presenter\nNelson Wellesley Fogarty (1871\u20131933) was the first Bishop of Damaraland (Namibia) from 1924 to 1933.\nAruhan Galieva, actress and singer\nDavid Gower, cricketer\nStephen Gray, 17th/18th-century astronomer, and electricity pioneer was born in Canterbury in 1666.\nWilliam Harvey, physician\nSir Freddie Laker, airline entrepreneur\nJack Lawrence, comic book artist\nThomas James Longley, actor\nChristopher Marlowe,\nW. Somerset Maugham, writer\nJoseph McManners, boy singer and actor\nFiona Phillips, TV presenter\nTrevor Pinnock, Harpsichordist, conductor, founder of The English Concert.\nMichael Powell, film director and former pupil of The King's School, Canterbury.\nEdmund Reid (1846-1917), detective\nMary Tourtel (1874-1948), the creator of Rupert Bear, were both born and lived in the cityIn November 2012, Rowan Williams was awarded Freedom of the City for his work as Archbishop of Canterbury between 2003 and 2012.The grave of author Joseph Conrad, in Canterbury Cemetery at 32 Clifton Gardens, is a Grade II listed building.\n\n\n== International relations ==\nCanterbury is twinned with the following cities:\n\n Reims, FranceCity to city partnership\n\n Esztergom, HungaryProtocol d'accord\n Saint-Omer, France, since 1995\n Wimereux, France, since 1995\n Certaldo, Italy, since 1997\n Vladimir, Russia, since 1997\n M\u00f6lndal, Sweden, since 1997\n Tournai, Belgium, since 1999\n\n\n== Freedom of the City ==\n\nThe following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Canterbury.\n\n\n=== Individuals ===\nHenry Wace: 1921.\nRt Hon Geoffrey Fisher : 26 February 1953.\nRt Hon Lord Williams of Oystermouth : 17 November 2012.\n\n\n=== Military Units ===\n5th Battalion The Royal Regiment of Scotland: 27 November 2008.\n\n\n== See also ==\nProvince of Canterbury, also known as Archdiocese of Canterbury\nArchbishop of Canterbury \u2013 Senior bishop of the Church of England\nCanterbury Christ Church University\nCatching Lives \u2013 local charity supporting the homeless and destitute\nList of mayors of Canterbury\nSheriff of Canterbury\nMills in Canterbury\nUniversity for the Creative Arts \u2013 arts university in southern England\nUniversity of Kent \u2013 University based in Kent, United Kingdom\nCanterbury power station\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\nGodfrey-Faussett, Thomas Godfrey (1878), \"Canterbury (1.)\" ,  in Baynes, T. S. (ed.), Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, 5 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 28\u201330\nButler, Derek (2002), A Century of Canterbury, Sutton Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7509-3243-1\nLyle, Marjorie (2002), Canterbury: 2000 Years of History, Tempus, ISBN 978-0-7524-1948-0\nTellem, Geraint (2002), Canterbury and Kent, Jarrold Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7117-2079-4\n\n\n== External links ==\n\"Canterbury\" , Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, 5 (11th ed.), 1911, pp. 210\u2013212\nCanterbury City Council\nCanterbury Buildings website \u2013 Archaeological and heritage site of Canterbury's buildings.\nCanterbury Archaeological Trust \u2013 Whitefriars excavations\nTimeTeam: Canterbury Big Dig\nUNESCO World Heritage Centre \u2013 World Heritage profile for Canterbury.", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Augustine_Abbey.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Butchery_Lane_Canterbury_Cathedral_7545.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Canterbury_Arms.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Canterbury_Cathedral_-_Portal_Nave_Cross-spire.jpeg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Canterbury_Cathedral_altar_8.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Canterbury_Cathedral_from_the_cloisters.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Canterbury_Coach_stn.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Canterbury_Cricket.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Canterbury_Holland_Chaucer_statue.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Canterbury_UK_locator_map.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Canterbury_West_railway_station_building.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Canterbury_castle_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1270897.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Canterbury_river_boat_tours_for_visitors.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Canterbury_town_walls_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1117994.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Christchurch_Gate%2C_Canterbury_Cathedral.tif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Darwin_College_-_UKC.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/En-uk-Canterbury.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/FlagOfKent.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Huguenot_canterbury.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Kent_UK_location_map.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/King%27s_School_canterbury_7687.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Norman_staircase%2C_King%27s_School%2C_Canterbury_-_geograph.org.uk_-_343632.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Red_pog.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/River_Stour_in_Canterbury%2C_England_-_May_08.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Staugustinescanterburyrotundanaveandcathedral.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/The_Buttermarket%2C_Canterbury_-_geograph.org.uk_-_825195.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/The_Guildhall%2C_Canterbury_%28geograph_3467978%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Westgate%2C_Canterbury_-_geograph.org.uk_-_983532.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg"], "summary": "Canterbury ( (listen), ) is a cathedral city and UNESCO World Heritage Site, situated in the heart of the City of Canterbury, a local government district of Kent, England. It lies on the River Stour.\nThe Archbishop of Canterbury is the primate of the Church of England and the worldwide Anglican Communion owing to the importance of St Augustine, who served as the apostle to the pagan Kingdom of Kent around the turn of the 7th century. The city's cathedral became a major focus of pilgrimage following the 1170 martyrdom of Thomas Becket, although it had already been a well-trodden pilgrim destination since the murder of St Alphege by the men of King Canute in 1012. A journey of pilgrims to Becket's shrine served as the frame for Geoffrey Chaucer's 14th-century classic The Canterbury Tales.\nCanterbury is a popular tourist destination: consistently one of the most-visited cities in the United Kingdom, the city's economy is heavily reliant upon tourism. The city has been occupied since Paleolithic times and served as the capital of the Celtic Cantiaci and Jute Kingdom of Kent. Many historical structures fill the area, including a city wall founded in Roman times and rebuilt in the 14th century, the ruins of St Augustine's Abbey and a Norman castle, and the oldest extant school in the world, the King's School. Modern additions include the Marlowe Theatre and the St Lawrence Ground, home of the Kent County Cricket Club. There is also a substantial student population, brought about by the presence of the University of Kent, Canterbury Christ Church University, the University for the Creative Arts, and the Girne American University Canterbury campus. Canterbury remains, however, a small city in terms of geographical size and population, when compared with other British cities."}, "Yorkletts": {"links": ["List of sovereign states", "Rough Common", "Stuppington", "Upstreet", "Wincheap", "Whitstable", "City of Canterbury", "Harbledown", "Herne Bay", "Barham, Kent", "Grays, Kent", "Hawthorn Corner", "ISBN ", "Post town", "List of places in Kent", "South East Coast Ambulance Service", "Broomfield, Herne Bay", "Herne, Kent", "Beltinge", "Westbere", "Countries of the United Kingdom", "Regions of England", "Marshside, Kent", "Hillborough", "Littlebourne", "Broad Oak, Kent", "Seasalter", "Boyden Gate", "Kent Police", "Bridge, Kent", "South East England", "England", "Pett Bottom", "Blean", "Eddington, Kent", "Nackington", "Woodland Trust", "Postcodes in the United Kingdom", "Kingston, Kent", "Upper Hardres", "Chestfield", "Adisham", "Ordnance Survey National Grid", "Bramling", "Reculver", "CT postcode area", "Emergency medical services in the United Kingdom", "Thanington", "Districts of England", "Sturry", "Wickhambreaux", "Tankerton", "United Kingdom", "Waltham, Kent", "List of United Kingdom locations", "Hoath", "Hackington", "Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England", "Bekesbourne", "Womenswold", "Fordwich", "Fire services in the United Kingdom", "Canterbury", "Geographic coordinate system", "List of law enforcement agencies in the United Kingdom, Crown dependencies and British Overseas Territories", "Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom", "Hersden", "Chislet", "Patrixbourne", "Swalecliffe", "List of places in England", "Petham", "Kent", "Upper Harbledown", "Tyler Hill, Kent", "Ickham", "Stodmarsh", "Woolage Village", "Kent Fire and Rescue Service", "Woolage Green", "Chartham", "Lower Hardres", "Bishopsbourne"], "content": "Yorkletts is a settlement two miles south of Whitstable in Kent in South East England. At the 2011 Census the settlement was included in the Seasalter ward of the City of Canterbury Council.\nYorkletts is home to the large Woodland Trust site, Victory Woods, with views over the North Sea.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n Media related to Yorkletts at Wikimedia Commons", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Canterbury_UK_locator_map.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/FlagOfKent.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Kent_UK_location_map.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Looking_SE_along_Fox%27s_Cross_Road_-_geograph.org.uk_-_759310.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Merge-arrows.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Red_pog.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg"], "summary": "Yorkletts is a settlement two miles south of Whitstable in Kent in South East England. At the 2011 Census the settlement was included in the Seasalter ward of the City of Canterbury Council.\nYorkletts is home to the large Woodland Trust site, Victory Woods, with views over the North Sea."}, "Thanington": {"links": ["Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Pett Bottom", "Linear settlement", "Herne, Kent", "Kent Fire and Rescue Service", "Fire services in the United Kingdom", "Rough Common", "Reculver", "Yorkletts", "Fordwich", "Eddington, Kent", "Emergency medical services in the United Kingdom", "Bridge, Kent", "Womenswold", "Regions of England", "England", "Wards of the United Kingdom", "Canterbury", "Broomfield, Herne Bay", "Beltinge", "United Kingdom Census twenty eleven", "Upper Hardres", "Upper Harbledown", "South East England", "Tankerton", "Countries of the United Kingdom", "List of places in England", "Sturry", "Broad Oak, Kent", "Grays, Kent", "Chartham", "Stodmarsh", "Population density", "Local Government Boundary Commission for England", "List of United Kingdom locations", "Districts of England", "Stuppington", "Geographic coordinate system", "Westbere", "Ickham", "City of Canterbury", "Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England", "Boyden Gate", "Littlebourne", "Wickhambreaux", "Harbledown", "Hackington", "Nackington", "Barham, Kent", "Hillborough", "Whitstable", "Waltham, Kent", "Herne Bay", "Lower Hardres", "Civil parishes in England", "Wincheap", "Marshside, Kent", "Swalecliffe", "South East Coast Ambulance Service", "Adisham", "Civil parish", "Postcodes in the United Kingdom", "CT postcode area", "Kent", "Chestfield", "Hersden", "Dover", "Office for National Statistics", "United Kingdom", "Bishopsbourne", "Hawthorn Corner", "List of law enforcement agencies in the United Kingdom, Crown dependencies and British Overseas Territories", "Upstreet", "Saint Nicholas", "Bramling", "Hoath", "Kent Police", "Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom", "Patrixbourne", "Tyler Hill, Kent", "Blean", "Kingston, Kent", "List of sovereign states", "Woolage Green", "List of places in Kent", "Post town", "Woolage Village", "Bekesbourne", "Chislet", "Petham"], "content": "Thanington is a civil parish on the west edge of Canterbury, Kent, United Kingdom. It extends to the south-west of A2 from Wincheap to the Milton Bridge in Chartham. It is the only parished area within the City of Canterbury.\nThe north ward of Thanington Without follows the River Stour nearest to the city centre and London railway line, it has private housing north of Ashford Road and a large estate of mixed housing south of Ashford Road. The South ward of Thanington Without is a linear settlement along New House Lane, New House Close and Iffin Lane. The parish church is dedicated to St Nicholas. The current civil parish was renamed from \"Thanington Without\" to \"Thanington\" on 1 April 2019.\n\n\n== Transport ==\nAs with the rest of Canterbury, transport is neither urban super-highway nor rural back lanes in relation to the rest of Kent.  An on-slip road was opened in September 2011 onto the westbound A2.  Previously (since the A2 Canterbury bypass was constructed in the early 1980s), the two slip roads at Thanington were east-facing and led only to and from Dover.  In 2006, the Government, the Highways Agency, Kent County Council and Canterbury City Council agreed that adding the two west-facing slip-roads would help to ease the traffic congestion in Wincheap between the Westgate and the A2.  The fourth slip-road is still awaiting funding and construction.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nThanington Without Parish Web Site", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Canterbury_UK_locator_map.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/FlagOfKent.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Kent_UK_location_map.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Red_pog.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg"], "summary": "Thanington is a civil parish on the west edge of Canterbury, Kent, United Kingdom. It extends to the south-west of A2 from Wincheap to the Milton Bridge in Chartham. It is the only parished area within the City of Canterbury.\nThe north ward of Thanington Without follows the River Stour nearest to the city centre and London railway line, it has private housing north of Ashford Road and a large estate of mixed housing south of Ashford Road. The South ward of Thanington Without is a linear settlement along New House Lane, New House Close and Iffin Lane. The parish church is dedicated to St Nicholas. The current civil parish was renamed from \"Thanington Without\" to \"Thanington\" on 1 April 2019.\n\n"}, "Nackington": {"links": ["Kent Police", "Waltham, Kent", "Kent", "Whitstable", "Civil parish", "List of law enforcement agencies in the United Kingdom, Crown dependencies and British Overseas Territories", "Postcodes in the United Kingdom", "Patrixbourne", "Canterbury", "Bridge, Kent", "List of places in Kent", "Chartham", "Woolage Green", "Hoath", "England", "Herne Bay", "Woolage Village", "Wincheap", "Hawthorn Corner", "Yorkletts", "Swalecliffe", "Marshside, Kent", "Lower Hardres and Nackington", "Districts of England", "Geographic coordinate system", "CT postcode area", "Stuppington", "Broad Oak, Kent", "Hersden", "Westbere", "Countries of the United Kingdom", "Tankerton", "Pett Bottom", "Barham, Kent", "Kingston, Kent", "Stodmarsh", "United Kingdom", "Upstreet", "Womenswold", "Tyler Hill, Kent", "Ickham", "Chestfield", "Hackington", "Eddington, Kent", "Kent Fire and Rescue Service", "Bekesbourne", "Fordwich", "Thanington", "Fire services in the United Kingdom", "Beltinge", "Grays, Kent", "Chislet", "List of places in England", "Adisham", "Blean", "List of United Kingdom locations", "Wickhambreaux", "Upper Hardres", "Local Government Boundary Commission for England", "South East Coast Ambulance Service", "Harbledown", "Bishopsbourne", "Upper Harbledown", "Herne, Kent", "Broomfield, Herne Bay", "Emergency medical services in the United Kingdom", "Hillborough", "Regions of England", "Rough Common", "South East England", "Reculver", "City of Canterbury", "Petham", "Post town", "Sturry", "Boyden Gate", "Lower Hardres", "List of sovereign states", "Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England", "Littlebourne", "Bramling"], "content": "Nackington is an English village and former civil parish, now in the parish of Lower Hardres and Nackington, south of Canterbury in the Canterbury district, in the county of Kent. The 12th century church is dedicated to St Mary. In 1931 the parish had a population of 80.\n\n\n== History ==\nOn 1 April 1934 the parish of was merged into \"Lower Hardres\" and on 1 April 2019 the new parish was renamed to \"Lower Hardres and Nackington\".\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n Media related to Nackington at Wikimedia Commons", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Canterbury_UK_locator_map.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/FlagOfKent.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Kent_UK_location_map.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Red_pog.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg"], "summary": "Nackington is an English village and former civil parish, now in the parish of Lower Hardres and Nackington, south of Canterbury in the Canterbury district, in the county of Kent. The 12th century church is dedicated to St Mary. In 1931 the parish had a population of 80."}, "Ickham": {"links": ["City of Canterbury", "List of law enforcement agencies in the United Kingdom, Crown dependencies and British Overseas Territories", "Fordwich", "Sittingbourne", "Deal, Kent", "Brooch", "Marshside, Kent", "Paddock Wood", "Gravesham", "Broomfield, Herne Bay", "Ancient Rome", "Broad Oak, Kent", "Tonbridge", "Sturry", "Grade II* listed buildings in Kent", "List of Parliamentary constituencies in Kent", "Edenbridge, Kent", "Dartford", "Sandwich, Kent", "High Sheriff of Kent", "Broadstairs", "Nackington", "River Wingham", "Littlebourne", "Strood", "Geography of Kent", "Borough of Ashford", "Chestfield", "Bekesbourne", "Bramling", "Medway", "Sevenoaks District", "Chislet", "Woolage Green", "Walmer", "Countries of the United Kingdom", "South East England", "Whitstable", "Kingston, Kent", "Queenborough", "Stodmarsh", "Boyden Gate", "Eddington, Kent", "Rough Common", "Folkestone & Hythe ", "West Malling", "Little Stour", "Dover District", "Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom", "Kent Police", "Copper", "Borough of Swale", "South East Coast Ambulance Service", "Maidstone", "Westgate-on-Sea", "United Kingdom", "Lower Hardres", "Faversham", "Margate", "Upstreet", "Hackington", "CT postcode area", "Postcodes in the United Kingdom", "River Stour, Kent", "Transport in Kent", "Kent Fire and Rescue Service", "Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England", "Civil parish", "Population density", "Ceremonial counties of England", "Barham, Kent", "Cranbrook, Kent", "London Paramount", "Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Archaeology", "Westbere", "Beltinge", "Dover", "Patrixbourne", "Metalworking", "Wickhambreaux", "Borough of Dartford", "Regions of England", "Linear settlement", "Swanscombe", "Swanley", "Royal Tunbridge Wells", "Sevenoaks", "Womenswold", "List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Kent", "Hawthorn Corner", "List of places in England", "Gillingham, Kent", "Bishopsbourne", "Reculver", "History of Kent", "Grays, Kent", "List of places in Kent", "Petham", "Hawkinge", "Upper Harbledown", "Borough of Maidstone", "Lord Lieutenant of Kent", "Canterbury", "Thanington", "Kent", "Herne, Kent", "Flag of Kent", "Yorkletts", "Tenterden", "Westerham", "Fire services in the United Kingdom", "Pett Bottom", "Rainham, Kent", "Thanet District", "Harbledown", "Tyler Hill, Kent", "United Kingdom Census twenty eleven", "Wincheap", "Office for National Statistics", "Post town", "Civil parishes in England", "Sheerness", "Folkestone", "List of settlements in Kent by population", "Emergency medical services in the United Kingdom", "List of people from Kent", "List of schools in Kent", "Rivers of Kent", "Lydd", "Northfleet", "Districts of England", "Waltham, Kent", "Hoath", "Ordnance Survey National Grid", "Chartham", "Chatham, Kent", "Adisham", "Gravesend", "Bridge, Kent", "Tonbridge and Malling", "List of United Kingdom locations", "Borough of Tunbridge Wells", "Hillborough", "List of museums in Kent", "Swalecliffe", "England", "Ickham", "Hythe, Kent", "New Romney", "Ramsgate", "John the Evangelist", "Blean", "List of windmills in Kent", "Ashford, Kent", "Southborough, Kent", "Tankerton", "J. G. Robertson", "Grade I listed buildings in Kent", "List of sovereign states", "Herne Bay", "Rochester, Kent", "Woolage Village", "Upper Hardres", "Canterbury ", "Geographic coordinate system", "Listed building", "Snodland", "Stuppington", "Hersden", "List of civil parishes in Kent"], "content": "Ickham and Well is a mostly rural civil parish east of Canterbury in Kent, South East England.\nThe parish covers the villages of Ickham and Bramling just off the A257 Sandwich Road. It has several listed buildings in architecture of old, well-preserved houses, with the 13th-century parish church of St John the Evangelist in the midst. A recent archaeological excavation at Ickham has revealed evidence of Roman metalwork and copper brooches.\n\n\n== Geography ==\nIckham centres on a single road.\nThe Rivers Little Stour and Wingham flow through the parish before joining with the Great Stour to become the River Stour.\n\n\n== Notable people ==\nJ. G. Robertson (1859\u20131940), British singer and actor died in Ickham.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n Media related to Ickham and Well at Wikimedia Commons", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Canterbury_UK_locator_map.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/FlagOfKent.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Ickham_village_hall.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Kent_UK_location_map.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Red_pog.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/The_Street_Ickham.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg"], "summary": "Ickham and Well is a mostly rural civil parish east of Canterbury in Kent, South East England.\nThe parish covers the villages of Ickham and Bramling just off the A257 Sandwich Road. It has several listed buildings in architecture of old, well-preserved houses, with the 13th-century parish church of St John the Evangelist in the midst. A recent archaeological excavation at Ickham has revealed evidence of Roman metalwork and copper brooches."}, "Margate": {"links": ["Last Orders", "South East England Development Agency", "Geography of Kent", "List of United Kingdom locations", "London Paramount", "MBAREA ", "Kent Fire and Rescue Service", "Cliftonville", "National League ", "Peaky Blinders ", "Gold ", "J. M. W. Turner", "Paul Theroux", "Sittingbourne", "Thanet District Council", "The Jolly Boys' Outing", "The Men That Will Not Be Blamed For Nothing", "Battle of Margate", "Palm Bay, UK", "Queenborough", "Strood", "Theatre Royal, Margate", "Westerham", "Dover", "twenty seventeen United Kingdom general election", "Roadstead", "Christians", "Minster-in-Thanet", "Westwood, Kent", "Tonbridge", "Herne Bay, Kent", "Harley Granville-Barker", "List of schools in Kent", "Dover District", "Tom Hardy", "Tenterden", "Maidstone", "Gillingham, Kent", "Actor-manager", "Oceanic climate", "Post town", "Smock mill", "A Fete Worse Than Death", "Self-employed", "Germany", "List of museums in Kent", "London", "List of Parliamentary constituencies in Kent", "List of mayors of Margate", "CT postcode area", "Tom Thumb Theatre", "Westbrook, Kent", "Community radio", "KMFM Thanet", "T. S. Eliot", "Medway", "St Nicholas-at-Wade", "Alfie Solomons", "Flete", "Acol, Kent", "Mod ", "Kent", "Kurt Weill", "Cliffsend", "Borough of Maidstone", "Eastern Europe", "Ordnance Survey National Grid", "Transport in Kent", "Republic of Ireland", "Africa", "List of law enforcement agencies in the United Kingdom, Crown dependencies and British Overseas Territories", "High Sheriff of Kent", "Manston, Kent", "Thanet District", "Edwin Maxwell Fry", "Marine vessel", "Rochester, Kent", "Cinque Port", "Southeastern ", "Walmer", "Sevenscore", "Bathing machine", "K\u00f6ppen climate classification", "Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom", "Kingdom of England", "Ethnicity", "Cthulhu", "Folkestone & Hythe ", "Grade I listed buildings in Kent", "Conservative Party ", "Herne Bay", "Turner Contemporary", "JMW Turner", "Labour Party ", "Ramsgate", "Hartsdown Park", "Shell Grotto, Margate", "nineteen seventy-eight North Sea storm surge", "Flag of Kent", "South East Coast Ambulance Service", "Heart Kent", "John Coakley Lettsom", "Mods and rockers", "Sunshine duration", "North Thanet", "Royal Tunbridge Wells", "Roger Gale", "Borough of Swale", "Broadstairs", "Crime drama", "City of Canterbury", "Districts of England", "List of settlements in Kent by population", "Wayback Machine", "Isle of Thanet", "Skinheads", "Whitstable", "Borough of Dartford", "Naval vessel", "Student", "North America", "Arnold Palmer", "Geographic coordinate system", "KOS Media", "Jewish", "Tracey Emin", "Cadzand", "Dartford", "Garlinge", "The Waste Land", "Sikh", "Monkton, Kent", "West Malling", "VIAF ", "Edge of Heaven", "Historic England", "England", "ISBN ", "Hawkinge", "Southend-on-Sea", "Borough of Ashford", "Hundred Years' War", "Margate Jetty", "Naval warfare", "Far East", "Brighton", "Sevenoaks", "Black people", "George Thorne ", "List of sovereign states", "Unemployed", "Ward ", "Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica Eleventh Edition", "Sarre, Kent", "Broadstairs and St Peter's", "BBC Radio Kent", "List of people from Kent", "List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Kent", "Paddock Wood", "Irene Vanbrugh", "Dreamland Margate", "White people", "List of windmills in Kent", "List of civil parishes in Kent", "Arts Council England", "Boxing the compass", "Borough of Tunbridge Wells", "Only Fools and Horses", "Seaside resort", "Brooks End", "Cockney", "H. P. Lovecraft", "Snodland", "Mini golf", "South East England", "New Romney", "United Kingdom", "The Scenic Railway", "Margate Cliftonville", "Sarah Thorne", "Northfleet", "National League South", "Deal, Kent", "Margate Caves", "Birchington-on-Sea", "Asia", "Zeeland", "Caroline War", "Ebbsfleet, Thanet", "Margate F.C.", "Iain Aitch", "Middle East", "Tommy Shelby", "Violet Vanbrugh", "Grade II* listed buildings in Kent", "Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England", "Kingdom of France", "East Kent Sudbury school", "William Thackeray", "Great Yarmouth Pleasure Beach", "Swanscombe", "Northcliffe Media", "Steampunk", "Time Ball", "United Kingdom Census two thousand and one", "United Kingdom Independence Party", "Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Rainham, Kent", "Oceania", "Full-time job", "Cranbrook, Kent", "Rivers of Kent", "History of Margate", "Royal Sea Bathing Hospital", "Only Fools & Horses", "Disabled", "Naval fleet", "Southborough, Kent", "Kent Police", "two thousand and seven United Kingdom local elections", "History of Kent", "Palm Bay, Kent", "Social work", "A Shabby Genteel Story", "Mr. Turner ", "Portas Pilot", "Walley Chamberlain Oulton", "Precipitation", "Regions of England", "Wine", "Folkestone", "Kent County Council", "Mixed race", "Graham Swift", "Gravesend", "Western Europe", "St Peter's, Kent", "Homemaker", "Sheerness", "OCLC ", "Margate railway station", "Faversham", "National Heritage List for England", "Hindu", "Countries of the United Kingdom", "Adelaide Neilson", "Photochrom", "List of places in England", "Crown of Castile", "Fire services in the United Kingdom", "Postcodes in the United Kingdom", "Evelyn Millard", "Listed building", "Canterbury", "Draper's Mill, Margate", "Margate ", "Netherlands", "Part-time job", "Academy FM ", "South Asia", "Thanet Offshore Wind Project", "KM Group", "Margate Town Hall", "True Love ", "Tonbridge and Malling", "South Thanet ", "Edenbridge, Kent", "Fordwich", "County of Flanders", "American Coaster Enthusiasts", "Buddhist", "Ceremonial counties of England", "Chinese people", "Newington, Thanet", "Muslim", "North Thanet ", "Tudor style architecture", "Westgate-on-Sea", "Lord Lieutenant of Kent", "Ashford, Kent", "Cthulhu Mythos", "Emergency medical services in the United Kingdom", "Janet Achurch", "List of places in Kent", "David Chipperfield Architects", "Gravesham", "Last Orders ", "Chas & Dave", "Hartsdown Academy", "Public administration", "Sandwich, Kent", "Chatham, Kent", "L\u00e9o Lania", "Sevenoaks District", "Swanley", "Louis Calvert", "Lydd", "Hythe, Kent"], "content": "Margate is a seaside town in Thanet, Kent, England, 15 miles (24.1 km) north-east of Canterbury, which includes Cliftonville, Garlinge, Palm Bay and Westbrook.\nThe town has been a significant maritime port since the Middle Ages, and was associated with Dover as part of the Cinque Ports in the 15th century. It became a popular place for holidaymakers in the 18th century, owing to easy access via the Thames, and later with the arrival of the railways; popular landmarks include the sandy beaches and the Dreamland amusement park. During the late 20th century, the town went into decline along with other British seaside resorts, but attempts are being made to revitalise the economy.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nMargate was recorded as \"Meregate\" in 1264 and as \"Margate\" in 1299, but the spelling continued to vary into modern times. The name is thought to refer to a pool gate or gap in a cliff where pools of water are found, often allowing swimmers to jump in. The cliffs of the Isle of Thanet are composed of chalk, a fossil-bearing rock.\nMargate gives its name to the relatively unknown yet influential Battle of Margate, starting on 24 March 1387, it was the last major naval battle of the Caroline War phase of the Hundred Years' War. Despite the battle being named after Margate, very little actually happened near the coastal town - the battle is named after Margate as this was where an English fleet of 51 vessels that was anchored at Margate Roadstead first spotted a Franco-Castilian-Flemish wine fleet of around 250-360 vessels. The English gave chase after the undermanned wine fleet and finally defeated the fleet a day later on the 25 March 1387 off the coast of Cadzand, Zeeland, Netherlands.\nThe town's history is tied closely to the sea and it has a proud maritime tradition. Margate was a \"limb\" of Dover in the ancient confederation of the Cinque ports. It was added to the confederation in the 15th century. Margate has been a leading seaside resort for at least 250 years. Like its neighbour Ramsgate, it has been a traditional holiday destination for Londoners drawn to its sandy beaches. Margate had a Victorian jetty which was largely destroyed by a storm in 1978.In the late 18th century, the town was chosen by the physician John Coakley Lettsom as the place in which he would build the Royal Sea Bathing Hospital, which was the first of its kind in Britain.\nLike Brighton and Southend, Margate was infamous for gang violence between mods and rockers in the 1960s, and mods and skinheads in the 1980s.The Turner Contemporary art gallery occupies a prominent position next to the harbour, and was constructed there with the specific aim of revitalising the town. The Thanet Offshore Wind Project, completed in 2010, is visible from the seafront.\n\n\n== Government ==\n\nSince 1983, the Member of Parliament for North Thanet, covering northern Thanet and Herne Bay, has been the Conservative, Roger Gale. At the 2017 General Election, in North Thanet the Conservatives won a majority of 10,738 and 56.2% of the vote. Labour won 34.0% of the vote, and United Kingdom Independence Party 4.5%.Margate was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1857. This was abolished in 1974, since which date Margate has been part of the Thanet district of Kent. The town contains the seven electoral wards of Margate Central, Cliftonville West, Cliftonville East (both Cliftonville wards were formally Margate Cliftonville from 1973 to 2003), Westbrook, Garlinge, Dane Valley and Salmestone. These wards have seventeen of the fifty six seats on the Thanet District Council. At the 2007 Local Elections, nine of those seats were held by the Conservatives, seven by Labour and one by an Independent.\n\n\n== Climate ==\nMargate experiences an oceanic climate (K\u00f6ppen climate classification Cfb) similar to much of the United Kingdom. Like almost all of southern Britain, Margate experiences mild temperatures, complemented by a relatively large amount of sunshine (more, for example, than London and even nearby Ramsgate). Rainfall is quite low, and Margate is one of the drier Kent towns.\n\n\n== Demography ==\nAt the 2001 UK census:\nMargate had a population of 40,386. The urban area had a population of 46,980 at the 2001 census, increasing to 49,709 at the 2011 census (5.8% increase).The ethnicity of the town was 97.1% white, 1.0% mixed race, 0.5% black, 0.8% Asian, 0.6% Chinese or other ethnicity.The place of birth of residents was 94.2% United Kingdom, 0.9% Republic of Ireland, 0.5% Germany, 0.8% other Western Europe countries, 0.7% Africa, 0.6% Eastern Europe, 0.5% Far East, 0.5% South Asia, 0.5% Middle East, 0.4% North America and 0.3% Oceania.Religion was recorded as 71.6% Christian, 17.1% no religion, 0.7% Muslim, 0.3% Buddhist, 0.3% Jewish, 0.2% Hindu, 0.1% Sikh; 0.3% had an alternative religion and 9.8% did not state their religion.For every 100 females, there were 92 males. The age distribution was 6% aged 0\u20134 years, 16% aged 5\u201315 years, 5% aged 16\u201319 years, 31% aged 20\u201344 years, 23% aged 45\u201364 years and 19% aged 65 years and over.11% of Margate residents had some kind of higher or professional qualification, compared to the national average of 20%.\n\n\n== Economy ==\nAt the 2001 UK census, the economic activity of residents aged 16\u201374 was 33.8% in full-time employment, 11.8% in part-time employment, 8.0% self-employed, 5.5% unemployed, 2.2% students with jobs, 3.9% students without jobs, 15.5% retired, 8.3% looking after home or family, 7.9% permanently sick or disabled and 3.6% economically inactive for other reasons. The rate of unemployment in the town was considerably higher than the national rate of 3.4%.The industry of employment of residents was 17% retail, 16% health & social work, 13% manufacturing, 9% construction, 8% real estate, 8% education, 7% transport & communications, 5% public administration, 6% hotels & restaurants, 2% finance, 1% agriculture and 6% other community, social or personal services. Compared to national figures, the town had a relatively high number of workers in the construction, hotels & restaurants and health & social care industries and a relatively low number in real estate and finance.Margate railway station, constructed in 1926 to designs by Edwin Maxwell Fry, serves the town. Train services are provided by Southeastern Trains.\n\n\n== Tourism ==\n\nFor at least 250 years, Margate has been a leading seaside resort in the UK, drawing Londoners to its beaches, Margate Sands. The bathing machines in use at Margate were described in 1805 as\n\nfour-wheeled carriages, covered with canvas, and having at one end of them an umbrella of the same materials which is let down to the surface of the water, so that the bather descending from the machine by a few steps is concealed from the public view, whereby the most refined female is enabled to enjoy the advantages of the sea with the strictest delicacy.\nThe Dreamland Amusement Park (featured in \"The Jolly Boys' Outing\" extended episode of the television series Only Fools and Horses) is situated in the centre of Margate. After its closure in 2006, it reopened in 2015 following a lengthy campaign by the \"Save Dreamland Campaign\" group.\nThe Scenic Railway roller coaster at Dreamland, which opened in 1920, is Grade II* Listed and the second oldest in the world, was severely damaged in a fire on 7 April 2008 but has now been fully restored and reopened to the public in October 2015. Today the Dreamland roller coaster is one of only two early-20th century scenic railways still remaining in the UK; the only other surviving UK scenic railway is in Great Yarmouth and was built in 1932. The Margate roller coaster is an ACE Coaster Classic.Cliftonville, next to Margate, had a classic British Arnold Palmer seaside mini golf course. It closed and was illegally converted to a skate park, which was later shut down by the council amid Safety Concerns.\n\nThere are two notable theatres, the Theatre Royal in Addington Street \u2013 the second oldest theatre in the country \u2013 and the Tom Thumb Theatre, the second smallest in the country, in addition to the Winter Gardens. The Theatre Royal was built in 1787, burned down in 1829 and was remodelled in 1879 giving Margate more national publicity. The exterior is largely from the 19th century. From 1885 to 1899 actor-manager Sarah Thorne ran a school for acting at the Theatre Royal which is widely regarded as Britain's first formal drama school. Actors who received their initial theatrical training there include Harley Granville-Barker, Evelyn Millard, Louis Calvert, George Thorne, Janet Achurch, Adelaide Neilson and Irene and Violet Vanbrugh, among others.An annual jazz festival takes place on a weekend in June.\nIn September, an annual car show commences known as \"Oh So Retro\" featuring classic and retro vehicles, trade stalls and family-friendly entertainment.Margate Museum in Market Place explores the town's seaside heritage in a range of exhibits and displays, and is now opened at weekends by a team of volunteers.\nFirst discovered in 1798, the Margate Caves (also known as the Vortigern Caves) are situated at the bottom of Northdown Road. Reopened summer of 2019.The Shell Grotto, which has walls and roof covered in elaborate decorations of over four million shells covering 2,000 square feet (190 m2) in complex patterns, was rediscovered in 1835, but is of unknown age and origin. It has been designated as a Grade I listed building.The Walpole Bay Tidal Pool is a Grade 2 listed tidal sea bathing pool built in 1937. The pool covers over four acres and its dimensions are 450 ft long, 300 ft wide at the seaward end and 550 ft long at the landward end. The water in the pool is refreshed by the incoming tide twice a day and fresh water springs rise from the beach within the walls.\n\n\n== Regeneration ==\n\nThe former chairman of the Margate Civic Society, John Crofts, had a plan to develop a centre that would explore and show the link that the painter JMW Turner shared with Margate. Turner described the Thanet skies as the \"loveliest in all Europe.\" In 1994 Crofts became increasingly determined to create such a gallery and in 1998 the Leader of Kent County Council met a number of people from the art world to discuss the idea. They hoped that the centre would regenerate the once-thriving town of Margate and offer an alternative to Margate's traditional tourist trade. In the late 1990s, the County Council offered to fund the building of the Turner Gallery. Additional funding was contributed by the Arts Council England and South East England Development Agency. In 2001 the Turner Contemporary was officially established. The view from the gallery is similar to that seen by Turner from his lodging house.To reduce the cost, Thanet District Council chose a new site inland from the harbour wall. The scheme was supported by the artist Tracey Emin, who was brought up in Margate. The building itself was designed by David Chipperfield Architects after the abandonment of the design by Sn\u00f8hetta + Spence architects. Building work started in 2008 but the project's initiator, John Crofts, died in 2009. The Turner Contemporary Gallery officially opened on 16 April 2011.Across the road from the gallery in Margate Old Town there is a community of independent shops. Accessed from the seafront via Market Street, Duke Street and King Street this area is clustered around the old Margate Town Hall in the centre of the Market Place. There is also a small museum in the town hall complex which provides information about the history of Margate. In 2012 Margate was chosen as one of the towns to benefit from the Portas Pilot Scheme aimed at regenerating some of Britain's high streets.\n\n\n== Historic sites ==\nThere is a 16th-century, two-storey timber-framed Tudor house built on a flint plinth in King Street.Margate's Jubilee Clock Tower was built to commemorate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee in 1887, although not completed until 1889. It had a Time Ball mechanism, mounted on a mast atop the tower, which was raised a few minutes before 1 pm each day and dropped at precisely 1 pm, thereby allowing residents, visitors and ships to know the exact time. This was, of course, in the days before wireless transmission of time signals. The Time Ball fell out of use many years ago, but following a suggestion by Arnold Schwartzman OBE RDI, a former Margate resident, Margate Civic Society raised funds to have the Time Ball repaired and brought back into use. This was successful, and a civic ceremony celebrated the restoration on 24 May 2014, Queen Victoria's birthday and the 125th anniversary of the Clock Tower's official opening.  The Time Ball now drops at 1 pm each day and is one of only a handful of working time balls in the world.\nDraper's Mill is a smock mill built in 1845 by John Holman. It was working by wind until 1916 and by engine until the late 1930s. It was saved from demolition and is now restored and open to the public.\n\n\n== Cultural references ==\n\n\n=== Literature ===\nMargate features at the start and as a recurrent theme in Margate writer Iain Aitch's travelogue, A Fete Worse Than Death. The author was born in the town.\nT. S. Eliot, who in 1921 recuperated after a mental breakdown in the suburb of Cliftonville, commented in his poem The Waste Land Part III - The Fire Sermon:\n\nOn Margate sands.\nI can connect\nNothing with nothing.Margate features as a destination in Graham Swift's novel Last Orders and its film adaptation. The character Jack Dodds had asked to have his remains scattered at Margate, and the book tells the tale of the drive to Margate and the memories evoked on the way.\nThe Victorian author William Thackeray used out-of-season Margate as the setting for his early unfinished novel 'A Shabby Genteel Story'.\n\n\n=== Music ===\n\"Margate\" is the title of a UK single released by Chas & Dave in 1982.\n\"Margate Fhtagn\" is a song by UK steampunk band The Men That Will Not Be Blamed For Nothing. The story related in the song combines the Victorian tradition of the seaside holiday with the works of H. P. Lovecraft, specifically the Cthulhu Mythos, to tell the tale of a Victorian family going on a seaside holiday to Margate, which gets interrupted by Cthulhu rising from the sea.\"Die Muschel von Margate\" (Seashells from Margate) is a song written by Kurt Weill and Felix Gasbarra from 1928. It featured in Konjunktur (Oil Boom), a play by Leo Lania in which three oil companies fight over the rights to oil production in a primitive Balkan country, and in the process exploit the people and destroy the environment.It is thought that Ralph Vaughan Williams wrote his Lark Ascending whilst walking along the cliffs in Margate.[2]\n\n\n=== Film and television ===\nJ. M. W. Turner's long-term relationship with Mrs. Sophia Booth of Margate was featured in the film Mr. Turner (2014).\nThe railway station and Dreamland feature prominently in the Only Fools & Horses episode \"The Jolly Boys' Outing\" (1989).\nIn series 4 (2017) of the British television crime drama Peaky Blinders, the character Alfie Solomons (played by Tom Hardy) chooses to reside at Margate, where he's shot on the beach by Tommy Shelby.\nThe town appeared on BBC TV's The Apprentice in May 2009.The 2012 BBC television drama series True Love was set and filmed in Margate. The show had its first public screening at the Turner Contemporary.\nThe 2014 ITV sitcom Edge of Heaven was set at a 1980s-themed bed and breakfast on the Margate seaside.\n\n\n== Education ==\n\nHartsdown Academy\nEast Kent Sudbury school (private)\n\n\n== Sport ==\nMargate F.C. play at Hartsdown Park. The club has played in the National League, and the National League South, but, as of 2021, they are currently playing in the Isthmian League.\nThe Margate Beach Cross Weekend, run on the beach at Margate, had its 9th event on 26 and 27 October 2013 and attracts a number of the UK and Europe's top quad and solo riders along with SSV pilots. The event is run by the QRA UK.\n\n\n== Local media ==\nMargate has two paid-for newspapers, the Isle of Thanet Gazette and Thanet Times (which ceased publication in 2012), which are owned by Northcliffe Media. Free newspapers for the town include online-only Isle of Thanet News; the Thanet Extra, part of the KM Group; and yourthanet, part of KOS Media. Local radio stations are KMFM Thanet, owned by the KM Group, community radio station Academy FM (Thanet); and the county-wide stations Heart Kent, Gold and BBC Radio Kent. Thanet Community Radio also offers an online community podcasting service for Ramsgate, Broadstairs, Margate and the wider areas of Thanet.\nRecent Facebook poll on Thanet group showed Margate to be the worst place to live in Thanet.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nOulton, W.C. Picture of Margate, and Its Vicinity [1820] Paternoster Row, London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. (2005 reprint) Ramsgate, Kent: Michaels Bookshop, ISBN 1-905477-20-1. Title page of original edition: Google Books\n\n\n== External links ==\nChisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Margate\" . Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.\nMargate Civic Society\nMargate Cliff Railway (Cliftonville Lido) (1913-1970s)\nOfficial Margate tourism site", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Draper%27s_mill.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Dreamland_Scenic_Railway_Oct_2015.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/FlagOfKent.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/J.M.W._Turner_-_Margate_Jetty.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/KentThanet.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Kent_UK_location_map.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Margate%2C_Kent%2C_England-10April2010.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Margate_Clock_Tower_Oast_House_Archive.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Margate_Town_Hall_%28cropped%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Margate_Tudor_House.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Red_pog.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/The_harbour%2C_Margate%2C_Kent%2C_England%2C_ca._1897_%281%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Turner_Contemporary.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b6/Pleasure_Park_Entrance.jpg"], "summary": "Margate is a seaside town in Thanet, Kent, England, 15 miles (24.1 km) north-east of Canterbury, which includes Cliftonville, Garlinge, Palm Bay and Westbrook.\nThe town has been a significant maritime port since the Middle Ages, and was associated with Dover as part of the Cinque Ports in the 15th century. It became a popular place for holidaymakers in the 18th century, owing to easy access via the Thames, and later with the arrival of the railways; popular landmarks include the sandy beaches and the Dreamland amusement park. During the late 20th century, the town went into decline along with other British seaside resorts, but attempts are being made to revitalise the economy."}, "Golem": {"links": ["The CW Television Network", "The Gingerbread Man", "Marge Piercy", "Mendy and the Golem", "Invaders ", "Ecstasy ", "Samuel of Speyer", "Seventy-Two Letters", "The Originals ", "Voyen Koreis", "New York City Opera", "Fantasy Flight Games", "Abraham Ellstein", "Pavel Nov\u00fd", "Rabbi", "Stop-motion", "Fran Drescher", "The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay", "RuneScape", "Artsdepot", "Graphic novel", "Legacies ", "USA Today", "Mikol\u00e1\u0161 Ale\u0161", "Vladim\u00edr R\u00e1z", "Anti-Semitic", "Czech folklore", "Warcraft", "Magic: The Gathering", "ISSN ", "Jacob Emden", "OCLC ", "BBC Radio four", "The Golem ", "MMORPG", "Pirkei Avot", "Rabbi Yehudah Yudel Rosenberg", "Nazi", "American Gods", "The Golem and the Dancing Girl", "\u017di\u017ekov", "Genizah", "Rabbi Loew", "Robot", "Clash Royale", "Golem ", "Clay", "Ciaran Hinds", "Dragon Age: Origins", "Silent movies", "Ark: Survival Evolved", "Byron Sherwin", "Dylan Dog", "Gershon Winkler", "The World That We Knew", "Berthold Auerbach", "Moment ", "Nicolae Bretan", "The Order ", "Elijah Ba'al Shem of Che\u0142m", "Elie Wiesel", "Gustav Meyrink", "Brothers Grimm", "Anthropomorphic", "Grimm ", "Eleazar ben Judah", "Dyin' on a Prayer", "Dark fantasy", "H. 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", "Talmud", "Heroes of the Storm", "Tefillin", "J\u00f6rmungandr", "Terraria", "Shemhamphorasch", "Pogrom", "Dungeons and Dragons", "Wayback Machine", "Sonic Adventure two", "I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream ", "Creation of man from clay", "Worms, Germany", "Infinity Blade", "Isaac Bashevis Singer", "Judah Loew ben Bezalel", "Hillel J. Kieval", "List of The Familiar of Zero episodes", "Unicorns", "Orthodox Jews", "University of Pennsylvania Press", "Android ", "Heroes of Might and Magic", "Kyt Wright", "The Terminator", "The X-Files", "Faust ", "Len Wein", "Diablo II", "Warframe", "Supernatural ", "David Julian Hirsh", "Harry Collins", "Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm", "Ren\u00e9 Richter", "Hubris", "Le Golem", "Opera Australia", "Manga", "The Jewish Encyclopedia", "Strange Tales", "Vampire", "Homunculus", "Michael Chabon", "Roddy McDowall", "\u017di\u017ekov Television Tower", "Bible", "Der Golem ", "Pete Hamill", "Douglas Tait ", "Ted Chiang", "The Golem: How He Came into the World", "Minecraft", "Gollum", "ISBN ", "Aleph", "John Buscema", "Barcelona", "Vilna Gaon", "Names of God in Judaism", "Strongman ", "Board game", "Mishnah", "Play-Doh", "Denver", "Sanhedrin ", "He, She and It", "\u00da\u0161t\u011bk", "CBS Radio Mystery Theater", "Dr. John Dee", "Archon: The Light and the Dark", "Kabbalah", "R.U.R. ", "Dwarves ", "Chicago Cubs", "Harry Turtledove", "World War II", "Richard Teitelbaum", "Limited series ", "Eugen D'Albert", "Julien Duvivier", "Larry Sitsky", "Tupilaq", "Dan Bilefsky", "Karel \u010capek", "Pok\u00e9mon Red and Blue", "Gershom Sholem", "The Golem's Eye", "Ludwig August von Frankl", "Old New Synagogue", "Counting Up, Counting Down", "Che\u0142m", "Poland", "Robert Jordan", "Sefer Yetzirah", "Hanukkah", "Middle Ages", "Kolobok", "Metaphor", "Role-playing game ", "Mikveh", "Folklore", "Ferdinand Lion"], "content": "A golem ( GOH-l\u0259m; Hebrew: \u05d2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd\u200e) is an animated anthropomorphic being in Jewish folklore that is created entirely from inanimate matter (usually clay or mud). The word was used to mean an amorphous, unformed material in Psalms and medieval writing.The most famous golem narrative involves Judah Loew ben Bezalel, the late-16th-century rabbi of Prague. Many tales differ on how the golem was brought to life and controlled. According to Moment Magazine, \"the golem is a highly mutable metaphor with seemingly limitless symbolism. It can be a victim or villain, Jew or non-Jew, man or woman\u2014or sometimes both. Over the centuries it has been used to connote war, community, isolation, hope, and despair.\"\n\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe word golem occurs once in the Bible in Psalm 139:16, which uses the word \u05d2\u05dc\u05de\u05d9 (golmi; my golem), that means \"my light form,\" \"raw\" material, connoting the unfinished human being before God's eyes. The Mishnah uses the term for an uncultivated person: \"Seven characteristics are in an uncultivated person, and seven in a learned one,\" (\u05e9\u05d1\u05e2\u05d4 \u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd \u05d1\u05d2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd) (Pirkei Avot 5:7 in the Hebrew text; English translations vary). In Modern Hebrew, golem is used to mean \"dumb\" or \"helpless.\" Similarly, it is often used today as a metaphor for a mindless lunk or entity who serves a man under controlled conditions but is hostile to him under others. \"Golem\" passed into Yiddish as goylem to mean someone who is lethargic or beneath a stupor.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Earliest stories ===\nThe oldest stories of golems date to early Judaism. In the Talmud (Tractate Sanhedrin 38b), Adam was initially created as a golem (\u05d2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd) when his dust was \"kneaded into a shapeless husk.\" Like Adam, all golems are created from mud by those close to divinity, but no anthropogenic golem is fully human. Early on, the main disability of the golem was its inability to speak. Sanhedrin 65b describes Rava creating a man (gavra). He sent the man to Rav Zeira. Rav Zeira spoke to him, but he did not answer. Rav Zeira said, \"You were created by the sages; return to your dust\".\nDuring the Middle Ages, passages from the Sefer Yetzirah (Book of Creation) were studied as a means to create and animate a golem, although there is little in the writings of Jewish mysticism that supports this belief. It was believed that golems could be activated by an ecstatic experience induced by the ritualistic use of various letters of the Hebrew Alphabet forming a \"shem\" (any one of the Names of God), wherein the shem was written on a piece of paper and inserted in the mouth or in the forehead of the golem.A golem is inscribed with Hebrew words in some tales (for example, some versions of Che\u0142m and Prague, as well as in Polish tales and versions of Brothers Grimm), such as the word emet (\u05d0\u05de\u05ea, \"truth\" in Hebrew) written on its forehead. The golem could then be deactivated by removing the aleph (\u05d0) in emet, thus changing the inscription from \"truth\" to \"death\" (met \u05de\u05ea, meaning \"dead\"). \nSamuel of Speyer (12th century) was said to have created a golem.\nRabbi Jacob Ben Shalom arrived at Barcelona from Germany in 1325 and remarked that the law of destruction is the reversal of the law of creation.One source credits 11th century Solomon ibn Gabirol with creating a golem, possibly female, for household chores.Joseph Delmedigo informs us in 1625 that \"many legends of this sort are current, particularly in Germany.\"The earliest known written account of how to create a golem can be found in Sodei Razayya by Eleazar ben Judah of Worms of the late 12th and early 13th century.\n\n\n=== The Golem of Che\u0142m ===\n\nThe oldest description of the creation of a golem by a historical figure is included in a tradition connected to Rabbi Eliyahu of Che\u0142m (1550\u20131583).A Polish Kabbalist, writing in about 1630\u20131650, reported the creation of a golem by Rabbi Eliyahu thus: \"And I have heard, in a certain and explicit way, from several respectable persons that one man [living] close to our time, whose name is R. Eliyahu, the master of the name, who made a creature out of matter [Heb. Golem] and form [Heb. tzurah] and it performed hard work for him, for a long period, and the name of emet was hanging upon his neck until he finally removed it for a certain reason, the name from his neck and it turned to dust.\" A similar account was reported by a Christian author, Christoph Arnold, in 1674.\nRabbi Jacob Emden (d. 1776) elaborated on the story in a book published in 1748: \"As an aside, I'll mention here what I heard from my father's holy mouth regarding the Golem created by his ancestor, the Gaon R. Eliyahu Ba'al Shem of blessed memory. When the Gaon saw that the Golem was growing larger and larger, he feared that the Golem would destroy the universe. He then removed the Holy Name that was embedded on his forehead, thus causing him to disintegrate and return to dust. Nonetheless, while he was engaged in extracting the Holy Name from him, the Golem injured him, scarring him on the face.\"\nAccording to the Polish Kabbalist, \"the legend was known to several persons, thus allowing us to speculate that the legend had indeed circulated for some time before it was committed to writing and, consequently, we may assume that its origins are to be traced to the generation immediately following the death of R. Eliyahu, if not earlier.\"\n\n\n=== The classic narrative: The Golem of Prague ===\n\nThe most famous golem narrative involves Judah Loew ben Bezalel, the late 16th century rabbi of Prague, also known as the Maharal, who reportedly \"created a golem out of clay from the banks of the Vltava River and brought it to life through rituals and Hebrew incantations to defend the Prague ghetto from anti-Semitic attacks\" and pogroms. Depending on the version of the legend, the Jews in Prague were to be either expelled or killed under the rule of Rudolf II, the Holy Roman Emperor. The Golem was called Josef and was known as Yossele. It was said that he could make himself invisible and summon spirits from the dead. Rabbi Loew deactivated the Golem on Friday evenings by removing the shem before the Sabbath (Saturday) began, so as to let it rest on Sabbath.One Friday evening Rabbi Loew forgot to remove the shem, and feared that the Golem would desecrate the Sabbath. A different story tells of a golem that fell in love, and when rejected, became the violent monster seen in most accounts. Some versions have the golem eventually going on a murderous rampage. The rabbi then managed to pull the shem from his mouth and immobilize him in front of the synagogue, whereupon the golem fell in pieces. The Golem's body was stored in the attic genizah of the Old New Synagogue, where it would be restored to life again if needed. Rabbi Loew then forbade anyone except his successors from going into the attic. Rabbi Yechezkel Landau, a successor of Rabbi Loew, reportedly wanted to go up the steps to the attic when he was Chief Rabbi of Prague to verify the tradition. Rabbi Landau fasted and immersed himself in a mikveh, wrapped himself in phylacteries and a prayer shawl and started ascending the steps. At the top of the steps he hesitated and then came immediately backed down trembling and frightened. He then re-enacted Rabbi Loew's original warning.According to legend, the body of Rabbi Loew's Golem still lies in the synagogue's attic. When the attic was renovated in 1883, no evidence of the Golem was found. Some versions of the tale state that the Golem was stolen from the genizah and entombed in a graveyard in Prague's \u017di\u017ekov district, where the \u017di\u017ekov Television Tower now stands. A recent legend tells of a Nazi agent ascending to the synagogue attic during World War II and trying to stab the Golem, but he died instead. The attic is not open to the general public.Some Orthodox Jews believe that the Maharal did actually create a golem. The evidence for this belief has been analyzed from an Orthodox Jewish perspective by Shnayer Z. Leiman.\n\n\n=== Sources of the Prague narrative ===\nThe general view of historians and critics is that the story of the Golem of Prague was a German literary invention of the early 19th century. According to John Neubauer, the first writers on the Prague Golem were:\n\n1837: Berthold Auerbach, Spinoza\n1841: Gustav Philippson, Der Golam, eine Legende\n1841: Franz Klutschak, Der Golam des Rabbi L\u00f6w\n1842: Adam Tendlau Der Golem des Hoch-Rabbi-L\u00f6w\n1847: Leopold Weisel, Der GolemHowever, there are in fact a couple of slightly earlier examples, in 1834 and 1836.All of these early accounts of the Golem of Prague are in German by Jewish writers. It has been suggested that they emerged as part of a Jewish folklore movement parallel with the contemporary German folklore movement.The origins of the story have been obscured by attempts to exaggerate its age and to pretend that it dates from the time of the Maharal. It has been said that Rabbi Yudel Rosenberg (1859\u20131935) of Tar\u0142\u00f3w (before moving to Canada where he became one of its most prominent rabbis) originated the idea that the narrative dates from the time of the Maharal. Rosenberg published Nifl'os Maharal (Wonders of Maharal) (Piotrk\u00f3w, 1909) which purported to be an eyewitness account by the Maharal's son-in-law, who had helped to create the Golem. Rosenberg claimed that the book was based upon a manuscript that he found in the main library in Metz. Wonders of Maharal \"is generally recognized in academic circles to be a literary hoax\". Gershom Sholem observed that the manuscript \"contains not ancient legends but modern fiction\". Rosenberg's claim was further disseminated in Chayim Bloch's (1881\u20131973) The Golem: Legends of the Ghetto of Prague (English edition 1925).\nThe Jewish Encyclopedia of 1906 cites the historical work Zemach David by David Gans, a disciple of the Maharal, published in 1592. In it, Gans writes of an audience between the Maharal and Rudolph II: \"Our lord the emperor ... Rudolph ... sent for and called upon our master Rabbi Low ben Bezalel and received him with a welcome and merry expression, and spoke to him face to face, as one would to a friend. The nature and quality of their words are mysterious, sealed and hidden.\" But it has been said of this passage, \"Even when [the Maharal is] eulogized, whether in David Gans' Zemach David or on his epitaph \u2026, not a word is said about the creation of a golem. No Hebrew work published in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries (even in Prague) is aware that the Maharal created a golem.\" Furthermore, the Maharal himself did not refer to the Golem in his writings. Rabbi Yedidiah Tiah Weil (1721\u20131805), a Prague resident, who described the creation of golems, including those created by Rabbis Avigdor Kara of Prague (died 1439) and Eliyahu of Chelm, did not mention the Maharal, and Rabbi Meir Perils' biography of the Maharal published in 1718 does not mention a golem.\n\n\n== The Golem of Vilna ==\nThere is a similar tradition relating to the Vilna Gaon or \"the saintly genius from Vilnius\" (1720\u20131797). Rabbi Chaim Volozhin (Lithuania 1749\u20131821) reported in an introduction to Sifra de Tzeniuta that he once presented to his teacher, the Vilna Gaon, ten different versions of a certain passage in the Sefer Yetzira and asked the Gaon to determine the correct text. The Gaon immediately identified one version as the accurate rendition of the passage. The amazed student then commented to his teacher that, with such clarity, he should easily be able to create a live human. The Gaon affirmed Rabbi Chaim's assertion and said that he once began to create a person when he was a child, under the age of 13, but during the process, he received a sign from Heaven ordering him to desist because of his tender age.\n\n\n== Hubris theme ==\n\nThe existence of a golem is sometimes a mixed blessing. Golems are not intelligent, and if commanded to perform a task, they will perform the instructions literally. In many depictions, Golems are inherently perfectly obedient. In its earliest known modern form, the Golem of Che\u0142m became enormous and uncooperative. In one version of this story, the rabbi had to resort to trickery to deactivate it, whereupon it crumbled upon its creator and crushed him. There is a similar hubris theme in Frankenstein, The Sorcerer's Apprentice, and some other stories in popular culture, such as The Terminator. The theme also manifests itself in R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), Karel \u010capek's 1921 play which coined the term robot; the play was written in Prague, and while \u010capek denied that he modeled the robot after the Golem, there are many similarities in the plot.\n\n\n== Culture of the Czech Republic ==\nThe Golem is a popular figure in the Czech Republic. There are several restaurants and other businesses whose names make reference to the creature, a Czech strongman (Ren\u00e9 Richter) goes by the nickname \"Golem\", and a Czech monster truck outfit calls itself the \"Golem Team.\"Abraham Akkerman preceded his article on human automatism in the contemporary city with a short satirical poem on a pair of golems turning human.\n\n\n== Clay Boy variation ==\nA Yiddish and Slavic folktale is the Clay Boy, which combines elements of the Golem and The Gingerbread Man, in which a lonely couple makes a child out of clay, with disastrous or comical consequences. In one common Russian version, an older couple, whose children have left home, make a boy out of clay and dry him by their hearth. The Clay Boy comes to life; at first the couple is delighted and treats him like a real child, but the Clay Boy does not stop growing and eats all their food, then all their livestock, and then the Clay Boy eats his parents. The Clay Boy rampages through the village until he is smashed by a quick-thinking goat.\n\n\n== Golem in popular culture ==\n\n\n=== Science ===\nThe Golem: What You Should Know About Science, by Harry Collins and Trevor Pinch, is a book first published in 1993. It posits that science is neither inherently good or evil and it is therefore down to its human masters to steer science in the right direction. Through the use of a series of case studies, it explores the nature and resolution of controversy in cutting-edge scientific discovery.\n\n\n=== Literature ===\nMainstream European society adopted the golem in the early 20th century. Most notably, Gustav Meyrink's 1914 novel Der Golem is loosely inspired by the tales of the golem created by Rabbi Loew. Another famous treatment from the same era is H. Leivick's 1921 Yiddish-language \"dramatic poem in eight sections\", The Golem. Nobel Prize winner Isaac Bashevis Singer also wrote a version of the legend, and Elie Wiesel wrote a children's book on the legend.\nMarge Piercy's 1991 Arthur C. Clarke Award-winning novel He, She and It features a substantial subplot that retells the story of Rabbi Loew and his golem.\nIn the 1992 fantasy short story \"In This Season\" by Harry Turtledove, a golem named \"Emes\" helps three Jewish families escape from Puck, Poland during the week of Hanukkah shortly after the start of World War II in 1939.\nThe novels of Terry Pratchett in the fictional setting of Discworld also include several golems as characters. They are introduced in the 19th Discworld novel Feet of Clay (1996). All of them are named for Yiddish words and are allotted \"holy days\" to rest (a reference to the rabbi's care for the Sabbath). The golems are frequently used to explore themes of free will, self-determination, and the meaning and value of personhood.\nIn The Wheel of Time series by Robert Jordan, a creature called a \"gholam\", a superhuman assassin animated by magic, appears throughout. Gholams are bound to a single master and obey their commands, yet the gholam depicted in the story also begins to exhibit individual personality and desires.\nIn Cynthia Ozick's 1997 novel The Puttermesser Papers, a modern Jewish woman, Ruth Puttermesser, creates a female golem out of the dirt in her flowerpots to serve as the daughter she never had. The golem helps Puttermesser become elected Mayor of New York before it begins to run out of control.\nKyt Wright's 2020 novella The Journals of Professor Guthridge has a golem as a plot device.\nPete Hamill's 1997 novel Snow in August includes a story of a rabbi from Prague who has a golem.\nMichael Chabon's 2000 novel, The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay, features one of the protagonists, escape artist Josef Kavalier, smuggling himself out of Prague along with the Golem. Petrie describes the theme of escape in the novel, culminating in Kavalier's drawing of a modern graphic novel centered on a golem.\nTed Chiang's a short story, \"Seventy-Two Letters\", published in 2000, explores the connection between a golem and the name that animates it.\nIn the Michael Scott novel The Alchemyst, the immortal Dr. John Dee attacked Nicholas Flamel with two golems, which, along with being made of mud, each had a pair of shiny stone \"eyes\".\nHelene Wecker's 2013 novel The Golem and the Jinni features an intelligent female golem created by a malevolent Jewish magician in Danzig in 1899. Designed to be her master's bride, the golem becomes masterless when he dies of appendicitis aboard a ship to New York. Eventually named Chava, she is taken under the wing of a Hasidic rabbi and befriends a jinni, who has recently been liberated after being trapped by a wizard for a thousand years.\nJonathan Stroud's children's fantasy book The Golem's Eye centers on a golem created by magicians in an alternative London. The story depicts the golem as being impervious to magical attacks. The golem is finally destroyed by removing the parchment of creation from its mouth.\nIn Byron L. Sherwin's 2006 novel The Cubs and the Kabbalist, rabbis create a golem named Sandy Greenberg to help the Chicago Cubs win the World Series.\nIn Neil Gaiman's American Gods, on the way to the climax a \"small, dark-bearded man with a dusty black derby on his head, curling payees at his temples\" walks ahead of his companion, \"who was twice his height and was the blank gray color of good Polish clay: the word inscribed on his forehead meant truth.\" This is a clear reference to the mythological Golem of Prague.\nJonathan Kellerman and Jesse Kellerman's 2014 novel The Golem of Hollywood combines the stories of Los Angeles detective Jacob Lev and the life of a golem from the golem's point of view.\nIn Patricia Briggs' 2017 novel Silence Fallen, the main protagonist Mercedes Thompson Hauptman awakes the spirit of the Golem of Prague, which purges the city of vampires.\nIn Alice Hoffman's 2019 novel The World That We Knew set in World War II Germany and France, a mother pays a rabbi's daughter (who has learned the secret ritual to creating a golem from eavesdropping on her father) to create a golem to protect her young daughter as she sends her away from Berlin to Paris to escape the Nazis. Told partly through the eyes of Ava, the female golem, the story explores the question of what it means to be human in a world full of inhumanity.\n\n\n=== Film and television ===\nInspired by Gustav Meyrink's novel was a classic set of expressionistic silent movies (1915\u20131920), Paul Wegener's Golem series, of which The Golem: How He Came into the World (also released as The Golem, 1920, US 1921: the only surviving film of the trilogy) is especially famous. In the first film, released in 1915, the Golem is revived in modern times before falling from a tower and shattering; in the second film, The Golem and the Dancing Girl (1917), Wegener (playing himself) puts on his Golem costume and makeup to impress a female fan.\nJulien Duvivier's Le Golem (1936) (alternative title: The Man of Stone), a French/Czechoslovakian film, is a sequel to the 1920 Wegener film.\nA two-part Czechoslovakian color film The Emperor and the Golem was produced in 1951.\nIt! (alternative titles: Anger of the Golem and Curse of the Golem) is a 1967 British horror film made by Seven Arts Productions and Gold Star Productions, Ltd. featuring the Golem of Prague as its main subject. It stars Roddy McDowall as the mad assistant museum curator Arthur Pimm who brings the Golem to life.\nThe Golem (1967) is a French TV movie directed by Jean Kerchbron adapted from Gustav Meyrink's novel.\nGolem is a 1979 Polish film directed by Piotr Szulkin.\nFaust, a 1994 film by Jan \u0160vankmajer based on the legend of the same name, features a stop-motion animated Czech golem using clay.\nRab\u00edn a jeho Golem (1995) is a Czech TV film recounting the Golem of Prague tale, with Vladim\u00edr R\u00e1z as Rabbi Jahuda L\u00f6w and Pavel Nov\u00fd as the Golem \"Josef\".\n\"Golem\", the 41st episode of Gargoyles, originally aired on December 14, 1995, involves a man trying to achieve immortality by transferring his soul into the Golem of Prague.\nThe 1997 The X-Files episode, \"Kaddish\", featured a golem.\nThe Golem (2000) is a TV movie re-make of the original 1920 film, written and directed by Scott Wegener (not related to Paul Wegener).\nA golem (played by John DeSantis) appears as a major plot point in the 13th episode of season 8 of the American TV show Supernatural entitled \"Everybody Hates Hitler\".\nIn The Simpsons 2006 episode \"Treehouse of Horror XVII\" (season 18, episode 4), the Golem of Prague (voiced by Richard Lewis) is the key character in the second segment, \"You, Gotta, Know When to Golem\", where the Simpson family also creates a second, female golem made of Play-Doh (voiced by Fran Drescher).\nA giant golem appears as the creation of an evil female mage in Episodes 5, 6 and 13 of the anime series The Familiar of Zero (2006); another, called the \"J\u00f6rmungandr\" (a name taken from the monster in Norse mythology), appears in Episodes 10, 11 and 12 of The Familiar of Zero: Rondo of Princesses (2008).\nA Golem created to protect Ichabod Crane's son appears in \"The Golem\", Episode 10 of Season One of the TV series Sleepy Hollow.\nIn Episode 4 (\"Dyin' on a Prayer,\" 2014) of Season Four of the mythology-themed TV show Grimm, a rabbi (David Julian Hirsh) summons a Golem out of clay as a supernatural guardian to protect his son David (Jakob Salvati). He later attempts to defeat the Golem by putting a shem in its mouth but fails, and the Golem is defeated when struck multiple times by David.\nMalivore, played by actor Douglas Tait, is the name of a golem character in the 2018 CW's spin-off series Legacies, and is one of the series' main antagonists. Malivore was created from black magic by the combined blood of a witch, a werewolf, and a vampire in order to consume supernatural beings. Creatures consumed by Malivore become wiped from the collective conscience and likely become myths and folklore, for example dragons, unicorns, and gargoyles. The series is a spin-off of The Originals (2013), and The Vampire Diaries (2009).\nA widely touted and critically acclaimed theatre production called Golem - a dystopian fable about over-reliance on machines in the context of malign corporate agendas and social control - combining live performance and music with highly stylized animation and projection, was filmed at artsdepot, London and broadcast in November 2018 on BBC FOUR in the UK.\nIn the 2018 movie The Golem, a woman creates a golem to protect her village from a group of thugs. The child golem reminds the woman of her drowned son.\nThe first few episodes of the Netflix series The Order involve a golem which has been murdering students.  The main character defeats it by smearing the word on its forehead, and later reactivates it by rewriting the letters.\n\n\n=== Audio ===\nIn 1974, CBS Radio Mystery Theater aired an episode entitled \"The Golem\", which takes place during the Holocaust.\nA futuristic version of the Prague Golem story adapted by Michelene Wandorform from Marge Piercy's novel He, She and It (see \"Literature\" above) was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on 10 June 1995 under the title Body of Glass starring Eleanor Bron and Ciaran Hinds.\nThe Mysterious Golem of Prague: A Dramatic Passover Story, written by Chaim Clorfene and Simcha Gottlieb and starring Leonard Nimoy, was broadcast as part of JewishKids.org's  Jewish Story Time.\nIn Brute Force, an Actual Play Podcast, a Golem named Ezra is a central character.\n\n\n=== Music ===\nThere have been a number of scores written to accompany or based on the 1920 film, including by Daniel Hoffman and performed by the San Francisco-based ensemble Davka and by Karl-Errnst Sasse.\nIn 1923, Romanian composer Nicolae Bretan wrote the one-act opera The Golem, first performed the following year in Cluj and later revived in Denver, Colorado, in 1990.\nEugen D'Albert's Der Golem, a music drama in 3 acts with libretto by Ferdinand Lion, premiered in Frankfurt on December 14, 1026.\nIn 1962, Abraham Ellstein's opera The Golem, commissioned by the New York City Opera, premiered at City Opera, New York.\nIn 1980, Larry Sitsky composed the opera The Golem with libretto by Gwen Harwood and premiered by The Australian Opera.\nIn 1988, The german thrash/death metal band Protector created the album Golem to leave one of the most influencing extreme metal albums ever created.\nIn 1994, composer Richard Teitelbaum composed Golem, based on the Prague legend and combining music with electronics.\n\n\n=== Comics ===\nMarvel Comics resurrected the Golem of Prague as a heroic character created by Len Wein and John Buscema, first appearing in #134 of the second series of The Incredible Hulk, then in issue #174 of Strange Tales in 1974, lasting for only two more issues (#176 & 177), then reappearing sporadically in other Marvel comics series.\nAnother Marvel Comics Golem appeared as a character in Issue #13 of The Invaders when Jacob Goldstein created a golem to help free The Invaders, who had been captured by the Nazis, but while bringing the clay figure to life became fused with it after they were both struck by lightning. He made a second and final appearance in The Invaders Vol. 2 Issue #2.\nThe Golem of Prague is an antihero in DC Comics' 1991-92 reboot of the superhero the Ragman. In the eight-issue miniseries, it serves as the predecessor to the Ragman suit itself, replaced by the Rabbis as a protector when it becomes uncontrollable. When the main character, Rory Regan, gains control of the Ragman suit, the Golem reawakens and hunts him down, but falls in love with a human woman along the way. The Golem later returned in the 1993-94 sequel miniseries, Ragman: Cry of the Dead #1-5.\nFullmetal Alchemist, a Japanese manga series, follows the story of a young alchemist who, after a failed attempt to revive his mother through alchemy, must attach the soul of his younger brother to a suit of armor. This attachment is performed through the inscription of an alchemic circle on the suit of armor, which, if smudged or broken, would end the younger brother's life.\nIn James Sturm's 2001 graphic novel The Golem's Mighty Swing, a Jewish baseball team in the 1920s creates a golem to help them win their games.\nIn the twelfth issue of the Italian horror series Dylan Dog, \"Killer!\", Dylan Dog encounters a golem.\nIn 2012, Studio 407 published the graphic novel The Golem written by Scott Barkman and Alex Leung and drawn by Mark Louie Vuycankiat, with a traditional Golem being created in modern-day Sarajevo.\nMendy and the Golem is a series featuring a boy and the golem he found in his father's synagogue. \n\n\n=== Tabletop and video games ===\nGolems appear in the fantasy role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons (first published in the 1970s), and the influence of Dungeons & Dragons has led to the inclusion of golems in other tabletop role-playing games, as well as in video games.\nGolem is a playable characters in the fighting arcade game Mutant Fighter.\nGolem is also the name of one of the 151 Generation I Pok\u00e9mon species that debuted in Pok\u00e9mon Red and Blue in 1996. The Pok\u00e9mon Golett and Golurk, however, are more similar to traditional golems.\nThe video game Archon: The Light and the Dark, released by Electronic Arts in 1983 features golems among other fantasy creatures.\nThe video game Diablo II, released by Blizzard Entertainment in 2000, features a character class called Necromancer who can raise various types of golems for battle.\nA Golem is featured as a boss character in Sonic Adventure 2 as part of both the Hero and Dark campaigns. In the Hero story, Sonic must fight a Golem of Dr. Eggman's creation when they infiltrate his base deep inside an ancient pyramid. Sonic defeats the Golem, causing it to short-circuit and attack its creator, who must defeat it in the Dark story.\nIn Heroes of Might and Magic, various golems appear as controllable units, such as stone golem, iron golem, steel golem, gold golem, diamond golem, and sandstone golem.\nThe sci-fi shooter Warframe features a gigantic boss known as the Jordas Golem, which is an amalgamation of Infested flesh merged with ship technology from the Corpus faction, controlled by a corrupted digital being known as a Cephalon.\nIn Heroes of the Storm, grave golems are large and powerful creatures made of skulls and brambles who serve as the mercenary bosses on several battlegrounds.\nIn Warcraft series, War golems are golems that are a dwarven invention, as well as golems made of stone animated by magic.\nIn the video game Minecraft, golems are found as mobs, which are divided into two types: the Iron Golem and the Snow Golem, with the Iron Golem, more resembling the traditional golem, and the snow golem resembling a snowman. Iron Golems can usually be found in villages and are harmless unless a villager is attacked, in which case they will become hostile towards the attacker.\nGolems are featured in the Dragon Age series of dark fantasy role-playing games by Canadian developer BioWare. They were created by the dwarvish Paragon Caridin to fight the Darkspawn. Shale is a golem who features as a companion in Dragon Age: Origins.\nThe MMORPG RuneScape has a quest called \"The Golem\", featuring a Golem still obeying his original command.\nIn the video game adaptation of I Have No Mouth And I Must Scream, the player controls Nimdok to build a golem as part of his scenario.\nIn Fantasy Flight Games' Android universe of board games and role-playing games, both humanoid robots (\"bioroids\") and artificially gestated human clones are collectively given the epithet of golem, implying that they lack the spark of the divine within them because they are manufactured by man, and not born.\nGolems appear as enemies in the RPG Infinity Blade.\nIn 2016, the Golem appeared in the mobile game Clash Royale which was to be unlocked in Arena 3: Barbarian Bowl. It costs 8 Elixir. When its hit points are used up, it explodes into two smaller Golemites. There is another Golem in Arena 8: Frozen Peak, but this Golem is made from ice and is named Ice Golem. It has lower hitpoints with lower damage from the Golem as well as costing only 2 Elixir. After the Ice Golem's hitpoints end, it explodes, slowing down nearby enemies, but both of them hit buildings only.\nOne of the bosses in the 2011 sandbox-adventure game Terraria is depicted as a golem and named Golem. The game also features a granite, ice, and rock golem as normal enemies.   \nThe fifth generation Pok\u00e9mon Golett and Golurk are Ground/Ghost types shaped after Golems. The latter has a seal in its chest similar to the Prague Golem.\nIn Magic: The Gathering, \"Karn\" is a time-travelling silver golem planeswalker from Dominaria. Golem is also a creature type describing artificial life-forms created by magic, typically with \"powerstones\" providing them with energy.\nIn the game Ark: Survival Evolved, Rock Elementals are commonly called by both the in game characters and the player base as Rock Golems. Their base form is a living, giant rock that easily dwarfs the player, with other variations existing throughout the many maps that a player can travel to.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nBaer, Elizabeth R. (2012). The Golem Redux: From Prague to Post-Holocaust Fiction. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University. ISBN 978-0814336267.\nBilski, Emily B. (1988). Golem! Danger, Deliverance and Art. New York: The Jewish Museum. ISBN 978-0873340496.\nBloch, Chayim; tr. Schneiderman, H. (1987). The Golem: Mystical Tales of the Ghetto of Prague (English translation from German. First published in 'Oestereschischen Wochenschrift' 1917). New York: Rudolf Steiner Publications. ISBN 0833400258.\nBokser, Ben Zion (2006). From the World of the Cabbalah. New York: Kessinger. ISBN 9781428620858.\nChihaia, Matei (2011). Der Golem-Effekt. Orientierung und phantastische Immersion im Zeitalter des Kinos. Bielefeld: transcript. ISBN 978-3-8376-1714-6.\nFaucheux, Michel (2008). Norbert Wiener, le golem et la cybern\u00e9tique. Paris: Editions du Sandre.\nDennis, Geoffrey (2007). The Encyclopedia of Jewish Myth, Magic, and Mysticism. Woodbury (MN): Llewellyn Worldwide. ISBN 978-0-7387-0905-5.\nWinkler, Gershon (1980). The Golem of Prague: A New Adaptation of the Documented Stories of the Golem of Prague. New York: Judaica Press. ISBN 0-910818-25-8.\nGoldsmith, Arnold L. (1981). The Golem Remembered 1909\u20131980: Variations of a Jewish Legend. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0814316832.\nMontiel, Luis (30 June 2013). \"Proles sine matre creata: The Promethean Urge in the History of the Human Body in the West\". Asclepio. 65 (1): 001. doi:10.3989/asclepio.2013.01.\nIdel, Mosche (1990). Golem: Jewish Magical and Mystical Traditions on the Artificial Anthropoid. Albany (NY): State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-0160-X.\nRosenberg, Yudl; tr. Leviant, Curt (2008). The Golem and the Wondrous deeds of the Maharal of Prague (first English translation of original in Hebrew, Pietrkow, Poland, 1909). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12204-6.\nSalfellner, Harald (2016). The Prague Golem: Jewish Stories of the Ghetto. Prague: Vitalis. ISBN 978-80-7253-188-2.\nTomek, V.V. (1932). Pra\u017esk\u00e9 \u017eidovsk\u00e9 pov\u011bsti a legendy. Prague: Kon\u010del. Translated (2008) as Jewish Stories of Prague, Jewish Prague in History and Legend. ISBN 1-4382-3005-2.\n\n\n== External links ==\n Media related to Golem at Wikimedia Commons\n\nrabbiyehudahyudelrosenberg.com\nBackground on the Golem legends\nyutorah.org\nHistorical figures in the golem legends\nEssay about the golem and Jewish identity\nListen to \"The Mysterious Golem of Prague\" on Jewish Story Time\nSee Rab\u00edn a jeho Golem on YouTube\nSee It! (aka Curse of the Golem) on Internet Archive\nSee Myths of Mankind: The Golem of Prague on YouTube", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/AltneuschulPrague.agr.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Clay-golem.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Golem_1920_Poster.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Golem_and_Loew.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Golem_by_Philippe_Semeria.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Prague-golem-reproduction.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Rabbi_L%C3%B6w_Saloun.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/%C3%9Ast%C4%9Bk_Jewish_museum.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "A golem ( GOH-l\u0259m; Hebrew: \u05d2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd\u200e) is an animated anthropomorphic being in Jewish folklore that is created entirely from inanimate matter (usually clay or mud). The word was used to mean an amorphous, unformed material in Psalms and medieval writing.The most famous golem narrative involves Judah Loew ben Bezalel, the late-16th-century rabbi of Prague. Many tales differ on how the golem was brought to life and controlled. According to Moment Magazine, \"the golem is a highly mutable metaphor with seemingly limitless symbolism. It can be a victim or villain, Jew or non-Jew, man or woman\u2014or sometimes both. Over the centuries it has been used to connote war, community, isolation, hope, and despair.\""}, "Gershom_Sholem": {"links": ["Temurah ", "Humboldt University of Berlin", "Joseph ben Abraham Gikatilla", "Merkabah", "Tosafists", "Shavuot", "Shmuel Yosef Agnon", "Emmanuel Levinas", "Solomon ibn Gabirol", "Holiness in Judaism", "Happiness in Judaism", "Magic ", "Continental philosophy", "Abraham Isaac Kook", "Samuel Hirsch", "Devekut", "Abraham bar Hiyya", "MBA ", "Moshe Cordovero", "Jewish services", "Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities", "Communist Party of Germany", "Panentheism", "Ohr", "Israel", "Agamben", "Kafka", "Rabbinic Judaism", "Joseph Albo", "Reichstag ", "Conservative Judaism", "Safed", "Joseph ibn Tzaddik", "Frege", "Isaac Luria", "Nusach", "Jews in the Middle Ages", "Nachmanides", "Hasdai ibn Shaprut", "Ibn Kammuna", "VIAF ", "Moshe Alshich", "Mythology", "Philosophy of religion", "Wissenschaft des Judentums", "Talmudists", "University of Muri", "Sephardic law and 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"Azriel ", "Kabbalah: Primary texts", "Abraham Azulai", "Hoter ben Shlomo", "Theodore Adorno", "Talmud", "Heichalot", "Isaiah Horowitz", "Tzaddik", "Nusach Ashkenaz", "Talmudical hermeneutics", "Philo", "Richard Sieburth", "Chaim Vital", "Shalom Sharabi", "Jorge Luis Borges", "Pharisees", "Torah", "Divine providence ", "Ben Ish Chai", "Moses Hess", "Nathan Adler", "List of schools of philosophy", "Shekhinah", "Mussar movement", "Jerusalem", "Tzadik", "Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler", "Kashrut", "Third Reich", "Aliyah", "Giorgio Agamben", "Toledano tradition", "Seder hishtalshelut", "Abraham Joshua Heschel", "Baba Sali", "Jewish studies", "Jewish Renewal", "Cordoveran Kabbalah", "Berlin", "German philosophy", "Judah Loew ben Bezalel", "Schneur Zalman of Liadi", "Werner Scholem", "Chassidei Ashkenaz", "Holocaust theology", "Anthropomorphism in Kabbalah", "Aggadah", "Isaac Cardoso", "Saul Lieberman", "Schisms among the Jews", "Ahad Ha'am", "Abraham ibn Daud", "Lurianic Kabbalah", "Hebrew language", "Arthur Green", "Mathematical logic", "Walter Benjamin", "Lag BaOmer", "Timeline List of Jewish Kabbalists", "Mysticism", "The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay", "Isaac Israeli ben Solomon", "Hebrew University of Jerusalem", "Jewish philosophy", "Gottlob Frege", "Sabbatai Zevi, the Mystical Messiah", "Kabbalah: Primary Texts", "Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil", "Jewish ethics", "Baal Shem Tov", "Transcendence ", "Tikkun Chatzot", "Beit El Synagogue", "Leo Strauss", "Torah study", "Teshuvah", "Borges", "Nahmanides", "Samuel ibn Tibbon", "Hegelian dialectic", "Mitzvah", "Shlomo Halevi Alkabetz", "Joseph Solomon Delmedigo", "Notarikon", "Mandatory Palestine", "God in Judaism", "Encounter ", "Hannah Arendt", "ISNI ", "Tohu and Tikun", "Maimonides", "Simcha Bunim of Peshischa", "Asceticism in Judaism", "Neo-Hasidism", "Jewish Mysticism", "Chabad philosophy", "Hasmoneans", "Orthodox Judaism", "David Nieto", "Sabbateans", "Michael Chabon", "Sefer Yetzirah", "Elia del Medigo", "Hermann Cohen", "Bahya ibn Paquda", "Rivka Schatz Uffenheimer", "Jewish Kalam", "Moses Mendelssohn", "Shtetl", "Yehuda Ashlag", "Kabbalah", "Shai Agnon", "Jewish existentialism", "Moshe Chaim Luzzatto", "Dewey Decimal System", "Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi", "Hasidic philosophy", "Nachman of Breslov", "Bahya ben Asher", "Ein Sof", "Vilna Gaon", "Tannaim", "Joseph B. Soloveitchik", "Hayim Nahman Bialik", "Monotheism", "Jewish principles of faith", "Aristobulus of Alexandria", "Ayin and Yesh", "Messianism", "Abraham ibn Ezra", "Simeon bar Yochai", "Ohel ", "Partzufim", "Philosophy of history", "German Empire", "Franz Rosenzweig", "Sephardic Judaism", "Eliezer Berkovits", "Israel Prize", "Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera", "Shlomo Alkabetz", "Tzimtzum", "Zohar", "Jewish eschatology", "Karaism", "Middle Eastern philosophy", "David ibn Merwan al-Mukkamas", "Communism", "SUDOC ", "Joseph Dan", "Uriel da Costa", "George Steiner", "Chaim Joseph David Azulai", "Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm", "Reform Judaism", "Jewish commentaries on the Bible", "Qliphoth", "Hellenistic Judaism", "Tree of life ", "Tzadikim Nistarim", "Dov Ber of Mezeritch", "RERO ", "Adolf Eichmann", "Tzvi Ashkenazi", "Jewish thought", "Jacques Derrida", "Names of God in Judaism", "Hasdai Crescas", "Marxism", "Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich", "Ibn Bajjah", "Rabbinic literature", "Jews as the chosen people", "Hasidic dynasties", "Isaac Abarbanel", "Jewish meditation", "Gersonides", "Trove ", "Judah Halevi", "Arendt", "Gilgul", "Sanhedria Cemetery", "Judah Minz", "Midrash"], "content": "Gershom Scholem (Hebrew: \u05d2\u05b5\u05e8\u05b0\u05e9\u05c1\u05c2\u05dd \u05e9\u05b8\u05c1\u05dc\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd\u200e) (December 5, 1897 \u2013 February 21, 1982), was a German-born Israeli philosopher and historian. He is widely regarded as the founder of the modern, academic study of Kabbalah. He was  the first professor of Jewish Mysticism at Hebrew University of Jerusalem. His close friends included Theodore Adorno, Hannah Arendt, Walter Benjamin and Leo Strauss, and selected letters from his correspondence with those philosophers have been published. He was also friendly with the author Shai Agnon and the Talmudic scholar Saul Lieberman.\nScholem is best known for his collection of lectures, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (1941) and for his biography Sabbatai Zevi, the Mystical Messiah (1957). His collected speeches and essays, published as On Kabbalah and its Symbolism (1965), helped to spread knowledge of Jewish mysticism among both Jews and non-Jews.\n\n\n== Biography ==\n\nGerhard (Gershom) Scholem was born in Berlin to Arthur Scholem and Betty Hirsch Scholem. His  father was a printer. His older brother was the German Communist leader Werner Scholem. He studied Hebrew and Talmud with an Orthodox rabbi.\nScholem met Walter Benjamin in Munich in 1915, when the former was seventeen years old and the latter was twenty-three. They began a lifelong friendship that ended when Benjamin committed suicide in 1940 in the wake of Nazi persecution. Scholem dedicated his book Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (Die j\u00fcdische Mystik in ihren Hauptstr\u00f6mungen), based on lectures 1938\u20131957, to  Benjamin. In 1915 Scholem enrolled at the Frederick William University in Berlin (today, Humboldt University), where he studied mathematics, philosophy, and Hebrew. There he met Martin Buber, Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Hayim Nahman Bialik, Ahad Ha'am, and Zalman Shazar.\nIn Berlin, Scholem befriended  Leo Strauss and corresponded with him throughout his life. He studied mathematical logic at the University of Jena under Gottlob Frege. He was in Bern in 1918 with Benjamin when he met Elsa (Escha) Burchhard, who became his first wife. Scholem returned to Germany in 1919, where he received a degree in Semitic languages at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. Together with Benjamin he established a fictitious school - the  University of Muri.\nScholem wrote his doctoral thesis on the oldest known kabbalistic text, Sefer ha-Bahir. The following year it appeared in book form as \"Das Buch Bahir\", having been published by his father's publishing house.\nDrawn to Zionism and influenced by Buber, he immigrated in 1923 to the British Mandate of Palestine. He  became a librarian, heading the Department of Hebrew and Judaica at the National Library. In 1927 he revamped the Dewey Decimal System, making it appropriate for large Judaica collections. Scholem's brother Werner was a member of the ultra-left \"Fischer-Maslow Group\" and the youngest ever member of the Reichstag, representing the Communist Party (KPD) in the German parliament. He was expelled from the party and later murdered by the Nazis during the Third Reich. Gershom Scholem, unlike his brother, was vehemently opposed to both Communism and Marxism. In 1936, he married his second wife, Fania Freud. Fania, who had been his student and could read Polish, was helpful in his later research, particularly in regard to Jacob Frank.\nIn 1946 Scholem was sent by the Hebrew University to search for Jewish books that had been plundered by the Nazis and help return them to their rightful owners. He spent much of the year in Germany and Central Europe as part of this project, known as \"Otzrot HaGolah\".\nScholem died in Jerusalem, where he is buried next to his wife in the Sanhedria Cemetery. J\u00fcrgen Habermas delivered the eulogy.\n\n\n== Academic career ==\nHe became a lecturer at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Scholem taught the Kabbalah and mysticism from a scientific point of view and became the first professor of Jewish mysticism at the university in 1933, working in this post until his retirement in 1965, when he became an emeritus professor. \n\nScholem directly contrasted his historiographical approach on the study of Jewish mysticism with the approach of the 19th-century school of the Wissenschaft des Judentums (\"Science of Judaism\"), which sought to submit the study of Judaism to the discipline of subjects such as history, philology, and philosophy. According to Jeremy Adler, Scholem's thinking was \"both recognizably Jewish and deeply German,\" and \"changed the course of twentieth-century European thought.\"Jewish mysticism was seen as Judaism's weakest scholarly link. Scholem told the story of his early research when he was directed to a prominent rabbi who was an expert on Kabbalah. Seeing the rabbi's many books on the subject, Scholem asked about them, only to be told: \"This trash? Why would I waste my time reading nonsense like this?\" (Robinson 2000, p. 396)\nThe analysis of Judaism carried out by the Wissenschaft school was flawed in two ways, according to Scholem: It studied Judaism as a dead object rather than as a living organism; and it did not consider the proper foundations of Judaism, the non-rational force that, in Scholem's view, made the religion a living thing.\nIn Scholem's opinion, the mythical and mystical components were at least as important as the rational ones, and he thought that they, rather than the minutiae of Halakha, were the truly living core of Judaism. In particular, he disagreed with what he considered to be Martin Buber's personalization of Kabbalistic concepts as well as what he argued was an inadequate approach to Jewish history, Hebrew language, and the land of Israel.\nIn the Weltanschauung of Scholem, the research of Jewish mysticism could not be separated from its historical context. Starting from something similar to the Gegengeschichte of  Friedrich Nietzsche he ended up including less normative aspects of Judaism in the public history.\nSpecifically, Scholem thought that Jewish history could be divided into three periods:\n\nDuring the Biblical period, monotheism battles myth, without completely defeating it.\nDuring the Talmudic period, some of the institutions\u2014for example, the notion of the magical power of the accomplishment of the Sacraments\u2014are removed in favour of the purer concept of the divine transcendence.\nDuring the medieval period, the impossibility of reconciling the abstract concept of God of Greek philosophy with the personal God of the Bible, led Jewish thinkers, such as Maimonides, to try to eliminate the remaining myths and to modify the figure of the living God. After this time, mysticism, as an effort to find again the essence of the God of their fathers, became more widespread.The notion of the three periods, with its interactions between rational and irrational elements in Judaism, led Scholem to put forward some controversial arguments. He thought that the 17th century messianic movement, known as Sabbatianism, was developed from the Lurianic Kabbalah. In order to neutralize Sabbatianism, Hasidism had emerged as a Hegelian synthesis. Many of those who joined the Hasidic movement, because they had seen in it an Orthodox congregation, considered it scandalous that their community should be associated with a heretical movement.\nIn the same way, Scholem produced the hypothesis that the source of the 13th century Kabbalah was a Jewish gnosticism that preceded Christian gnosticism.\nThe historiographical approach of Scholem also involved a linguistic theory. In contrast to Buber, Scholem believed in the power of the language to invoke supernatural phenomena. In contrast to Walter Benjamin, he put the Hebrew language in a privileged position with respect to other languages, as the only language capable of revealing the divine truth. His special regard for the spiritual potency of the Hebrew language was expressed in his 1926 letter to Franz Rosenzweig  regarding his concerns over the \"secularization\" of Hebrew. Scholem considered the Kabbalists as interpreters of a pre-existent linguistic revelation.\n\n\n== Debate with Hannah Arendt ==\nIn the aftermath of the Eichmann trial in Jerusalem, Scholem sharply criticised Hannah Arendt's book, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil and decried her lack of solidarity with the Jewish people (ahavath Yisrael). Arendt responded that she never loved any collective group, and that she does not love the Jewish people but was only part of them. The bitter fight, which was exchanged in various articles, made Scholem break off ties with Arendt and refuse to forgive her. Scholem wrote to Hans Paeschke that he \"knew Hannah Arendt when she was a socialist or half-communist and...when she was a Zionist. I am astounded by her ability to pronounce upon movements in which she was once so deeply engaged, in terms of a distance measured in light years and from such sovereign heights.\" Interestingly, whereas Arendt felt that Eichmann should be executed, Scholem was opposed, fearing that his execution would serve to alleviate the Germans' collective sense of guilt.\nVarious other Israeli and Jewish academics also broke off ties with Arendt, claiming that her lack of solidarity with the Jewish people in their time of need was appalling, along with her victimization of various Nazis. Before the Eichmann trial, Scholem also opposed Arendt's interpretation (in letters and the introduction to Illuminations) of Walter Benjamin as a Marxist thinker who predated the New Left. For Scholem, Benjamin had been an essentially religious thinker, whose turn to Marxism had been merely an unfortunate, but inessential and superficial, expedient.\n\n\n== Awards and recognition ==\nIn 1958, Scholem was awarded the Israel Prize in Jewish studies.\nIn 1968, he was elected president of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.\nIn 1969, he received the Yakir Yerushalayim (Worthy Citizen of Jerusalem) award.\nIn 1977, he was awarded the Bialik Prize for Jewish thought.\n\n\n== Literary influence ==\n\nVarious stories and essays of the Argentinian writer Jorge Luis Borges were inspired or influenced by Scholem's books. He has also influenced ideas of Umberto Eco, Jacques Derrida, Harold Bloom, Italian  philosopher Giorgio Agamben, and George Steiner. American author Michael Chabon cites Scholem's essay, The Idea of the Golem, as having assisted him in conceiving the Pulitzer-Prize winning book The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay.\n\n\n== Selected works in English ==\nMajor Trends in Jewish Mysticism, 1941\nJewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and the Talmudic Tradition, 1960\nArendt and Scholem, \"Eichmann in Jerusalem: Exchange of Letters between Gershom Scholem and Hannah Arendt\", in Encounter, 22/1, 1964\nThe Messianic Idea in Judaism and other Essays on Jewish Spirituality, trans. 1971\nSabbatai Sevi: The Mystical Messiah, 1973\nFrom Berlin to Jerusalem: Memories of My Youth, 1977; trans. Harry Zohn, 1980.\nKabbalah, Meridian 1974, Plume Books 1987 reissue: ISBN 0-452-01007-1\nWalter Benjamin: the Story of a Friendship, trans. Harry Zohn. New York: Schocken Books, 1981.\nOrigins of the Kabbalah, JPS, 1987 reissue: ISBN 0-691-02047-7\nOn the Mystical Shape of the Godhead: Basic Concepts in the Kabbalah, 1997\nThe Fullness of Time: Poems, trans. Richard Sieburth\nOn Jews and Judaism in Crisis: Selected Essays\nOn the Kabbalah and Its Symbolism\nZohar \u2014 The Book of Splendor: Basic Readings from the Kabbalah, ed.\nOn History and Philosophy of History, in \"Naharaim: Journal for German-Jewish Literature and Cultural History\", v, 1-2 (2011), pp. 1\u20137.\nOn Franz Rosenzweig and his Familiarity with Kabbala Literature, in \"Naharaim: Journal for German-Jewish Literature and Cultural History\", vi, 1 (2012), pp. 1\u20136.\n\n\n== See also ==\nMartin Buber\nAbraham Joshua Heschel\nJoseph Dan\nRachel Elior\nArthur Green\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nAvriel Bar-Levav, On the Absence of a Book from a Library: Gershom Scholem and the Shulhan Arukh. Zutot: Perspectives on Jewish Culture 6 (2009): 71-73\nEngel Amir, Gershom Scholem: An Intellectual Biography, University of Chicago Press, 2017.\nBiale, David. Gershom Scholem: Kabbalah and Counter-History, second ed., 1982.\nBloom, Harold, ed. Gershom Scholem, 1987.\nCampanini, Saverio, A Case for Sainte-Beuve. Some Remarks on Gershom Scholem's Autobiography, in P. Sch\u00e4fer - R. Elior (edd.), Creation and Re-Creation in Jewish Thought. Festschrift in Honor of Joseph Dan on the Occasion of his 70th Birthday, T\u00fcbingen 2005, pp. 363\u2013400.\nCampanini, Saverio, Some Notes on Gershom Scholem and Christian Kabbalah, in Joseph Dan (ed.), Gershom Scholem in Memoriam, Jerusalem Studies in Jewish Thought, 21 (2007), pp. 13\u201333.\nF. Dal Bo, Between sand and stars: Scholem and his translation of Zohar 22a-26b [Ita.], in \"Materia Giudaica\", VIII, 2, 2003, pp. 297\u2013309 \u2013  Analysis of Scholem's translation of Zohar I, 22a-26b\nJacobson, Eric, Metaphysics of the Profane - The Political Theology of Walter Benjamin and Gershom Scholem, (Columbia University Press, NY, 2003).\nLucca, Enrico, Between History and Philosophy of History. Comments on an unpublished Document by Gershom Scholem, in \"Naharaim\", v, 1-2 (2011), pp. 8\u201316.\nLucca, Enrico, Gershom Scholem on Franz Rosenzweig and the Kabbalah. Introduction to the Text, in \"Naharaim\", vi, 1 (2012), pp. 7\u201319.\nMirsky, Yehudah, \"Gershom Scholem, 30 Years On\", (Jewish Ideas Daily, 2012).\nHeller Wilensky, Sarah, See the letters from Joseph Weiss to Sarah Heller Wilensky in \"Joseph Weiss, Letters to Ora\" in A. Raoport-Albert (Ed.) Hasidism reappraised. London: Littman Press, 1977.\nRobinson, G. Essential Judaism, Pocket Books, 2000.\n\n\n== External links ==\nAudio of Gershom Scholem lecturing on Kabbalah in 1975\nBiography at the Jewish Virtual Library\n\"Gershom Scholem & the Study of Mysticism\", MyJewishLearning.com\nBiographical page created by Sharon Naveh\nOrthodoxy and the Scholem Moment, by Zvi Leshem", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/GLAM_National_Library_Trude_Krolik.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Gershom_Scholem_1935_%28cropped%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Gershom_Scholem_house_%282%29.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Gershom_Scholem_learning_the_Zohar_%28NNL_003800553%29.IV_%28cropped%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Scholem_card_catalog.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "Gershom Scholem (Hebrew: \u05d2\u05b5\u05e8\u05b0\u05e9\u05c1\u05c2\u05dd \u05e9\u05b8\u05c1\u05dc\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd\u200e) (December 5, 1897 \u2013 February 21, 1982), was a German-born Israeli philosopher and historian. He is widely regarded as the founder of the modern, academic study of Kabbalah. He was  the first professor of Jewish Mysticism at Hebrew University of Jerusalem. His close friends included Theodore Adorno, Hannah Arendt, Walter Benjamin and Leo Strauss, and selected letters from his correspondence with those philosophers have been published. He was also friendly with the author Shai Agnon and the Talmudic scholar Saul Lieberman.\nScholem is best known for his collection of lectures, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (1941) and for his biography Sabbatai Zevi, the Mystical Messiah (1957). His collected speeches and essays, published as On Kabbalah and its Symbolism (1965), helped to spread knowledge of Jewish mysticism among both Jews and non-Jews."}, "Sephirot_": {"links": ["Dion Fortune", "Gershom Scholem", "Assiah", "Jewish meditation", "Rabbinic literature", "Tohu and Tikkun", "Abraham Abulafia", "Tree of Life ", "Judaism", "Abraham Isaac Kook", "Jacob Immanuel Schochet", "Chaim ibn Attar", "EVA Unit one", "Atik Yomin", "Zeir Anpin", "Red Wheel Weiser Conari", "Divine immanence", "Sephirot ", "Isaac the Blind", "Creation ex nihilo", "Tanya", "Midrash", "Tzimtzum", "Jewish mysticism", "Jewish philosophy", "Timeline List of Jewish Kabbalists", "Mikveh", "Minhag", "Names of God in Judaism", "Counting of the Omer", "Baba Sali", "Divine transcendence", "Seder hishtalshelus", "Yeridat ha-dorot", "Chaim Joseph David Azulai", "Jewish principles of faith", "Shekhinah", "Devekut", "Yetzirah", "Lag BaOmer", "Practical Kabbalah", "Shemhamphorasch", "Shlomo Eliyashiv", "A Certain Magical Index", "Isaac Luria", "Sephiroth", "Jewish views on astrology", "Pardes ", "Nusach Ashkenaz", "Panentheism", "Shavuot", "six thirteen commandments", "Lurianic Kabbalah", "Talmud", "Christian Kabbalah", "Hebrew language", "Passover", "Gilgul", "Menahem Recanati", "Kashrut", "Moshe Alshich", "Waw ", "Partzufim", "Aggadah", "Chaim Volozhin", "Arich Anpin", "Ohel ", "Exodus from Egypt", "Shalom Sharabi", "Tzadikim Nistarim", "Aryeh Kaplan", "Proof text", "Torah study", "Zohar", "Bahir", "Meir ibn Gabbai", "Asceticism in Judaism", "Criticism of Kabbalah", "Keter", "The Witcher ", "Merkabah", "Chokhmah ", "Nachman of Breslov", "Hasidic philosophy", "Divine providence ", "ISBN ", "Old Yishuv", "Shlomo Alkabetz", "Halakha", "Yesod", "Abraham Azulai", "Joseph ben Abraham Gikatilla", "Yesod ", "Shlomo Halevi Alkabetz", "Heichalot", "Hasidic Judaism", "Kabbalah: Primary Texts", "Chesed", "Final Fantasy VII", "Neo-Hasidism", "Ruach HaKodesh", "Seder hishtalshelut", "Adam Kadmon", "Talmudical hermeneutics", "Yodh", "Adam", "Ein Sof", "Esau", "Jonathan Eybeschutz", "Jewish commentaries on the Bible", "Mitzvah", "Qliphoth", "God in Judaism", "Orion's Arm Universe Project", "Gevurah", "Sephirah", "Binah ", "Musar literature", "Teshuvah", "Moshe Chaim Luzzatto", "Berakhot ", "Hasidic dynasties", "Abraham", "Nahmanides", "Beri'ah", "Tetragrammaton", "Tikkun Chatzot", "Menachem Mendel Schneerson", "Gematria", "Five Worlds", "Lithuanian Jews", "Lobotomy Corporation", "Rabbinic Judaism", "Midrashic", "Sefer Yetzirah", "The End of Evangelion", "Yu-Gi-Oh! fiveDs", "Archangel", "Schneur Zalman of Liadi", "Tanakh", "Kochos hanefesh", "Malchut", "Neon Genesis Evangelion", "Bahya ben Asher", "Baal Shem Tov", "Moshe Cordovero", "Jewish angelic hierarchy", "Cordoveran Kabbalah", "Moses ben Jacob Cordovero", "Shtetl", "Judah Loew ben Bezalel", "Jewish services", "Sephardic Judaism", "Chokhmah", "Safed", "Kabbalah", "Notarikon", "Sephardic law and customs", "Anthropomorphism in Kabbalah", "Toledano tradition", "Chazal", "Kavanah", "Chaim Vital", "Ben Ish Chai", "Dveikus", "Ayin and Yesh", "Hasidic thought", "Chochmah", "Edom", "Four Worlds", "Partzuf", "Beit El Synagogue", "Tohu and Tikun", "Atzilut", "Jewish mystical exegesis", "Dov Ber of Mezeritch", "Jewish studies", "Malkuth", "Isaiah Horowitz", "Ab ", "Ohr", "Temurah ", "Chassidei Ashkenaz", "Metaphor", "Schisms among the Jews", "Tree of life ", "Da'at", "Book of Job", "Tzaddik", "Moses de Leon", "Kli", "Joseph ben Ephraim Karo", "Tehillat Hashem", "Sephiroth ", "Curlie", "Oral Torah", "Jewish eschatology", "Book of Genesis", "Hod ", "He ", "Shimon bar Yochai", "Nathan Adler", "Vilna Gaon", "Biblical Mount Sinai", "Sabbateans", "Kabbalah: Primary texts", "Samuel Weiser, Inc.", "Sic", "Torah", "Free will in theology", "Tzadik", "Netzach", "Nusach", "Prophecy", "Simeon bar Yochai", "Books of Chronicles", "Hebrew Bible", "Kether", "Teshuva", "Yehuda Ashlag", "Tannaim", "Talmudic", "Baal Shem", "Tiferet", "Daat", "Azriel "], "content": "Sefirot (; Hebrew: \u05e1\u05b0\u05e4\u05b4\u05d9\u05e8\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea\u200e s\u0259p\u0304\u00eer\u00f4\u1e6f), meaning emanations, are the 10 attributes/emanations in Kabbalah, through which Ein Sof (The Infinite) reveals himself and continuously creates both the physical realm and the chain of higher metaphysical realms (Seder hishtalshelus). The term is alternatively transliterated into English as sephirot/sephiroth, singular sefirah/sephirah etc.\nAlternative configurations of the sefirot are given by different schools in the historical development of Kabbalah, with each articulating different spiritual aspects. The tradition of enumerating 10 is stated in the Sefer Yetzirah, \"Ten sefirot of nothingness, ten and not nine, ten and not eleven\". As altogether eleven sefirot are listed across the different schemes, two (Keter and Da'at) are seen as unconscious and conscious manifestations of the same principle, conserving the ten categories. The sefirot are described as channels of divine creative life force or consciousness through which the unknowable divine essence is revealed to mankind. \nThe first sefirah, Keter, describes the divine superconscious Will that is beyond conscious intellect. The next three sefirot (Chokhmah, Binah and Da'at) describe three levels of conscious divine intellect. In particular, Da'at represents Keter in its knowable form, the concept of knowledge. Will and knowledge are corresponding somewhat dependent opposites. The seven subsequent sefirot (Chesed, Gevurah, Tiferet, Netzach, Hod, Yesod and Malkuth) describe the primary and secondary conscious divine emotions. The sefirot of the left side and the sefira of Malkuth are feminine, as the female principle in Kabbalah describes a vessel that receives the outward male light, then inwardly nurtures and gives birth to the sefirot below them. Kabbalah sees the human soul as mirroring the divine (after Genesis 1:27, \"God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him, male and female He created them\"), and more widely, all creations as reflections of their life source in the sefirot. Therefore, the sefirot also describe the spiritual life of man, break down man's psychological processes, and constitute the conceptual paradigm in Kabbalah for understanding everything. This relationship between the soul of man and the divine gives Kabbalah one of its two central metaphors in describing divinity, alongside the other Ohr (light) metaphor. However, Kabbalah repeatedly stresses the need to avoid all corporeal interpretation. Through this, the sefirot are related to the structure of the body and are reformed into partzufim (personas). Underlying the structural purpose of each sefirah is a hidden motivational force which is understood best by comparison with a corresponding psychological state in human spiritual experience.In Hasidic philosophy, which has sought to internalise the experience of Jewish mysticism into daily inspiration (devekut), this inner life of the sefirot is explored, and the role they play in man's service of God in this world.\n\n\n== Ein Sof ==\nThe Ein Sof (lit: without end) is an important concept in Jewish Kabbalah. Generally translated as \"infinity\" and \"endless\", the Ein Sof represents the formless state of the universe before the self-materialization of God. In other words, the Ein Sof is God before he decided to become God as we now know him.The sefirot are divine emanations that come from the Ein Sof in a manner often described as a flame. The sefirot emanate from above to below. As the first Sefira is closest to Ein Sof, it is the least comprehensible to the human mind, while in turn the last is the best understood because it is closest to the material world that humanity dwells on.\n\n\n== Ten sefirot ==\nSefirot (\u05e1\u05e4\u05d9\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea, sfirot, singular \u05e1\u05e4\u05d9\u05e8\u05d4 sfir\u0254), literally means \"counting, enumeration\", but early Kabbalists presented a number of other etymological possibilities from the same Hebrew root including: sefer (\"text\" - \u05e1\u05e4\u05e8), sippur (\"recounting a story\" - \u05e1\u05d9\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8), sappir (\"sapphire\" - \u05e1\u05e4\u05d9\u05e8, \"brilliance\", \"luminary\"), sfar (\"boundary\" - \u05e1\u05e4\u05e8), and sofer, or safra (\"scribe\" - \u05e1\u05e4\u05e8\u05d0, \u05e1\u05d5\u05e4\u05e8). The term sefirah thus has complex connotations within Kabbalah.The original reference to the sefirot is found in the ancient Kabbalistic text of Sefer Yetzirah, \"The Book of Formation\", attributed to the first Jewish patriarch, Abraham. However, the names of the sefirot as given in later Kabbalah are not specified there. Further references to the sefirot, now with their later-accepted names, are elaborated on in the medieval Kabbalistic text of the Zohar, which is one of the core texts of Kabbalah.\nThe sefirot are ten emanations, or illuminations of God's infinite light as it manifests in creation. As revelations of the creator's will (\u05e8\u05e6\u05d5\u05df r\u0254\u1e63on), the sefirot should not be understood as ten different \"gods\" but as ten different channels through which the one God reveals his will. In later Jewish literature, the ten sefirot refer either to the ten manifestations of God; the ten powers or faculties of the soul; or the ten structural forces of nature.In Cordoveran Kabbalah, the forces of creation are considered as autonomous forces that evolve independently of one another. By contrast, in Lurean or Lurianic Kabbalah (the Kabbalah of Isaac Luria), the sefirot are perceived as a constellation of forces in active dialogue with one another at every stage of that evolution. Luria described the sefirot as complex and dynamically interacting entities known as partzufim, each with its own symbolically human-like persona.Keter, the Crown, is the first sefirah. It is the superconscious intermediary between God and the other, conscious sefirot. Three different levels, or \"heads\", are identified within Keter. In some contexts, the highest level of Keter is called \"The unknowable head\", The second level is \"the head of nothingness\" (reisha d'ayin) and the third level is \"the long head\" (reisha d'arich). These three heads correspond to the superconscious levels of faith, pleasure and will in the soul.In its early 12th-century dissemination, Kabbalah received criticism from some rabbis who adhered to Jewish philosophy, for its alleged introduction of multiplicity into Jewish monotheism. The seeming plurality of the One God is a result of the spiritual evolution of God's light, which introduced a multiplicity of emanations from the one infinite divine essence. This was necessary due to the inability of mankind to exist in God's infinite presence. God does not change; rather, it is our ability to perceive his emanations that is modified. This is stressed in Kabbalah to avoid heretical notions of any plurality in the Godhead. One parable to explain this is the difference between the Ma'Ohr (\"Luminary\"-divine essence) and the Ohr (\"Light\") he emanates, like the difference between the single body of the sun and the multiple rays of sunlight that illuminate a room.\n\n\n=== Names in Cordoveran Kabbalah ===\nIn Kabbalah, there is a direct correspondence between the Hebrew name of any spiritual or physical phenomenon and its manifestations in the mundane world. The Hebrew name represents the unique essence of the object. This reflects the belief that the universe is created through the metaphorical speech of God, as stated in the first chapter of Genesis. Kabbalah expounds on the names of the sefirot and their nuances, including their gematria (numerical values), in order to reach an understanding of these emanations of God's essence.In the 16th-century rational synthesis of Moses ben Jacob Cordovero (Cordoveran Kabbalah), the first complete systemisation of Kabbalah, the sefirot are listed from highest to lowest:\n\n\n=== Names in Lurianic Kabbalah ===\nIn the subsequent 16th-century transcendent Kabbalistic scheme of Isaac Luria, the sefirot are usually listed by omitting Keter and including Da'at (the conscious manifestation of the superconscious Keter. This difference of opinion reflects an earlier Medieval debate regarding whether Keter is the first sefirah, or the Ohr Ein Sof (Infinite light) itself. Luria includes Keter in the list only in relation to the inner light of the sefirot. In his usual list of the sefirot as formed attributes (vessels), Keter is considered too lofty to include: In this scheme, the sefirot are depicted as lying across three parallel vertical axes.\n\n\n=== Names of the sefirot which emerged after the Sefer Yetzirah ===\nAs Aryeh Kaplan explains in his translation and commentary on the Sefer Yetzirah, \"Although the Sefer Yetzirah does not name the Ten Sefirot, their names are well known from the classical Kabbalah. ... The names of the Sefirot are all derived from scripture.\" The \"classical Kabbalah\" Kaplan refers to is above all encapsulated in the Zohar and the later works derived from it. According to those sources, the sefirot are often given diverse names, but the chiefly used terms are:\n\nKeter - \"Crown\": Divine Will to create/Infinite Light of the Creator/the Hebrew name of God \"Ehyeh Asher Ehyeh-I Am that I Am\"\nChokhmah - \"Wisdom\": First unbounded flash of an idea before it takes on limitations/male light/divine reality/first revelation/creation from nothingness\nBinah - \"Understanding\": the infinite flash of Chochmah brought into the vessel of understanding to give it grasp of breadth and depth/feminine vessel that gives birth to the emotions/reason/understanding brings teshuva return to God\nDa'at - \"Knowledge\": Central state of unity of the 10 sefirot, also called the Tree of Life.\nChesed - \"Kindness\": Loving grace of free giving/love of God/inspiring vision\nGevurah - \"Severity\": Strength/discipline/judgment/withholding/awe of God\nTiferet - \"Beauty\": Symmetry/balance between Chesed and Gevurah in compassion\nNetzach - \"Eternity\": 'perpetuity', 'victory', or 'endurance'\nHod - \"Splendor\": Withdrawal/Surrender/sincerity\nYesod - \"Foundation\": Connecting to the task to accomplish/wholly remembering/coherent knowledge\nMalkuth - \"Kingship\": Exaltedness/Humility. All the other sefirot flow into Malkuth (like the moon which has no light of its own), and it is the final revelation of the divine; the receiver and the giver\n\n\n=== Interinclusion of the sefirot ===\nThe first development that enabled the sefirot to unite in cooperation was the interinclusion within each of them of a further subset of the 10 sefirot, bringing them to a total of one hundred inter-included sefirot. In Kabbalistic interpretation, the seven emotive sefirot similarly inter-include to form 49 (seven times seven) emotional states. So, for example, Chesed contains Chesed within Chesed (loving-kindness within loving-kindness), Gevurah within Chesed (might within loving-kindness) etc. until Malkuth within Chesed (kingdom within loving-kindness). Likewise, there is Chesed within Gevurah (loving-kindness within might, typified by a restriction performed out of love, like a father punishing a child)), Gevurah within Gevurah (might within might), etc. until Malkuth within Gevurah (kingdom within might) and so on, until the 49th level, Malkuth within Malkuth (kingdom within kingdom). This is the Kabbalistic interpretation of the mitzvah (Jewish observance) of Counting of the Omer between the festivals of Passover and Shavuot. Passover commemorates the Exodus from Egypt (in Hebrew, Mitzrayim \u05de\u05e6\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd, meaning \"limitations\"), which represents the unrectified level of the psyche, which we must escape through our daily spiritual development. Shavuot commemorates the receiving of the Torah on Mount Sinai. During this 49 day period Kabbalah teaches the benefit of focusing on the aspect of the 49 inter-included sefirot that is related to each particular day of the Omer. On each day of the Omer, a person would examine each of their spiritual qualities, as a rectification process of Teshuva (Return to God), as preparation for reliving the acceptance of the Torah on Shavuot.\n\n\n== Three configurations of the sefirot ==\nTwo alternative spiritual arrangements for describing the sefirot are given, metaphorically described as \"Circles\" and \"Upright\". Their origins come from Medieval Kabbalah and the Zohar. In later, 16th-century Lurianic Kabbalah, they become systemised as two successive stages in the evolution of the sefirot, during the primordial cosmic evolution of creation. This evolution is central to the metaphysical process of tikkun (fixing) in the doctrines of Isaac Luria.\n\n\n=== Iggulim-Circles ===\n\nOne diagrammatic representation depicts the sefirot metaphorically as successively smaller concentric circles, radiating inwards from the surrounding divine omnipresence. The Four Worlds of the seder hishtalshelus (\"Chain of Progression\"), or with the addition of the highest Fifth World (Adam Kadmon), can be depicted in this diagram, starting with the highest and proceeding towards the centre of the circle to our lowest, physical realm. In each World the 10 sefirot radiate, as 10 successive steps in the downward chain of flow towards the next, lower realm. This depiction shows the successive nature of each of the 10 sefirot, as a downward chain, each more removed from divine consciousness.\nThe surrounding space in the diagram is the Infinite Divine reality (Ein Sof). The outermost circle in the teachings of Lurianic Kabbalah is the \"space\" made by the Tzimtzum in which creation unfolds. Each successive World is progressively further removed from divine revelation, a metaphorically smaller, more constricted circle. Emanation in each World proceeds down the 10 sefirot, with the last sefirah (Malchut-Actualisation of the Divine plan) of one World becoming, and being shared as, the first sefirah (Keter-The Divine Will) of the next, lower realm. The vertical line into the centre of the circle represents the path of downward emanation and constriction, from the initial first Ohr (light) of the Kav (ray) in Lurianic doctrine.\n\n\n=== Yosher-Upright ===\n\nThe most important and well known scheme of depicting the sefirot arranges them as a tree with 3 columns. The right column represents the spiritual force of expansion. The left represents its opposite, restriction. The middle column is the balance and synthesis between these opposing tendencies. The connecting lines in the diagram show the specific connections of spiritual flow between the sefirot, the \"22 Connecting Paths\", and correspond to the spiritual channels of the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Kabbalah sees the Hebrew letters as channels of spiritual life force. This derives from the account in Genesis of the creation of the World, where creation takes place through 10 Hebrew \"Sayings\" of God (\"Let there be..\"). In Kabbalistic theology, these letters remain the immanent spiritual forces that constantly recreate all existence. The paths divide into 3 categories, shown in this diagram by their different colours, corresponding to the 3 types of letter.\n\n\n=== Ish-Man ===\nAn alternate depiction of the sefirot is in the form of a man. The first sefira represents the head, the next three represent the cavities of the brain, the fourth and fifth sefirot represent the arms, the sixth sefira is the torso, the seventh and eighth are the legs, the ninth is the sexual organ, and the tenth is the all-embracing totality of this image. This man is also divided into two, with the right column being made up of the male sefirot and the left, the female sefirot.\n\n\n== The Man-metaphor in Kabbalah ==\n\nKabbalah uses subtle anthropomorphic analogies and metaphors to describe God in Judaism, both the God-world relationship, and the inner nature of the divine. These include the metaphor of the soul-body relationship, the functions of human soul-powers, the configuration of human bodily form, and female-male influences in the divine. Kabbalists repeatedly warn and stress the need to divorce their notions from any corporality, dualism, plurality, or spatial and temporal connotations. As \"the Torah speaks in the language of Man\", the empirical terms are necessarily imposed upon human experience in this world. Once the analogy is described, its limitations are then related to stripping the kernel of its husk to arrive at a truer conception. Nonetheless, Kabbalists carefully chose their terminology to denote subtle connotations and profound relationships in the divine spiritual influences. More accurately, as they see the emanation of the material world from the spiritual realms, the analogous anthropomorphisms and material metaphors themselves derive through cause and effect from their precise root analogies on High.\nDescribing the material world below in general, and humans in particular, as created in the \"image\" of the world above is not restricted in Rabbinic Judaism to Kabbalah, but abounds more widely in Biblical, Midrashic, Talmudic and philosophical literature. Kabbalah extends the Man-metaphor more radically to anthropomorphise particular divine manifestations on high, while repeatedly stressing the need to divest analogies from impure materialistic corporality. Classical proof texts on which it bases its approach include, \"From my flesh I envisage God\", and the rabbinic analogy \"As the soul permeates the whole body...sees but is not seen...sustains the whole body...is pure...abides in the innermost precincts...is unique in the body...does not eat and drink...no man knows where its place is...so the Holy One, Blessed is He...\" Together with the metaphor of light, the Man-metaphor is central in Kabbalah. Nonetheless, it too has its limitations, needs qualification, and breaks down if taken as a literal, corporeal comparison. Its limitations include the effect of the body on the soul, while the World effects no change in God; and the distinct, separate origins of the soul and the body, while in relation to God's omnipresence, especially in its acosmic Hasidic development, all creation is nullified in its source.\n\n\n=== Soul faculties and Female-Male principles ===\nThe Yosher-Upright configuration of the sefirot arranges the 10 sefirot into a Partzuf interrelationship, where each sefirah relates and mediates the influence of the others. This metaphor for divine interrelationships on High is arranged in the schematic relationship of a human soul, because alone amongst all creation, Adam-Man is held to encapsulate all harmonized forces, while animals and angels embody only singular instinctive drives. The significance of this, as well as the full meaning of the Partzufim reconfiguration of the sefirot, emerges only in 16th century Lurianic Kabbalah, where the Yosher-Upright arrangement, the Partzufim and the souls of Israel represent the secondary World of Tikun-Rectification, while angels, animals and the root origins above of the nations of the World embody the primordial World of Tohu-Chaos. Lurianic Kabbalah applies the verse, \"God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him, male and female He created them\" to this reconfigured Tikun-Yosher arrangement. In the Yosher scheme, divine principles are described through the soul faculties of man, with Binah-Understanding and Malkuth-Kingship-Shechinah-Indwelling Divine Presence, encapsulating the Divine Feminine in Creation, the principle of receiving, nurturing and pregnant internalization.\nIn Medieval Kabbalah, the task of humans is the Yichud-Union on High of the Female-Male principles of divinity, healing the apparent separation and concealment of the Shechinah female indwelling divine presence that sustains this world from the \"Holy One Blessed Be He\", the transcendent divine on high. Separation and interruption of the Shefa-Flow of divine vitality into this World is caused by human sin. Unification and revelation is opened by human benevolence, so that in Kabbalah human encapsulates the whole spiritual cosmos and upholds the Heavens. The 16th century Sefad Kabbalistic Renaissance ennacted the prayer before performing Mitzvot Jewish observances, uniting Tiferet-Beauty, central principle in the male emotions (Zeir Anpin) with Malkuth-Kingship, the feminine Shechinah:\n\nFor the sake of the union of the Holy One, Blessed Be He, and His Shechinah; to unite the name Yud and Hei, with Vav and Hei in the name of all Israel.\n\n\n=== The sefirot and the Tetragrammaton ===\nThe four Hebrew letters of God's essential divine name (known as the Tetragrammaton) correspond to the ten sefirot.\nThe letter yud (\u05d9) is depicted by a point with a cusp at its head. The point-like nature of the yud corresponds to the sefirah of chochmah, which is likened to the initial spark, or point of potential through which a new insight enters reality. The cusp, or tip of the yud reaches upwards and alludes to the super-conscious root of chochmah, which resides in Keter. The first letter hei (\u05d4) of the Tetragrammaton represents the expansion of the point of the yud into all three spatial dimensions. This corresponds to the sefirah of Binah, which expands and develops the seminal point of wisdom (chochmah) into a detailed idea. The letter vav (\u05d5) resembles a vertical line that connects the higher intellectual faculties with the emotive powers of the psyche. The gematria of the letter vav is 6, corresponding to the six emotive sefirot from loving-kindness to foundation. The final letter hei (\u05d4) of the Tetragrammaton represents the sefirah of malchut.\n\n\n=== Configuration of the body ===\n\nDespite the particular geometric depiction of the Yosher scheme, through each soul faculty in the body, physical human organs also reflect the supernal divine forces on high, as the scheme of Yosher underscores the inter-relationship of the sefirot as a unit or body. In this context, the physical upright standing of humans contrasts with the horizontal forms of animals. The correspondence of the sefirot with the physical organs of a human:\n\n\n== Lurianic Shevirah (Shattering) and Tikun (Rectification) ==\n\nIsaac Luria reinterpreted and recast the whole scheme of Kabbalah in the 16th century, essentially making the second of two different versions of the Kabbalah: the Medieval (the initial, direct understandings of the Zohar, later synthesised by Moshe Cordovero) and the Lurianic. However, he understood his new doctrine as no more than a new revelation-teaching of the true meaning of the Zohar. Lurianic Kabbalah became the dominant Kabbalistic system, displacing Cordovero's, and afterwards the Zohar was read in its light. Lurianic Kabbalists sought to integrate this with the Cordoverian scheme, seeing both as true, but describing different aspects (\"Worlds\") of the divine process.\nMedieval Kabbalah depicts a linear descending hierarchy of divine vitality, the sefirot emerging from the Ein Sof to enact creation. Lurianic Kabbalah describes enclothing processes of exile and redemption in the divine flow, where higher levels descend into lower states, as souls to spiritual bodies. The first emanation in creation leads to spiritual shattering of divinity in a definitive \"catastrophe\" (Shevirat HaKeilim - \"The Shattering of the Vessels\"), and the exile of its \"sparks\" into the descending created realms. Cordovero had reconciled previous opinions of the sefirot by describing each as divine Ohrot (\"lights\") invested in 10 spiritual Keilim (\"vessels\"), adapted by Luria to his scheme. In Lurianic Kabbalah, the first vessels of the sefirot shatter due to the sublime intensity of the light. Because each of the sefirot act as independent forces, Isaac Luria's attribution of the Iggulim (independent \"Circles\" arrangement of the sefirot) without cooperation, their immature vessels are weak. From the destruction of this primordial realm, the World of Tohu (\"Chaos\"), is built the subsequent World of Tikun (\"Rectification\"), characterized by lower lights and stronger vessels. The sublime lights of Tohu withdraw into the Ein Sof, while their sefirot vessels shatter down creation. Sparks of the original high lights remain attached in exile to the descending fragments, and the Messianic task is the redemption of all the holy sparks of Tohu. In the World of Tikun in contrast, the sefirot vessels are mature, stronger and act together in harmony. To this reformed state, Isaac Luria attributed the former Kabbalistic concepts of Yosher (harmonised \"Upright\" arrangement of the sefirot), and the many Zoharic passages expounding the Partzufim (Divine \"Personas/Configurations\"-particular Divine manifestations). This systemised the classic concept of the Partzufim as the secondary, evolved arrangements of the sefirot in Creation.\nIsaac Luria related the transition from Tohu to Tikun to Genesis 1:1-3:\n\n\"In the beginning God created the Heavens and the Earth\", the initial source in potential, from which all would unfold. \"And the earth was Chaos (Tohu) and Void (Vohu), with darkness over the surface of the deep...\", each sefirah acts independently causing the shattering (Shevirat HaKeilim). \"...And God said let there be Light\", the ability of the harmonised sefirot of Tikun to reveal Divinity and enact stable Creation.\nThe Lurianic doctrine of the shattering of the emotional sefirot vessels describes the esoteric meaning of Genesis 36:31 and I Chronicles 1:43:\n\n\"These are the kings who reigned in the land of Edom before there reigned any king over the children of Israel...\"\n\nEdom is described in Genesis as the descendants of Esau. In the Kabbalistic scheme, this is identified with unrectified Gevurah - Severity, the source of the vessels of the World of Tohu - Chaos. The eight kings listed who reigned in Edom before any king of Israel, embodied the eight sefirot of Daat to Malchut in the World of Tohu, the vessels that shattered. Of each it says they lived and died, death connoting the soul-light of the sefirot ascending back to its source, while the body-vessel descends-shatters. Attached to the broken vessels are the holy residues of the former light as Nitzot - \"Sparks\" of holiness, sustaining Creation by the Divine flow of Will. The sparks are the creative force of the sefirot down the Four Worlds. The unabsorbed residue of the broken vessels in our physical, lowest World Assiah becomes the realm of Kelipot impurity. Genesis 1:2, \"...And the Spirit of God hovered over the waters.\" Merachepet - \"hovered\" splits into the number \"288 died\", the root number of Divine sparks that then subdivide into innumerable fragments.\n\n\n== Partzufim \u2013 reconfigured sefirot ==\nThe four realms of our created existence are together called the World of Tikkun (\"Fixing\"). In Tikkun, the sefirot evolve into new arrangements, where they can unite. The different realms Tikkun are characterized by lower lights and stronger vessels.Subsequent to the interinclusion of the 10 sefirot within each other, in Lurianic Kabbalah they then develop into partzufim (\"personas\"). Wide discussion of the partzufim is found in the Medieval Kabbalah of the Zohar, before Isaac Luria. In the Zohar, Shimon bar Yochai expounds upon the spiritual roles of the partzufim, by talking about them as independent spiritual manifestations. \"The Holy Ancient of Days\", or  \"The Long Visage\", two of the different Parsufim, are not just alternative adjectives for God, but are particular spiritual manifestations, levels and natures. Lurianic Kabbalah focused on the role of the Parsufim as the fully evolved stage of the primordial evolution of the sefirot, in the beginning of creation. Instead of each of the 10 sefirot merely including a full subset of 10 sefirot as latent potential forces, the first stage of their evolution, in the Parsufim the sefirot become fully autonomous and interrelated. The name of each partzuf denotes that the sefirah from which it derived, has now become an independent scheme of 10 fully functioning sefirot in the \"Upright\" (Yosher) form of \"Man\". This reconfiguration is essential in Lurianic Kabbalah to enable the opposing spiritual forces of the sefirot to work together in harmony. Each Parsuf now operates independently, and unites with the other Parsufim. So, for example, \"The Long Visage\" is said to descend, and become enclothed within the lower Parsufim. The sefirot now harmonise, to enable the Lurianic scheme of Tikkun (rectification) to begin. The names of the fundamental partzufim and their English translations:\n\n\n== Inner dimensions of the sefirot and the powers of the soul ==\n\nAs all levels of Creation are constructed around the 10 sefirot, their names in Kabbalah describe the particular role each plays in forming reality. These are the external dimensions of the sefirot, describing their functional roles in channelling the divine, creative Ohr (Light) to all levels. As the sefirot are viewed to comprise both metaphorical \"lights\" and \"vessels\", their structural role describes the particular identity each sefirah possesses from its characteristic vessel. Underlying this functional structure of the sefirot, each one possesses a hidden, inner spiritual motivation that inspires its activity. This forms the particular characteristic of inner light within each sefirah.\nUnderstanding the sefirot throughout Jewish mysticism is achieved by their correspondence to the human soul. This applies to the outer, Kabbalistic structure of the sefirot. It applies even more to their inner dimensions, which correspond to inner psychological qualities in human perception. Identifying the essential spiritual properties of the soul gives the best insight into their divine source, and in the process reveals the spiritual beauty of the soul. In Hasidic thought these inner dimensions of the sefirot are called the Powers of the Soul (Hebrew: Kochos HaNefesh\u200e). Hasidism sought the internalisation of the abstract ideas of Kabbalah, both outwardly in joyful sincerity of dveikus in daily life, acts of loving-kindness and prayer; and inwardly in its profound new articulation of Jewish mystical thought, by relating it to the inner life of man. Articulation of the sefirot in Hasidic philosophy is primarily concerned with their inner dimensions, and exploring the direct, enlivening contribution of each in man's spiritual worship of God. Kabbalah focuses on the esoteric manifestations of God in creation, the vessels of divinity. Hasidut looks at the lights that fill these vessels, how the structures reveal the divine essence, and how this inwardness can be perceived. This difference can be seen in the names of these two stages of Jewish mysticism. \"Kabbalah\" in Hebrew is derived from \"kabal\" (to \"receive\" as a vessel). \"Hasidut\" is from \"chesed\" (\"loving-kindness\"), considered the first and greatest sefirah, also called \"Greatness\", the wish to reveal and share. The names of the sefirot come from Kabbalah, and describe the Divine effect that each has upon Creation, but not their inner qualities. Hasidic thought uses new descriptive terms for the inner dimensions of the sefirot:\n\n\n== The four Worlds ==\nThese ten levels are associated with Kabbalah's four different \"Worlds\" or planes of existence, the main part from the perspective of the descending \"chain of progression\" (Seder hishtalshelut), that links the infinite divine Ein Sof with the finite, physical realm. In all Worlds, the 10 sefirot radiate, and are the divine channels through which every level is continuously created from nothing. Since they are the attributes through which the unknowable, infinite divine essence becomes revealed to the creations, all ten emanate in each World. Nonetheless, the structure of the Four Worlds arises because in each one, certain sefirot predominate. Each World is spiritual, apart from the lower aspect of the final World, which is the Asiyah Gashmi (\"Physical Asiyah\"), the physical Universe. Each World is progressively grosser and further removed from consciousness of the Divine, until in this World it is possible to be unaware of or to deny God. In descending order:\n\nWorld of Emanation (Hebrew: \u05d0\u05b2\u05e6\u05b4\u05d9\u05dc\u05d5\u05bc\u05ea\u200e, Atzilut): In this level the light of the Ein Sof radiates and is united with its source. Divine Chochmah, the limitless flash of wisdom beyond grasp, predominates.\nWorld of Creation (Hebrew: \u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05e8\u05b4\u05d9\u05d0\u05b8\u05d4\u200e, Beri'ah): In this level, is the first creation ex nihilo, where the souls and angels have self-awareness, but without form. Divine Binah, the intellectual understanding, predominates.\nWorld of Formation (Hebrew: \u05d9\u05b0\u05e6\u05b4\u05d9\u05e8\u05b8\u05d4\u200e, Yetzirah): On this level, creation is related to form. The Divine emotional sefirot of Chesed to Yesod predominate.\nWorld of Action (Hebrew: \u05e2\u05b2\u05e9\u05b4\u05c2\u05d9\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4\u200e, Assiah): On this level creation is relegated to its physical aspect, the only physical realm and the lowest World, this realm with all its creatures. The Divine Kingship of Malchut predominates, the purpose of Creation.In the Zohar and elsewhere, there are these four Worlds or planes of existence. In the Lurianic system of Kabbalah, five Worlds are counted, comprising these and a higher, fifth plane, Adam Kadmon-manifest Godhead level, that mediates between the Ein Sof and the four lower Worlds.\nAs the four Worlds link the Infinite with this realm, they also enable the soul to ascend in devotion or mystical states, towards the Divine. Each World can be understood as descriptive of dimensional levels of intentionality related to the natural human \"desire to receive\", and a method for the soul's progress upward toward unity with or return to the Creator. (The terminology of this formulation is based on the exposition of Lurianic Kabbalah by the 20th century Kabbalist Yehuda Ashlag).\n\n\n== Scriptural, numerological and spiritual associations of the sefirotic tree ==\n\n\n=== Associations of the 3 columns ===\nThe sefiroth are organized into three discrete columns or gimel kavim (\"three lines\" in Hebrew).  They are often referred to as the three \"Fathers,\" are derived from the three \"Mothers,\" and are attributed to the vowels (Vav, Yud, and Heh.)  They are as follows:\n\nCentral column\n\nKether heads the central column of the tree, which is known metaphorically speaking as the \"Pillar of Mildness\" and is associated with Hebrew letter Aleph, \"the breath\", and the air element.  It is a neutral one, a balance between the two opposing forces of female and male tendencies.  Some teachings describe the sefirot on the centre pillar as gender-neutral, while others say that the sefirot vary in their sexual attributions.\nRight column (kav yamin)\nChokhmah heads the right column of the tree, metaphorically speaking the \"Pillar of Mercy\", associated with the Hebrew letter Shin, the fire element, and the male aspect;\nLeft column (kav smol)\nThe left column is headed by Binah and is called the \"Pillar of Severity.\"  It is associated with Hebrew letter Mem, the water element and the female aspect.While the pillars are each given a sexual attribution, this does not mean that every sefirah on a given pillar has the same sexual attribution as the pillar on which they sit. In Jewish Kabbalah, of all the sefirot only Binah and Malkuth are considered female, while all the other sefirot are male.Additionally (and this applies to both Jewish and Hermetic Kabbalah), each sefirah is seen as male in relation to the following sefirah in succession on the tree, and female in relation to the foregoing sefirah.\nAlternative traditions consider the grammatical genders of the words involved.  Thus, Gevurah is feminine because it has an atonal finial Heh.  Thus, Severity or Justice becomes a feminine attribute while Chesed (Mercy or Loving-kindness) becomes a masculine one, despite the modern Western tendency to genderize these terms in reverse manner.\n\n\n=== Numerological meanings ===\nIn a numerological sense, the tree of sefirot also has significance. Between the 10 sefirot run 22 channels or paths which connect them, a number which can be associated with the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Together the spiritual forces of the 10 sefirot and the 22 connecting channels are called the \"32 Paths of Wisdom\".\n\n\n=== Rabbinic significance ===\nAs to the actual significance of the numbers 10 and 22 in  context of Judaism goes into  Kabbalistic interpretation of Genesis. God is said to have created the world through Ten Utterances, marked by the number of times Genesis states, \"And God said.\"\n\nGen 1:3 - \"And Elohim said, 'Let there be Light.' and there was Light.\" (Kether)\nGen 1:6 - \"And Elohim said, 'Let there be a firmament in the midst of the Waters, and let it divide the Waters from the Waters.\" (Chockmah)\nGen 1:9 - \"And Elohim said, 'Let the Waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place, and let the dry land appear.' And it was so.\" (Binah)\nGen 1:11 - \"And Elohim said, 'Let the Earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth.' And it was so.\" (Chesed)\nGen 1:14-15 - \"And Elohim said, 'Let there be lights in the firmament of the heaven to divide the day from the night; and let them be for signs, and for seasons, and for days, and years: And let them be for lights in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth.' And it was so.\" (Gevurah)\nGen 1:20 - \"And Elohim said, 'Let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl that may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven.'\" (Tiferet)\nGen 1:22 - \"And Elohim Blessed them, saying, 'Be fruitful, and multiply, and fill the waters in the seas, and let fowl multiply in the earth.'\" (Netzach)\nGen 1:26 - \"And Elohim said, 'Let us make People in our image, after our likeness: and let them have stewardship over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth.'\" (Hod)\nGen 1:28 - \"And Elohim blessed them and Elohim said to them, 'Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and keep it: and have stewardship over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.'\" (Yesod)\nGen 1:29-30 - \"And Elohim said, 'Behold, I have given you every herb bearing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for meat. And to every beast of the earth, and to every fowl of the air, and to every thing that creepeth upon the earth, wherein there is life, I have given every green herb for meat.' And it was so.\" (Malchut)As for the 22 letter-paths, there must first be an explanation of the three different types of letters in  Hebrew.\n\nThere are three \"Mothers\" (Aleph, Mem, and Shin) that represent the horizontal lines.\nTheir difference from the other letters is a matter for another article.\nThere are seven \"Doubles\" (Bet, Gimel, Dalet, Kaf, Peh, Resh, and Tav) that represent the vertical lines.\nEach double is attributed to a soft and hard sound, positive and negative meaning, direction, planet, gate of the soul, color, angels, and vowel.\nGimel, Dalet, Resh, and Tav's second pronunciations are lost or disputed, with different dialects using different sounds. Tav has no second pronunciation in Sephardi, but Ashkenazi use a 's' sound when the dagesh is absent.\nThe twelve \"Elementals\" (Heh, Vav, Zayin, Chet, Tet, Yud, Lamed, Nun, Samech, Ayin, Tzaddi, and Qof) have one pronunciation, and represent the diagonal lines.  Other sources say that they correspond to the twelve zodiacal constellations.Each letter grouping has significance in Genesis 1:\n\nThe Mothers represent the three times Genesis states \"God made.\"\nThe Doubles represent the seven times Genesis states \"God saw.\"\nThe elementals (or singles) represent the rest of the times \"God\" (Elohim in every instance of Genesis Chapter 1) is mentioned.\n\n\n== In popular culture ==\nIn the Orion's Arm Universe Project, the godlike artificial intelligences that rule humanity each identify with one of the sefirot.\nIn the Japanese anime Neon Genesis Evangelion, the Tree is shown in the opening of the show, along with other religious iconography.\nThe nine mass-production EVAs and EVA Unit 01 form a sefirot shape in the film The End of Evangelion.\nIn the Japanese manga and anime A Certain Magical Index, the tree is shown and referenced.\nYu-Gi-Oh! 5Ds: Z-ONE, the main antagonist of the final story arc in the anime, is using a set of 11 cards called \"Timelords\", where the first 10 represents the Sefirot and each named after an archangel in Judaism, and the final card (and the strongest), Sephylon, represents the tree of Sefirot itself, where all Sefirot become one (Daat).\nThe support cards are also named in Japanese \"Nonexistence Machine - Ain\", \"Endless Machine - Ain Soph\", and \"Infinite Light - Ain Soph Ohr\", named after the concept of \"Ein Sof\".\nIn the Korean video game Lobotomy Corporation, the artificial intelligences that preside over each department of the company are named after the sefirot and are called Sephirah [sic], and the departments themselves are arranged in an inverse tree.\nSephiroth is the name of the main antagonist in Final Fantasy VII. His role in the game's narrative is inspired by the tree.\nIn the first video game of The Witcher series the protagonist is sent out to search for 10 'sephirot'. These named stones each represent an attribute, listed by the game as \"Keth'aar \u2014 Crown, Chocc'mah \u2014 Wisdom, Veen'ah \u2014 Understanding, Kezath \u2014 Love, Ghe'vrath \u2014 Power, Tipperath \u2014 Compassion, Neh'tza \u2014 Victory, 'Oth \u2014 Glory, Yesath \u2014 Foundation and Maal'kad \u2014 Kingdom\"\n\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\nEarly texts:\n\nThe Sefer Yetzirah the book of creation: In theory and practice, translated and explained by Aryeh Kaplan (1997). Samuel Weiser, Inc. (ISBN 0-87728-855-0)\nThe Bahir, translated by Aryeh Kaplan (1995). Aronson. (ISBN 1-56821-383-2)Modern guides:\n\nThe Mystical Qabalah, Dion Fortune (Originally published: London, Williams & Norgate 1935; Revised edition published in 2000 by Red Wheel/Weiser, LLC) (ISBN 1-57863-150-5)\nQabalistic Concepts: Living the Tree, William G Gray (1997). Samuel Weiser, Inc. (ISBN 1-57863-000-2)\nThe Secret Teaching of All Ages by Manly P. Hall (October 27, 2003). Tarcher. (ISBN 1-58542-250-9)\nThe Decad of Creation by Aaron Leitch (Journal of the Western Mystery Tradition, http://www.jwmt.org/v2n13/doc.html)Academic study:\n\nMystical Concepts in Chassidism: An Introduction to Kabbalistic Concepts and Doctrines, Jacob Immanuel Schochet (3rd edition 1998). Kehot. (ISBN 0826604129)\nOn The Kabbalah and its Symbolism, Gershom Scholem (1996). Schocken. (ISBN 0-8052-1051-2)\n\n\n== External links ==\nThe Ten Sefirot: Introduction\nKabbalah at Curlie\nDiagram of 10 Sefirot and Attributes\nSefirotic Systems in the Sefer Yetsira, Bahir and Post-Zohar Kabbalah", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Ari_sefer_hakavanot.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Brockhaus_and_Efron_Jewish_Encyclopedia_004.gif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Gtk-dialog-info.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Kabbalistic_Tree_of_Life_%28Sephiroth%29.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Ktreewnames.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/RoyLindmanTenSephirot.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Sefiroticky_strom.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Kabbalah_%22ein_sof%22_chart.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Kabbalah_%22ein_sof%22_chart.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg"], "summary": "Sefirot (; Hebrew: \u05e1\u05b0\u05e4\u05b4\u05d9\u05e8\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea\u200e s\u0259p\u0304\u00eer\u00f4\u1e6f), meaning emanations, are the 10 attributes/emanations in Kabbalah, through which Ein Sof (The Infinite) reveals himself and continuously creates both the physical realm and the chain of higher metaphysical realms (Seder hishtalshelus). The term is alternatively transliterated into English as sephirot/sephiroth, singular sefirah/sephirah etc.\nAlternative configurations of the sefirot are given by different schools in the historical development of Kabbalah, with each articulating different spiritual aspects. The tradition of enumerating 10 is stated in the Sefer Yetzirah, \"Ten sefirot of nothingness, ten and not nine, ten and not eleven\". As altogether eleven sefirot are listed across the different schemes, two (Keter and Da'at) are seen as unconscious and conscious manifestations of the same principle, conserving the ten categories. The sefirot are described as channels of divine creative life force or consciousness through which the unknowable divine essence is revealed to mankind. \nThe first sefirah, Keter, describes the divine superconscious Will that is beyond conscious intellect. The next three sefirot (Chokhmah, Binah and Da'at) describe three levels of conscious divine intellect. In particular, Da'at represents Keter in its knowable form, the concept of knowledge. Will and knowledge are corresponding somewhat dependent opposites. The seven subsequent sefirot (Chesed, Gevurah, Tiferet, Netzach, Hod, Yesod and Malkuth) describe the primary and secondary conscious divine emotions. The sefirot of the left side and the sefira of Malkuth are feminine, as the female principle in Kabbalah describes a vessel that receives the outward male light, then inwardly nurtures and gives birth to the sefirot below them. Kabbalah sees the human soul as mirroring the divine (after Genesis 1:27, \"God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him, male and female He created them\"), and more widely, all creations as reflections of their life source in the sefirot. Therefore, the sefirot also describe the spiritual life of man, break down man's psychological processes, and constitute the conceptual paradigm in Kabbalah for understanding everything. This relationship between the soul of man and the divine gives Kabbalah one of its two central metaphors in describing divinity, alongside the other Ohr (light) metaphor. However, Kabbalah repeatedly stresses the need to avoid all corporeal interpretation. Through this, the sefirot are related to the structure of the body and are reformed into partzufim (personas). Underlying the structural purpose of each sefirah is a hidden motivational force which is understood best by comparison with a corresponding psychological state in human spiritual experience.In Hasidic philosophy, which has sought to internalise the experience of Jewish mysticism into daily inspiration (devekut), this inner life of the sefirot is explored, and the role they play in man's service of God in this world."}, "Partzufim": {"links": ["Temurah ", "Shekhinah", "Torah study", "Pardes ", "Sephardic law and customs", "Isaiah Horowitz", "Free will in theology", "Malkuth", "Sephardic Judaism", "Hasidic dynasties", "Sefer Yetzirah", "Dov Ber of Mezeritch", "Sephirot", "Tree of life ", "Ohr", "Shechinah", "Baba Sali", "Atik Yomin", "Nachman of Breslov", "Yesod", "Moshe Cordovero", "Nathan Adler", "Christian Kabbalah", "Halakha", "Bahir", "Binah ", "Meir ibn Gabbai", "Safed", "Jewish angelic hierarchy", "Jewish commentaries on the Bible", "Rabbinic literature", "Ruach HaKodesh", "Oral Torah", "Lurianic Kabbalah", "Shavuot", "Baal Shem Tov", "Jewish eschatology", "Chokhmah", "Jewish studies", "Ben Ish Chai", "Tiferet", "Gershom Scholem", "Hod ", "Divine transcendence", "Written Torah", "Names of God in Judaism", "Isaac Luria", "Abraham Azulai", "Jonathan Eybeschutz", "Jewish services", "Prophecy", "Atzmus", "Asceticism in Judaism", "Christian Knorr von Rosenroth", "Vilna Gaon", "Jewish philosophy", "Joseph ben Ephraim Karo", "Tohu and Tikun", "Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil", "Kavanah", "Cordoveran Kabbalah", "Gilgul", "Shemhamphorasch", "Leah", "Lithuanian Jews", "Panentheism", "Kabbalah: Primary texts", "Jewish mysticism", "Zeir Anpin", "Old Yishuv", "Tikkun Chatzot", "Netzach", "Toledano tradition", "Shimon bar Yohai", "Tannaim", "Shlomo Eliyashiv", "Shalom Sharabi", "Chaim Joseph David Azulai", "Simeon bar Yochai", "Beit El Synagogue", "Tree of Life", "Hebrew language", "ISBN ", "Elohim", "Four Worlds", "Divine providence ", "Moshe Alshich", "Jewish views on astrology", "Kashrut", "Schisms among the Jews", "Synonymous", "Azriel ", "Aggadah", "Nusach", "Tzaddik", "Bahya ben Asher", "Kabbalah: Primary Texts", "Arich Anpin", "Menachem Mendel Schneerson", "Tzadik", "Sabbateans", "Jewish mystical exegesis", "Yitzchak Ginsburgh", "Practical Kabbalah", "Gevurah", "Keter", "Moses de Leon", "Godhead ", "Chaim Volozhin", "Seder hishtalshelut", "Atzilut", "Malchut", "Moshe Chaim Luzzatto", "Minhag", "Rabbinic Judaism", "Chokhmah ", "Notarikon", "Jewish principles of faith", "Timeline List of Jewish Kabbalists", "Shlomo Alkabetz", "Talmudical hermeneutics", "Heichalot", "Teshuvah", "God in Judaism", "Musar literature", "Mitzvah", "Shevirah", "Isaac the Blind", "Tohu ", "Kabbalah", "Neo-Hasidism", "Nusach Ashkenaz", "Talmud", "Shimon bar Yochai", "Tzadikim Nistarim", "Mikveh", "Zohar", "Divine immanence", "Mitzvot", "Yehuda Ashlag", "Lag BaOmer", "Devekut", "Sephirot ", "Shtetl", "Anthropomorphism in Kabbalah", "Jewish meditation", "Chassidei Ashkenaz", "Thirteen Attributes of Mercy", "Ayin and Yesh", "Ab ", "Hasidic philosophy", "Rachel", "Abraham Abulafia", "Shlomo Halevi Alkabetz", "Jacob", "Yeridat ha-dorot", "Nahmanides", "Yom Hillula", "Gematria", "Tzimtzum", "Ohel ", "Idra", "Joseph ben Abraham Gikatilla", "Merkabah", "Chaim ibn Attar", "Baal Shem", "Hasidic Judaism", "Qliphoth", "Tanakh", "Abraham Isaac Kook", "six thirteen commandments", "Chaim Vital", "Chesed", "Judah Loew ben Bezalel", "Tetragrammaton", "Menahem Recanati", "Ein Sof", "Tikun ", "Torah", "Schneur Zalman of Liadi", "Midrash"], "content": "Partzufim/Partsufim (Hebrew: \u05e4\u05e8\u05e6\u05d5\u05e4\u05d9\u05dd\u200e, singular partzuf, Hebrew: \u05e4\u05e8\u05e6\u05d5\u05e3\u200e), meaning Divine \"Personae/Visages/Faces/Forms/Configurations\", are particular reconfigured arrangements of the ten sephirot (Divine attributes/emanations of Kabbalah). Each partzuf is thus a configuration of disparate entities into a harmonious unit. The names of the partzufim are derived from the Zohar, the foundational text of Kabbalah. There, they  are synonymous terms for the sefirot. Their full doctrinal significance emerged in 16th century Lurianic Kabbalah with reference to the cosmic processes of Shevirah-\"Shattering\" and Tikun-\"Rectification.\"\nMedieval Kabbalah described the ten sefirot as divine channels that emanate from their source and descend in a linear progression. Moshe Cordovero systemised the different Medieval interpretations of the Zohar. Later, Isaac Luria recast Kabbalah into its second articulation. \"Lurianic Partzufim\" describe the dynamic relationships between personae, which interact with each other. The higher partzufim enclothe themselves within the lower ones, as a soul is enclothed in a body.\nAccording to the Lurianic system, the linear scheme of sefirot precipitates the \"shattering\" of Tohu- \"the World of Chaos.\" Their reformation as partzufim in the World of Atzilut, or Rectification, begins cosmic repair.\nAs a result of the collapse of the World of Chaos, sparks of holiness were lost, or exiled, in the three lower Worlds. Man, whose soul reflects the harmonised order of partzufim, rectifies the mundane world by redeeming the exiled sparks of holiness through Torah study and performance of mitzvot.\n\n\n== Description ==\n\nIn Lurianic Kabbalah, the four realms of our created existence are arranged in a stable form, through the reconfiguration of the original sephirot into partzufim. The first realm to exhibit this new arrangement is the mature form of Atzilut (the World of \"Emanation\"), therefore also called the \"World of Tikun\" (Rectification). This follows on from the Shevirah (\"Shattering\") of the sefirot vessels in the \"World of Tohu\" (Chaos), the initial, unstable form of Atzilut. In Tikun, the Sefirot evolve into the harmonised partzufim new arrangements, where they can unite. The realm of Tohu is characterised by abundant light (Ohr) and weak vessels, as the 10 sefirot act independently as absolute forces, causing it to collapse. Tikkun is characterised by lower lights in strong vessels, as through the partzufim the sefirot inter-relate to absorb the illumination from Tohu.\nInstead of each sefirah merely including a full subset of 10 sefirot as latent potential forces, the first stage of their evolution in the Lurianic scheme, in the partzufim the sefirot become full autonomous arrangements where all 10 sefirot are active forces of intellectual and emotional powers arranged around one of their number, analogous to the Yosher (\"Upright\") human-like configuration of the sephirot in three columns. They can now interact with the other partzufim, becoming enclothed within them in dynamic interaction. For example, Arich Anpin, the Partzuf of Keter-Will means the \"Long/Extended Face\" as it acts as the foundational Divine Will within Creation, extending down through subsequent partzufim, sefirot and Worlds, though in successively more concealed mode. The task of man becomes the rectification of the fallen sparks of Tohu, the concealed sublime origins of lower Creation, latently active in their exiled state. The messianic goal is the union of the original great illumination of Tohu within mature vessels of Tikun, revealing the ultimate divine essence of both.\n\n\n=== Anthropomorphism of the partzufim ===\n\nAs Medieval Kabbalists never tire of stressing the unity and non-plurality in the concept of the sefirot, so Luria stressed the metaphorical nature of the partzufim. They are Divine \"faces\", manifestations of the Godhead, alternative aspects through which God manifests Himself, and do not imply any plurality in God. As Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai recounts in the Zohar:\n\nWhatever I said of the Atika Kadisha, Holy Ancient-One, and whatever I said of the Zeir Anpin, is all One; everything is absolutely One. There is no division in Him, blessed be He and blessed be His Name forever. The sum of all this is: the Ancient of the Ancient and the Zeir Anpin are absolutely One. All is, was, and shall be; He will not change, He is unchanging, and he has not changed...Should you ask, what then is the difference between one and the other? It is all One, but from above His paths divide and from below judgement is found; from our perspective they differ one from another.\n\n\n== Primary and Secondary partzufim ==\nThe 10 sephirot develop into 5/6 primary partzufim, which further develop into pairs of Male and Female secondary partzufim. The male principle in Kabbalah metaphorically denotes outward/emanator/giver, and the female principle denotes inward/receiver/nurturer, similar to the female process of pregnancy to nurture subsequent emanation. The terminology and system of partzufim describes detailed and specific aspects of Divinity, their nature and function discussed in Kabbalah.\n\n\n=== Primary partzufim ===\nThe fundamental primary partzufim and the sefirot they develop from are:\n\nAtik Yomin-\"Ancient of Days\", supreme \"earliest/oldest\" inner dimension of Keter Will from Ein Sof)\nArich Anpin-\"Long Face/Extending Patience\", infinitely extending downwards source of divine compassion in Keter Will\nAbba-\"Father\", Chokhmah illumination of Wisdom insight, root of intellect on the \"right\" of the sefirot (Revelation)\nImma-\"Mother\", Binah intellectual Understanding nurturing pregnant emotions, on the \"left\" side of the sefirot (Internalisation)\nZeir Anpin-\"Small Face/Short Patience\", Son, 6 sefirot emotions that shattered, born from Imma on \"left\" side (Judgement)\nNukvah-\"Female\" of Zeir Anpin, Daughter, Malkuth reign in Feminine Shekhinah, born from Zeir Anpin on \"left\", man reunites\n\n\n=== Full array of partzufim ===\nThe full array of primary partzufim and the secondary partzufim that develop from them:\n\nBoth of the secondary, male and female partzufim of Atik Yomin and Arich Anpin exist within the same configuration. There are therefore only 10 distinct secondary partzufim, and consequently the secondary partzufim of Keter do not have particular names, unlike the secondary partzufim of the other sefirot.\n\n\n== Manifestations ==\nThe 6 primary and 12 secondary partzufim are the basic harmonised Divine manifestations in the Four Worlds of created existence. More specifically however, within their interaction are numerous more particular aspects of Divinity, each denoting a differentiated expression. In the Idrot narratives of the Zohar, Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai discusses profound manifestations of the partzufim. The Idra Zuta, traditionally ascribed to his day of passing from this world, his Yom Hillula \"wedding day\", is considered the deepest teachings of the Zohar.\n\n\n== Image gallery ==\n\n\n== See also ==\nAnthropomorphism in Kabbalah\nIdra\nIsaac Luria\nSephirot\nTohu and Tikun\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nGlossary of Kabbalah and Chassidut Letter P\nThe Stages of the Creative Process from God's Infinite Light to Our Physical World from www.inner.org. Includes detailed descriptions of particular partzuf manifestations\nThe Partzufim - The Sefirotic Faces By Rabbi Ariel Bar Tzadok (Originally published in Panu Derekh #13)\nTrue Monotheism Kabbalistic understanding of the absolute Unity of Divine Manifestations, from inner.org", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Idra2.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fe/Complex_qaballah.jpg"], "summary": "Partzufim/Partsufim (Hebrew: \u05e4\u05e8\u05e6\u05d5\u05e4\u05d9\u05dd\u200e, singular partzuf, Hebrew: \u05e4\u05e8\u05e6\u05d5\u05e3\u200e), meaning Divine \"Personae/Visages/Faces/Forms/Configurations\", are particular reconfigured arrangements of the ten sephirot (Divine attributes/emanations of Kabbalah). Each partzuf is thus a configuration of disparate entities into a harmonious unit. The names of the partzufim are derived from the Zohar, the foundational text of Kabbalah. There, they  are synonymous terms for the sefirot. Their full doctrinal significance emerged in 16th century Lurianic Kabbalah with reference to the cosmic processes of Shevirah-\"Shattering\" and Tikun-\"Rectification.\"\nMedieval Kabbalah described the ten sefirot as divine channels that emanate from their source and descend in a linear progression. Moshe Cordovero systemised the different Medieval interpretations of the Zohar. Later, Isaac Luria recast Kabbalah into its second articulation. \"Lurianic Partzufim\" describe the dynamic relationships between personae, which interact with each other. The higher partzufim enclothe themselves within the lower ones, as a soul is enclothed in a body.\nAccording to the Lurianic system, the linear scheme of sefirot precipitates the \"shattering\" of Tohu- \"the World of Chaos.\" Their reformation as partzufim in the World of Atzilut, or Rectification, begins cosmic repair.\nAs a result of the collapse of the World of Chaos, sparks of holiness were lost, or exiled, in the three lower Worlds. Man, whose soul reflects the harmonised order of partzufim, rectifies the mundane world by redeeming the exiled sparks of holiness through Torah study and performance of mitzvot."}, "Zohar": {"links": ["Chaim Volozhin", "Jewish views on marriage", "Gan Eden", "Tanakh", "Index of Jewish history-related articles", "Heichalot", "Baqashot", "Judaism and Mormonism", "Jewish eschatology", "Reconstructionist Judaism", "Shlomo Alkabetz", "Radvaz", "Hasidei Ashkenaz", "Ein Sof", "Ben Ish Chai", "Andalusia", "Jewish leadership", "Judah Loew ben Bezalel", "Orthodox Judaism", "Aryeh Kaplan", "Likkutei Sichos", "Siege of Jerusalem ", "Samaritanism", "Late Middle Ages", "Jewish culture", "Vilna Gaon", "SUDOC ", "Ohel ", "Gedaliah Nadel", "YIVO", "Patach Eliyahu", "Moshe", "Jewish literature", "Who is a Jew?", "Moses ben Mordecai Zacuto", "Jules Harlow", "Midrash", "Gilgul", "Shavuot", "Beit El Synagogue", "Yisrael Meir Kagan", "Bible", "Medrash", "Talmud", "Talmudic", "Tikunei Zohar", "Messiah", "Aramaic", "Menahem Recanati", "Sephardi Jews", "Ashkenazi Jews", "American Jewish Historical Society", "Book of Genesis", "Gematria", "Shtetl", "Jewish history", "Devekut", "Jewish holidays", "Shabbetai Tzvi", "Pseudepigraphy", "Yonah Gerondi", "VIAF ", "Isaac the Blind", "Heinrich Graetz", "Primary texts of Kabbalah", "Italian people", "Pseudepigrapha", "Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation", "Niqqud", "Hebrew", "Shalom Buzaglo", "Jewish meditation", "Catholic Church and Judaism", "Genesis creation myth", "Hasidic dynasties", "seven Laws of Noah", "Romaniote Jews", "Hebrew Bible", "Hillel Paritcher", "Jacob Emden", "Yi\u1e25yah Qafi\u1e25", "Simeon bar Yochai", "Aish.com", "Moses de Leon", "Schisms among the Jews", "Mitzvot", "Four Worlds", "Oral Torah", "Mysticism", "Prophecy", "Talmudical hermeneutics", "Mikveh", "Torah", "Chaim ibn Attar", "Jewish studies", "Kabbalah", "Slavuta", "Arich Anpin", "Christian Kabbalah", "Yechezkel Landau", "Moshe Chaim Luzzatto", "Sephirot", 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"Poskim", "Idolatrous", "Shlomo Eliyashiv", "Abraham ibn Ezra", "Jewish diaspora", "Qliphoth", "Shlomo Halevi Alkabetz", "Adolf Jellinek", "Five Worlds", "Rashbi", "Responsa", "Encyclopedia of the Holocaust", "Stylometry", "Ayin and Yesh", "Hazzan", "Teshuvah", "Abraham", "Kabbalah: Primary Texts", "Yeridat ha-dorot", "Genetic studies on Jews", "Giovanni Pico della Mirandola", "Hebrew alphabet", "Divine transcendence", "Chaim Joseph David Azulai", "Rabbinic Judaism", "Apocrypha", "Jewish mysticism", "Yosef Karo", "Sifrei Kodesh", "Kavanah", "Shalom Sharabi", "Azriel ", "Ruach HaKodesh", "Relationships between Jewish religious movements", "The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe", "Galician-Portuguese", "Conservative Judaism", "Isaac of Acco", "Hebrew language", "Solomon Luria", "Jewish education", "six thirteen commandments", "Hebrew calendar", "Shekhinah", "Joseph ben Ephraim Karo", "Judeo-Arabic languages", "Lists of Jews", "Moshe Alshich", "Second Temple", "Isaac Luria", "Heretical", "Toledano tradition", "Shulchan Aruch", "Tree of life ", "Tzadikim Nistarim", "Ketuvim", "Humanistic Judaism", "Cappadocia", "Musar literature", "Joseph ben Abraham Gikatilla", "Baal Shem Tov", "Tzimtzum", "First Council of Nicaea", "Jew ", "Judeo-Aramaic languages", "Jewish languages", "Jewish symbolism", "Seder hishtalshelut", "Sefer Yetzirah", "Apostate", "Chaim Vital", "Pardes Rimonim", "Jacob Immanuel Schochet", "Abraham Isaac Kook", "Dov Ber of Mezeritch", "Mitzvah", "Thirteen Attributes of Mercy", "Daniel C. Matt", "Psychology", "Joseph ibn Shem-Tov", "Menachem Mendel Schneerson", "Halakhah", "Second Temple period", "Moses", "Jewish commentaries on the Bible", "Shabbat", "Hasidic philosophy", "Sex", "Panentheism", "Asceticism in Judaism", "Jewish cuisine", "Mantua", "Sephardic law and customs", "Reform Judaism", "Shneur Zalman of Liadi", "David Luria", "Johann Reuchlin", "Haskalah", "United States Holocaust Memorial Museum", "Jews", "Hebrew literature", "The Jewish Encyclopedia", "Italian Jews", "Zohar ", "Yeshiva University Museum", "Gershom Scholem", "Lag BaOmer", "Bahir", "Judeo-Italian languages", "Yehuda Liebes", "Abraham Abulafia", "Salonika", "Jewish ethics", "Hasidism", "Outline of Judaism", "LCCN ", "Land of Israel", "Eliyahu Dessler", "Cremona", "Judeo-Persian", "David Kimhi", "Gemara", "Sephirot ", "six thirteen mitzvot", "Isaiah Horowitz", "Yechiel Michel Epstein", "Tzemach Tzedek", "Komarno ", "Partzufim", "Leo Baeck Institute New York", "Moses ben Jacob Cordovero", "Jewish Messiah claimants", "Divine immanence", "Tosefta", "Rabeinu HaKadosh", "Judaism", "Holiness in Judaism", "Ohr", "Baraita", "Zionism", "Haredi Judaism", "Center for Jewish History", "Menachem Mendel Kasher", "Tohu and Tikun", "Abrahamic religions", "Hashem", "Yevanic language", "Sol Scharfstein", "Rabbi", "POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews", "Babylonian Talmud", "Chacham Tzvi", "Treatise on the Left Emanation"], "content": "The Zohar (Hebrew: \u05d6\u05b9\u05d4\u05b7\u05e8\u200e, lit. \"Splendor\" or \"Radiance\") is a foundational work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought known as Kabbalah. It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah (the five books of Moses) and scriptural interpretations as well as material on mysticism, mythical cosmogony, and mystical psychology. The Zohar contains discussions of the nature of God, the origin and structure of the universe, the nature of souls, redemption, the relationship of Ego to Darkness and \"true self\" to \"The Light of God\". Its scriptural exegesis can be considered an esoteric form of the rabbinic literature known as Midrash, which elaborates on the Torah.\n\n\n== Language ==\nThe Zohar is mostly written in what has been described as a cryptic, obscure style of Aramaic. Aramaic, the day-to-day language of Israel in the Second Temple period (539 BCE \u2013 70 CE), was the original language of large sections of the biblical books of Daniel and Ezra, and is the main language of the Talmud. However, in the Late Middle Ages, the language was used among Jews exclusively in the study of such earlier texts. Some academic scholars assert that the Aramaic of the Zohar appears to be written by someone who did not know Aramaic as a native language and that words from Andalusi Romance and Galician-Portuguese can be found in the text.\n\n\n== Origin and history ==\nThe Zohar first appeared in Spain, then the Kingdom of Leon, in the 13th century. It was published by a Jewish writer named Moses de Le\u00f3n (c. 1240\u20131305). De Le\u00f3n ascribed the work to Shimon bar Yochai (\"the Rashbi\"), a tanna active after the Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE) and the destruction of the Second Temple during the protracted period known as the Jewish\u2013Roman wars. According to Jewish legend, Shimon hid in a cave for thirteen years studying the Torah and was inspired by the Prophet Elijah to write the Zohar. This accords with the traditional claim by adherents that Kabbalah is the concealed part of the Oral Torah.\n\n\n== Acceptance within Judaism ==\nWhile the traditional majority view in Judaism has been that the teachings of Kabbalah were revealed by God to Biblical figures such as Abraham and Moses and were then transmitted orally from the Biblical era until their redaction by Shimon bar Yochai, modern academic analysis of the Zohar, including that by the 20th century religious historian Gershom Scholem, has theorized that Moses de Le\u00f3n was the actual author. Aryeh Kaplan posited a theory that there was an ancient core text of the Zohar which antedated de L\u00e9on, but that several strata of text were added over time.\nThe view of some non-Chasidic Orthodox Jews and Orthodox groups, as well as non-Orthodox Jewish denominations, generally conforms to Scholem's view, and as such, most such groups have long viewed the Zohar as pseudepigrapha and apocrypha, while sometimes accepting that its contents may have meaning for modern Judaism. The Dor Daim reject the Zohar outright, while the Spanish and Portuguese Jewish community removed all Zohar-related content from their siddurs and liturgy in the aftermath of Sabbatai Zevi's apostasy to Islam. Selected Zohar-related elements have been restored in several more recent Spanish and Portuguese siddurs, even for communities which have not restored those elements to their liturgy.  \nSiddurs edited by non-Orthodox Jews may therefore contain excerpts from the Zohar and other kabbalistic works, even if the editors do not literally believe that they are oral traditions from the time of Moses.\n\n\n== Impact outside Judaism ==\nThere are people of religions besides Judaism, or even those without religious affiliation, who delve in the Zohar out of curiosity, or as a means of seeking meaningful and practical answers about the meaning of their lives, the purpose of creation and existence and their relationships with the laws of nature, and so forth; however from the perspective of traditional, rabbinic Judaism, \nand by the Zohar's own statements, \nthe purpose of the Zohar is to help the Jewish people through and out of the Exile and to infuse the Torah and mitzvot (Judaic commandments) with the wisdom of Moses de Le\u00f3n's Kabbalah for its Jewish readers.\n\n\n== Etymology ==\nIn the Bible, the word \"Zohar\" appears in the vision of Ezekiel 8:2 and is usually translated as meaning radiance or light. It appears again in Daniel 12:3, \"Those who are wise will shine like the brightness of the heavens\".\n\n\n== Authorship ==\n\n\n=== Initial view ===\n\nSuspicions aroused by the facts that the Zohar was discovered by one person and that it refers to historical events of the post-Talmudic period while purporting to be from an earlier time, which caused the authorship to be questioned from the outset. Joseph Jacobs and Isaac Broyde, in their article on the Zohar for the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, cite a story involving the Kabbalist Isaac of Acco, who is supposed to have heard directly from the widow of de Le\u00f3n that her husband proclaimed authorship by Shimon bar Yochai for profit:\n\nA story tells that after the death of Moses de Leon, a rich man of Avila named Joseph offered Moses' widow (who had been left without any means of supporting herself) a large sum of money for the original from which her husband had made the copy. She confessed that her husband himself was the author of the work. She had asked him several times, she said, why he had chosen to credit his own teachings to another, and he had always answered that doctrines put into the mouth of the miracle-working Shimon bar Yochai would be a rich source of profit. The story indicates that shortly after its appearance the work was believed by some to have been written by Moses de Leon.\nIsaac's testimony, which appeared in the first edition (1566) of Sefer Yuchasin, was censored from the second edition (1580) and remained absent from all editions thereafter until its restoration nearly 300 years later in the 1857 edition.Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan states that Isaac evidently did not believe her since Isaac wrote that the Zohar was authored by Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai in a manuscript in Kaplan's possession. This leads him to hypothesize that Moses de Le\u00f3n's wife sold the original manuscript, as parchment was very valuable, and was embarrassed by the realization of its high ancient worth, leading her to claim it was written by her husband. Kaplan concludes saying this was the probable series of events.The Zohar spread among the Jews with remarkable swiftness. Scarcely fifty years had passed since its appearance in Spain before it was quoted by many Kabbalists, including the Italian mystical writer Menahem Recanati and by Todros Abulafia. Certain Jewish communities, however, such as the Dor Daim, Andalusian (Western Sefardic or Spanish and Portuguese Jews), and some Italian communities, never accepted it as authentic. The manuscripts of Zohar are from around the 14th and 16th centuries.\n\n\n=== Late Middle Ages ===\nBy the 15th century, its authority in the Spanish Jewish community was such that Joseph ibn Shem-Tov drew from it arguments in his attacks against Maimonides, and even representatives of non-mystical Jewish thought began to assert its sacredness and invoke its authority in the decision of some ritual questions. In Jacobs' and Broyde's view, they were attracted by its glorification of man, its doctrine of immortality, and its ethical principles, which they saw as more in keeping with the spirit of Talmudic Judaism than are those taught by the philosophers, and which was held in contrast to the view of Maimonides and his followers, who regarded man as a fragment of the universe whose immortality is dependent upon the degree of development of his active intellect. The Zohar instead declared Man to be the lord of the creation, whose immortality is solely dependent upon his morality.Conversely, Elijah Delmedigo (c.1458 \u2013 c.1493), in his Bechinat ha-Dat endeavored to show that the Zohar could not be attributed to Shimon bar Yochai, by a number of arguments. He claims that if it were his work, the Zohar would have been mentioned by the Talmud, as has been the case with other works of the Talmudic period; he claims that had bar Yochai known by divine revelation the hidden meaning of the precepts, his decisions on Jewish law from the Talmudic period would have been adopted by the Talmud, that it would not contain the names of rabbis who lived at a later period than that of bar Yochai; he claims that if the Kabbalah were a revealed doctrine, there would have been no divergence of opinion among the Kabbalists concerning the mystic interpretation of the precepts.Believers in the authenticity of the Zohar countered that the lack of references to the work in Jewish literature was because bar Yohai did not commit his teachings to writing but transmitted them orally to his disciples over generations until finally the doctrines were embodied in the Zohar. They found it unsurprising that bar Yochai should have foretold future happenings or made references to historical events of the post-Talmudic period.The authenticity of the Zohar was accepted by such 16th century Jewish luminaries as R' Yosef Karo (d.1575), R' Moses Isserles (d. 1572), and R' Solomon Luria (d.1574), who wrote that Jewish law (Halacha) follows the Zohar, except where the Zohar is contradicted by the Babylonian Talmud. However, R' Luria admits that the Zohar cannot override a minhag.\n\n\n=== Enlightenment period ===\n\nDebate continued over the generations; Delmedigo's arguments were echoed by Leon of Modena (d.1648) in his Ari Nohem, and a work devoted to the criticism of the Zohar, Mitpachas Sefarim, was written by Jacob Emden (d.1776), who, waging war against the remaining adherents of the Sabbatai Zevi movement (in which Zevi, a false messiah and Jewish apostate, cited Messianic prophecies from the Zohar as proof of his legitimacy), endeavored to show that the book on which Zevi based his doctrines was a forgery. Emden argued that the Zohar misquotes passages of Scripture; misunderstands the Talmud; contains some ritual observances that were ordained by later rabbinical authorities; mentions The Crusades against Muslims (who did not exist in the 2nd century); uses the expression \"esnoga\", a Portuguese term for \"synagogue\"; and gives a mystical explanation of the Hebrew vowel points, which were not introduced until long after the Talmudic period.In the Ashkenazi community of Eastern Europe, religious authorities including the Vilna Gaon (d.1797) and Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (d.1812) (The Baal HaTanya) believed in the authenticity of the Zohar. Acceptance was not uniform, however. The Noda Bihudah (d.1793), in his sefer Derushei HaTzlach, argued that the Zohar is to be considered unreliable as it came into our hands many hundreds of years after Rashbi's death and it lacks an unbroken mesorah as to its authenticity, among other reasons.The influence of the Zohar and the Kabbalah in Yemen, where it was introduced in the 17th century, contributed to the formation of the Dor Deah movement, led by Rabbi Yi\u1e25yeh Qafe\u1e25 in the later part of the 19th century, whose adherents believed that the core beliefs of Judaism were rapidly diminishing in favor of the mysticism of the Kabbalah. Among its objects was the opposition of the influence of the Zohar and subsequent developments in modern Kabbalah, which were then pervasive in Yemenite Jewish life, restoration of what they believed to be a rationalistic approach to Judaism rooted in authentic sources, and the safeguarding of the older (\"Baladi\") tradition of Yemenite Jewish observance that preceded the Kabbalah. Especially controversial were the views of the Dor Daim on the Zohar, as presented in Milhamoth Hashem (Wars of the Lord), written by Rabbi Qafe\u1e25. A group of Jerusalem rabbis published an attack on Rabbi Qafe\u1e25 under the title of Emunat Hashem (Faith of the Lord), taking measures to ostracize members of the movement; notwithstanding, not even the Yemenite rabbis who opposed the dardaim heeded this ostracization. Instead, they intermarried, sat together in batei midrash, and continued to sit with Rabbi Qafe\u1e25 in beth din.\n\n\n=== Contemporary religious view ===\n\nMost of Orthodox Judaism holds that the teachings of Kabbalah were transmitted from teacher to teacher, in a long and continuous chain, from the Biblical era until its redaction by Shimon bar Yochai. Some fully accept the claims that the Kabbalah's teachings are in essence a revelation from God to the Biblical patriarch Abraham, Moses and other ancient figures, but were never printed and made publicly available until the time of the Zohar's medieval publication. The greatest acceptance of this sequence of events is held within Haredi Judaism, especially Chasidic groups. R' Yechiel Michel Epstein (d.1908), and R' Yisrael Meir Kagan (d.1933) both believed in the authenticity of the Zohar. Rabbis Eliyahu Dessler (d.1953) and Gedaliah Nadel (d.2004) maintained that it is acceptable to believe that the Zohar was not written by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai and that it had a late authorship.Within Orthodox Judaism the traditional view that Shimon bar Yochai was the author is prevalent. R' Menachem Mendel Kasher in a 1958 article in the periodical Sinai argues against the claims of Gershom Scholem that the Zohar was written in the 13th Century by R' Moses de Le\u00f3n. He writes:\n\nMany statements in the works of the Rishonim (medieval commentors who preceded de Le\u00f3n) refer to Medrashim that we are not aware of. He writes that these are in fact references to the Zohar. This has also been pointed out by R' David Luria in his work \"Kadmus Sefer Ha'Zohar\".\nThe Zohar's major opponent Elijah Delmedigo refers to the Zohar as having existed for \"only\" 300 years. Even he agrees that it was extant at the time of R' Moses de Le\u00f3n.\nHe cites a document from R' Yitchok M' Acco who was sent by the Ramban to investigate the Zohar. The document brings witnesses that attest to the existence of the manuscript.\nIt is impossible to accept that R' Moses de Le\u00f3n managed to forge a work within the scope of the Zohar (1700 pages) within a period of six years as Scholem claims.\nA comparison between the Zohar and de Le\u00f3n's other works show major stylistic differences. Although he made use of his manuscript of the Zohar, many ideas presented in his works contradict or ignore ideas mentioned in the Zohar. Luria also points this out.\nMany of the Midrashic works achieved their final redaction in the Geonic period. Some of the anachronistic terminologies of the Zohar may date from that time.\nOut of the thousands of words used in the Zohar, Scholem finds two anachronistic terms and nine cases of ungrammatical usage of words. This proves that the majority of the Zohar was written within the accepted time frame and only a small amount was added later (in the Geonic period as mentioned).\nSome hard to understand terms may be attributed to acronyms or codes. He finds corollaries to such a practice in other ancient manuscripts.\nThe \"borrowings\" from medieval commentaries may be explained in a simple manner. It is not unheard of that a note written on the side of a text should on later copying be added to the main part of the text. The Talmud itself has Geonic additions from such a cause. Certainly, this would apply to the Zohar to which there did not exist other manuscripts to compare it with.\nHe cites an ancient manuscript that refers to a book Sod Gadol that seems to in fact be the Zohar.Concerning the Zohar's lack of knowledge of the land of Israel, Scholem bases this on the many references to a city Kaputkia (Cappadocia) which he states was situated in Turkey, not in Israel.\nAnother theory as to the authorship of the Zohar is that it was transmitted like the Talmud before it was transcribed: as an oral tradition reapplied to changing conditions and eventually recorded. This view believes that the Zohar was not written by Shimon bar Yochai, but is a holy work because it consisted of his principles.\nBelief in the authenticity of the Zohar among Orthodox Jewish movements can be seen in various forms online today. Featured on Chabad.org is the multi-part article, The Zohar's Mysterious Origins by Moshe Miller, which views the Zohar as the product of multiple generations of scholarship but defends the overall authenticity of the text and argues against many of the textual criticisms from Scholem and Tishby. The Zohar figures prominently in the mysticism of Chabad. Another leading Orthodox online outlet, Aish.com, also shows broad acceptance of the Zohar by referencing it in many of its articles.Jews in non-Orthodox Jewish denominations accept the conclusions of historical academic studies on the Zohar and other kabbalistic texts. As such, most non-Orthodox Jews have long viewed the Zohar as pseudepigraphy and apocrypha. Nonetheless, many accepted that some of its contents had meaning for modern Judaism. Siddurim edited by non-Orthodox Jews often have excerpts from the Zohar and other kabbalistic works, e.g. Siddur Sim Shalom edited by Jules Harlow, even though the editors are not kabbalists.\nIn recent years there has been a growing willingness of non-Orthodox Jews to study the Zohar, and a growing minority have a position that is similar to the Modern Orthodox position described above. This seems pronounced among Jews who follow the path of Jewish Renewal.\n\n\n=== Modern critical views ===\nThe first systematic and critical academic proof for the authorship of Moses de Le\u00f3n was given by Adolf Jellinek in his 1851 monograph \"Moses ben Shem-tob de Le\u00f3n und sein Verh\u00e4ltnis zum Sohar\" and later adopted by the historian Heinrich Graetz in his \"History of the Jews\", vol. 7. The young kabbalah scholar Gershom Scholem began his career at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem with a famous lecture in which he promised to refute Graetz and Jellinek, but after years of strained research Gershom Scholem contended in 1941 that de Le\u00f3n himself was the most likely author of the Zohar. Among other things, Scholem noticed the Zohar's frequent errors in Aramaic grammar, its suspicious traces of Spanish words and sentence patterns, and its lack of knowledge of the land of Israel.\nOther Jewish scholars have also suggested the possibility that the Zohar was written by a group of people, including de Le\u00f3n. This theory generally presents de Le\u00f3n as having been the leader of a mystical school, whose collective effort resulted in the Zohar.\nEven if de Le\u00f3n wrote the text, the entire contents of the book may not be fraudulent. Parts of it may be based on older works, and it was a common practice to ascribe the authorship of a document to an ancient rabbi in order to give the document more weight. It is possible that Moses de Le\u00f3n considered himself to be channeling the words of Rabbi Shimon.\nIn the Encyclopaedia Judaica article written by Professor Gershom Scholem of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem there is an extensive discussion of the sources cited in the Zohar. Scholem views the author of the Zohar as having based the Zohar on a wide variety of pre-existing Jewish sources, while at the same time inventing a number of fictitious works that the Zohar supposedly quotes, e.g., the Sifra de-Adam, the Sifra de-Hanokh, the Sifra di-Shelomo Malka, the Sifra de-Rav Hamnuna Sava, the Sifra de-Rav Yeiva Sava, the Sifra de-Aggadeta, the Raza de-Razin and many others.\nScholem's views are widely held as accurate among historians of the Kabbalah, but like all textual historical investigations, are not uncritically accepted; most of the following conclusions are still accepted as accurate, although academic analysis of the original texts has progressed dramatically since Scholem's ground-breaking research. Scholars who continue to research the background of the Zohar include Yehuda Liebes (who wrote his doctorate thesis for Scholem on the subject, Dictionary of the Vocabulary of the Zohar in 1976), and Daniel C. Matt, also a student of Scholem's who has  reconstructed a critical edition of the Zohar based on original, unpublished manuscripts.\nWhile many original ideas in the Zohar are presented as being from (fictitious) Jewish mystical works, many ancient and clearly rabbinic mystical teachings are presented without their real, identifiable sources' being named. Academic studies of the Zohar show that many of its ideas are based in the Talmud, various works of midrash, and earlier Jewish mystical works. Scholem writes:\n\nThe writer had expert knowledge of the early material and he often used it as a foundation for his expositions, putting into it variations of his own. His main sources were the Babylonian Talmud, the complete Midrash Rabbah, the Midrash Tanhuma, and the two Pesiktot (Pesikta De-Rav Kahana or Pesikta Rabbati), the Midrash on Psalms, the Pirkei de-Rabbi Eliezer, and the Targum Onkelos. Generally speaking, they are not quoted exactly, but translated into the peculiar style of the Zohar and summarized....... Less use is made of the halakhic Midrashim, the Jerusalem Talmud, and the other Targums, nor of the Midrashim like the Aggadat Shir ha-Shirim, the Midrash on Proverbs, and the Alfabet de-R. Akiva. It is not clear whether the author used the Yalkut Shimoni, or whether he knew the sources of its aggadah separately. Of the smaller Midrashim he used the Heikhalot Rabbati, the Alfabet de-Ben Sira, the Sefer Zerubabel, the Baraita de-Ma'aseh Bereshit, [and many others]...The author of the Zohar drew upon the Bible commentaries written by medieval rabbis, including Rashi, Abraham ibn Ezra, David Kimhi and even authorities as late as Nahmanides and Maimonides. Scholem gives a variety of examples of such borrowings.\nThe Zohar draws upon early mystical texts such as the Sefer Yetzirah and the Bahir, and the early medieval writings of the Hasidei Ashkenaz.\nAnother influence on the Zohar that Scholem, and scholars like Yehudah Liebes and Ronit Meroz have identified was a circle of Spanish Kabbalists in Castile who dealt with the appearance of an evil side emanating from within the world of the sephirot. Scholem saw this dualism of good and evil within the Godhead as a kind of \"gnostic\" inclination within Kabbalah, and as a predecessor of the Sitra Ahra (the other, evil side) in the Zohar. The main text of the Castile circle, the Treatise on the Left Emanation, was written by Jacob ha-Cohen in around 1265.\n\n\n== Contents ==\n\n\n=== Printings, editions, and indexing ===\nThe Tikunei haZohar was first printed in Mantua in 1557. The main body of the Zohar was printed in Cremona in 1558 (a one-volume edition), in Mantua in 1558-1560 (a three-volume edition), and in Salonika in 1597 (a two-volume edition). Each of these editions included somewhat different texts. When they were printed there were many partial manuscripts in circulation that were not available to the first printers. These were later printed as \"Zohar Chadash\" (lit. \"New Zohar\"), but Zohar Chadash actually contains parts that pertain to the Zohar, as well as Tikunim (plural of Tikun, \"Repair\") that are akin to Tikunei haZohar, as described below. The term \"Zohar\", in usage, may refer to just the first Zohar collection, with or without the applicable sections of Zohar Chadash, or to the entire Zohar and Tikunim.\nCitations referring to the Zohar conventionally follow the volume and page numbers of the Mantua edition; while citations referring to Tikkunei haZohar follow the edition of Ortakoy (Constantinople) 1719 whose text and pagination became the basis for most subsequent editions.  Volumes II and III begin their numbering anew, so citation can be made by parashah and page number (e.g. Zohar: Nasso 127a), or by volume and page number (e.g. Zohar III:127a).\n\n\n=== Zohar ===\nThe earlier part of the Zohar, also known as Zohar 'Al haTorah (Zohar on the Torah, \u05d6\u05d5\u05d4\u05e8 \u05e2\u05dc \u05d4\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4) or Midrash Rashbi, contains several smaller \"books\", as described below.\nThis book was published in three volumes: Volume 1 on Bereishit (Genesis), Volume 2 on Shemot (Exodus) and Volume 3 on Vayikra, Bamidbar and Devarim (Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy). At the start of the first volume is printed a \"Preface to the Book of the Zohar\" (pages 1a to 14b). After this introduction is the Zohar's commentary on most of the parashahs of the Torah. There is Zohar on all of the parashahs of Bereishit through the book of Vayikra; in Bamidbar there is no Zohar on the last two parashas: Matot (although on this parashah there is a small paragraph on page 259b) and Mas'ei. In Devarim there is no Zohar on Devarim, Re'eh, Ki-Tavo, Nitzavim, and veZot haBerakhah. Printed within these three volumes are these smaller books:Sifra diTzni'uta/Book of the Hidden (\u05e1\u05e4\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d3\u05e6\u05e0\u05d9\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea\u05d0)\nThis small \"book\", three pages long (Volume 2, parashat Teruma, pages 176b-179a), the name of which, \"Book of the Hidden\", attests to its veiled and cryptic character, is considered by some an important and concentrated part of the Zohar. Its enumerations and anatomical references are reminiscent of the Sefer Yetzirah, the latter being remazim (hints) of divine characteristics.\nExternally it is a commentary on seminal verses in Bereishit (and therefore in the version published in Cremona it is printed in parashat Bereishit). It has five chapters. Intrinsically it includes, according to Rashbi, the foundation of Kabbalah, which is explained at length in the Zohar and in the books of Kabbalah after it. Rabbi Shalom Buzaglo said, \"Rashbi \u2013 may his merit protect us \u2013 said (Zohar Vol. 2, page 176a), Sifra diTzni'uta is five chapters that are included in a Great Palace and fill the entire earth,' meaning, these five paragraphs include all the wisdom of Kabbalah... for, Sifra diTzni'uta is the 'little that holds the much'; brevity with wonderful and glorious wisdom.\"There are those who attribute Sifra diTzni'uta to the patriarch Yaakov; however, Rabbi Eliezer Tzvi of Kamarno in his book Zohar Chai wrote, \"Sifra diTzni'uta was composed by Rashbi... and he arranged [it] from baraitas that were transmitted to Tannaim from mount Sinai from the days of Moshe, similar to the way Rabeinu HaKadosh arranged the six orders of Mishnah from that which was repeated from before.\"\nIdra Rabba/The Great Assembly (\u05d0\u05d3\u05e8\u05d0 \u05e8\u05d1\u05d0) \nThe Idra Rabba is found in the Zohar Vol. 3, parashat Nasso (pp. 127b-145a), and its name means, \"The Great Assembly\". \"Idra\" is a sitting-place of sages, usually circular, and the word \"Rabba/Great\" differentiates this section from the section Idra Zuta, which was an assembly of fewer sages that occurred later, as mentioned below.\nIdra Rabba contains the discussion of nine of Rashbi's friends, who gathered together to discuss great and deep secrets of Kabbalah. The nine are: Rabbi Elazar his son, Rabbi Abba, Rabbi Yehuda, Rabbi Yossi bar Yaakov, Rabbi Yitzchak, Rabbi Chezkiyah bar Rav, Rabbi Chiyya, Rabbi Yossi and Rabbi Yisa. After the opening of the discussion by Rashbi, the sages rise, one after the other, and lecture on the secret of Divinity, while Rashbi adds to and responds to their words. The lectures in this section mainly explain the words of the Sifra diTzni'uta, in a similar manner as the Gemara explains the Mishnah.As described in the Idra Rabba, before the Idra disjourned, three of the students died: Rabbi Yossi bar Yaakov, Rabbi Chezkiyah bar Rav, and Rabbi Yisa. As it is told, these students filled up with Godly light and therefore journeyed to the eternal world after their deaths. The remaining students saw their friends being carried away by angels. Rabbi Shimon said some words and they were calmed. He shouted out, \"Perhaps, God forbid, a decree has been passed upon us to be punished, for through us has been revealed that which has not been revealed since the time Moshe stood on Mount Sinai!\" At that instant a heavenly voice emerged and said, \"Fortunate are you Rabbi Shimon! and fortunate is your portion and the portion of the friends who remain alive with you! For it has been revealed to you that which has not been revealed to all the upper hosts.\"Idra Zuta/The Smaller Assembly (\u05d0\u05d3\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d6\u05d5\u05d8\u05d0) \nThe Idra Zuta is found in the Zohar Vol. 3, parashat Haazinu (p. 287b to 296b), and is called \"Idra Zuta\", which means, \"The Smaller Assembly\", distinguishing it from the aforementioned Greater Assembly, the Idra Rabba. In the Idra Zuta, Rashbi's colleagues convene again, this time seven in number, after the three mentioned above died. In the Idra Zuta the Chevraya Kadisha are privileged to hear teachings from Rashbi that conclude the words that were explained in the Idra Rabba.\nRa'aya Meheimna/The Faithful Shepherd (\u05e8\u05e2\u05d9\u05d0 \u05de\u05d4\u05d9\u05de\u05e0\u05d0) \nThe book Ra'aya Meheimna, the title of which means \"The Faithful Shepherd\", and which is by far the largest \"book\" included in the book of the Zohar, is what Moshe, the \"Faithful Shepherd\", teaches and reveals to Rashbi and his friends, who include Tannaim and Amoraim. In this assembly of Holy Friends, which took place in the Beit Midrash of Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, secrets of and revelations on mitzvot of the Torah are explained and clarified \u2014 roots and deep meanings of mitzvot. Since it deals with mitzvot, from Ra'aya Meheimna it is possible to learn very much about the ways of the halakhic rulings of the Rabbis.Ra'aya Meheimna is distributed over several parashiyot throughout the Zohar. Part of it is known and even printed on separate pages, and part of it is weaved into the body of the Zohar. Ra'aya Meiheimna is found in Vols. 2 and 3 of the Zohar, but is not found explicitly in Vol. 1. Several great rabbis and sages have tried to find the Ra'aya Meheimna, which originally is a vast book on all the 613 mitzvot, and arrange it according to the order of positive commandments and negative commandments, and even print it as a book on its own.In the lessons at the end of the Zohar, Ra'aya Meheimna is sometimes referred to as \"Chibra Kadma'ah\" \u2014 \"the preceding book\".\nRegarding the importance of Ra'aya Meheimna, Rabbi Moshe Cordovero said, \"Know that this book, which is called Ra'aya Meheimna, which Rashbi made with the tzadikim who are in Gan Eden, was a repair of the Shekhinah, and an aid and support for it in the exile, for there is no aid or support for the Shekhinah besides the secrets of the Torah... And everything that he says here of the secrets and the concepts\u2014it is all with the intention of unifying the Shekhinah and aiding it during the exile.Midrash haNe'elam/The Hidden Midrash (\u05de\u05d3\u05e8\u05e9 \u05d4\u05e0\u05e2\u05dc\u05dd)\nMidrash haNe'elam is located within the body of the Zohar (parashat Vayera, Chayei Sarah, Toldot) and the Zohar Chadash (pp. 2b-30b; 46b-47b (in the Zohar Chadash edition by Rav Reuven Margoliot), and in parashat Balak, Ki Teitze, and the entire Zohar Chadash on Shir haShirim, Ruth, and Eikah.)\nAccording to Ramaz, it is fit to be called Midrash haNe'elam because \"its topic is mostly the neshamah (an upper level of soul), the source of which is in Beri'ah, which is the place of the upper Gan Eden; and it is written in the Pardes that drash is in Beri'ah... and the revealed midrash is the secret of externality, and Midrash haNe'elam is the secret of internality, which is the neshamah. And this derush is founded on the neshamah; its name befits it \u2013 Midrash haNe'elam.The language of Midrash haNe'elam is sometimes Hebrew, sometimes Aramaic, and sometimes both mixed. Unlike the body of the Zohar, its drashas are short and not long. Also, the topics it discusses \u2014 the work of Creation, the nature the soul, the days of Mashiach, and Olam Haba \u2014 are not of the type found in the Zohar, which are the nature of God, the emanation of worlds, the \"forces\" of evil, and more.\nIdra deVei Mashkana, Heikhalot, Raza deRazin, Saba deMishpatim, Tosefta, and Sitrei Torah\nIn the Zohar there are more sections that are of different nature with regard to their contents and importance, as follows: Idra deVei Mashkana (\"Assembly of the House of the Tabernacle\") deals mainly with the secrets of prayer, and is found in the Zohar Vol. 2, parashat Mishpatim (pp. 122b-123b). Heikhalot (\"Palaces\") deals in describing the palaces of Gan Eden, and Gehinom, and contains many matters related to prayer. It is found in the Zohar Vol. 1, parashat Bereishit (pp 38a-45b); Vol. 2 parashat Pekudei (pp. 244b-262b, heikhalot of holiness; pp. 262b-268b, heikhalot of impurity). Raza deRazin (\"Secret of Secrets\") deals with revealing the essence of a man via the features of his face and hands. It is found in the Zohar Vol. 2,parashat Yitro (pp. 70a-75a). Saba deMishpatim (\"The Elder on Statutes\") is the commentary of Rav Yiba Saba regarding transmigration of souls, and punishments of the body in the grave. It is found in the Zohar Vol. 2,parashat Mishpatim (pp. 94a-114a). Tosefta are paragraphs containing the beginnings of chapters on the wisdom of the Kabbalah of the Zohar, and it is dispersed in all three volumes of the Zohar. Sitrei Torah are drashas of verses from the Torah regarding matters of the soul and the secret of Divinity, and they are dispersed in the Zohar Vol. 1.For more books and sources mentioned in the Zohar, see also below.\n\n\n=== Zohar Chadash/The New Zohar (\u05d6\u05d5\u05d4\u05e8 \u05d7\u05d3\u05e9) ===\nAfter the book of the Zohar had been printed (in Mantua and in Cremona, in the Jewish years 5318-5320 or 1558-1560? CE), many more manuscripts were found that included paragraphs pertaining to the Zohar in their content and had not been included in printed editions. The manuscripts pertained also to all parts of the Zohar; some were similar to Zohar on the Torah, some were similar to the inner parts of the Zohar (Midrash haNe'elam, Sitrei Otiyot and more), and some pertained to Tikunei haZohar. Some thirty years after the first edition of the Zohar was printed, the manuscripts were gathered and arranged according to the parashas of the Torah and the megillot (apparently the arrangement was done by the Kabbalist, Rabbi Avraham haLevi of Tsfat), and were printed first in Salonika in Jewish year 5357 (1587? CE), and then in Krak\u00f3w (5363), and afterwards many times in various editions.There is Zohar Chadash on the Torah for many parashas across the chumash, namely, on chumash Bereishit: Bereishit, Noach, Lekh Lekha, Vayeira, Vayeishev; on chumash Shemot: Beshalach, Yitro, Terumah, Ki Tissa; on chumash Vayikra: Tzav, Acharei, Behar; on chumash Bamidbar: Chukat, Balak, Matot; on chumash Devarim: Va'etchanan, Ki Tetze, Ki Tavo.Within the paragraphs of Zohar Chadash are inserted Sitrei Otiyot (\"Secrets of the Letters\") and Midrash haNe'elam, on separate pages. Afterwards follows the midrashim \u2013 Midrash haNe'elam on the megillot: Shir haShirim, Ruth, and Eikhah. And at the end are printed Tikunim (Tikunei Zohar Chadash, \u05ea\u05d9\u05e7\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9 \u05d6\u05d5\u05d4\u05e8 \u05d7\u05d3\u05e9), like the Tikunei haZohar.\n\n\n=== Tikunei haZohar/Rectifications of the Zohar (\u05ea\u05d9\u05e7\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9 \u05d4\u05d6\u05d5\u05d4\u05e8) ===\n\nTikunei haZohar, which was printed as a separate book, includes seventy commentaries called \"Tikunim\" (lit. Repairs) and an additional eleven Tikkunim. In some editions, Tikunim are printed that were already printed in the Zohar Chadash, which in their content and style also pertain to Tikunei haZohar.Each of the seventy Tikunim of Tikunei haZohar begins by explaining the word \"Bereishit\" (\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d9\u05ea), and continues by explaining other verses, mainly in parashat Bereishit, and also from the rest of Tanakh. And all this is in the way of Sod, in commentaries that reveal the hidden and mystical aspects of the Torah.\nTikunei haZohar and Ra'aya Meheimna are similar in style, language, and concepts, and are different from the rest of the Zohar. For example, the idea of the Four Worlds is found in Tikunei haZohar and Ra'aya Meheimna but not elsewhere, as is true of the very use of the term \"Kabbalah\". In terminology, what is called Kabbalah in \u2192Tikunei haZohar and Ra'aya Meheimna is simply called razin (clues or hints) in the rest of the Zohar.\nIn Tikunei haZohar there are many references to \"chibura kadma'ah\" (meaning \"the earlier book\"). This refers to the main body of the Zohar.\n\n\n=== Parts of the Zohar: summary of Rabbinic view ===\nThe traditional Rabbinic view is that most of the Zohar and the parts included in it (i.e. those parts mentioned above) were written and compiled by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, but some parts preceded Rashbi and he used them (such as Sifra deTzni'uta; see above), and some parts were written or arranged in generations after Rashbi's passing (for example, Tannaim after Rashbi's time are occasionally mentioned). However, aside from the parts of the Zohar mentioned above, in the Zohar are mentioned tens of earlier sources that Rashbi and his Chevraya Kadisha had, and they were apparently the foundation of the Kabbalistic tradition of the Zohar. These include Sefer Raziel, Sifra de'Agad'ta, Sifra de'Adam haRishon, Sifra de'Ashmedai, Sifra Chakhmeta 'Ila'ah diVnei Kedem, Sifra deChinukh, Sifra diShlomoh Malka, Sifra Kadma'i, Tzerufei de'Atvun de'Itmasru le'Adam beGan 'Eden, and more. In the Jewish view this indicates more, that the teaching of the Sod in the book of the Zohar was not invented in the Tannaic period, but rather it is a tradition from ancient times that Rashbi and his Chevraya Kadisha used and upon which they built and founded their Kabbalah, and also that its roots are in the Torah that was given by Hashem to Moshe on Sinai.\n\n\n=== Viewpoint and exegesis: Rabbinic view ===\nAccording to the Zohar, the moral perfection of man influences the ideal world of the Sefirot; for although the Sefirot accept everything from the Ein Sof (Heb. \u05d0\u05d9\u05df \u05e1\u05d5\u05e3, infinity), the Tree of Life itself is dependent upon man: he alone can bring about the divine effusion.\nThis concept is somewhat akin to the concept of Tikkun olam. The dew that vivifies the universe flows from the just.\nBy the practice of virtue and by moral perfection, man may increase the outpouring of heavenly grace.\nEven physical life is subservient to virtue.\nThis, says the Zohar, is indicated in the words \"for the Lord God had not caused it to rain\" (Gen. 2:5), which means that there had not yet been beneficent action in heaven, because man had not yet been created to pray for it.The Zohar assumes four kinds of Biblical text exegesis, from the literal to the more mystical:\n\nThe simple, literal meaning of the text: Peshat\nThe allusion or hinted/allegorical meaning: Remez\nThe rabbinic comparison through sermon or illustration and metaphor: Derash\nThe secret/mysterious/hidden meaning: SodThe initial letters of these words (P, R, D, S) form together the word PaRDeS (\"paradise/orchard\"), which became the designation for the Zohar's view of a fourfold meaning of the text, of which the mystical sense is considered the highest part.\n\n\n=== Academic views ===\nIn Eros and Kabbalah, Moshe Idel (Professor of Jewish Mysticism, Hebrew University in Jerusalem) argues that the fundamental distinction between the rational-philosophic strain of Judaism and mystical Judaism, as exemplified by the Zohar, is the mystical belief that the Godhead is complex, rather than simple, and that divinity is dynamic and incorporates sex, having both male and female dimensions. These polarities must be conjoined (have yihud, \"union\") to maintain the harmony of the cosmos. Idel characterizes this metaphysical point of view as \"ditheism\", holding that there are two aspects to God, and the process of union as \"theoeroticism\". This ditheism, the dynamics it entails, and its reverberations within creation is arguably the central interest of the Zohar, making up a huge proportion of its discourse (pp. 5\u201356).\nMention should also be made of the work of Elliot Wolfson (Professor of Jewish Mysticism, New York University), who has almost single-handedly challenged the conventional view, which is affirmed by Idel as well. Wolfson likewise recognizes the importance of heteroerotic symbolism in the kabbalistic understanding of the divine nature. The oneness of God is perceived in androgynous terms as the pairing of male and female, the former characterized as the capacity to overflow and the latter as the potential to receive. Where Wolfson breaks with Idel and other scholars of the kabbalah is in his insistence that the consequence of that heteroerotic union is the restoration of the female to the male. Just as, in the case of the original Adam, the woman was constructed from man, and their carnal cleaving together was portrayed as becoming one flesh, so the ideal for kabbalists is the reconstitution of what Wolfson calls the male androgyne. Much closer in spirit to some ancient Gnostic dicta, Wolfson understands the eschatological ideal in traditional Kabbalah to have been the female becoming male (see his Circle in the Square and Language, Eros, Being).\n\n\n== Commentaries ==\nThe first known commentary on the book of Zohar,\n\"Ketem Paz\", was written by Rabbi Shimon Lavi of Libya.\nAnother important and influential commentary on Zohar,\n22-volume \"Or Yakar\", was written by Rabbi Moshe Cordovero of the Tzfat (i.e. Safed) kabbalistic school in the 16th century.\nThe Vilna Gaon authored a commentary on the Zohar.\nRabbi Tzvi Hirsch of Zidichov wrote a commentary on the Zohar entitled Ateres Tzvi.\nA major commentary on the Zohar is the Sulam written by Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag.\nA full translation of the Zohar into Hebrew was made by the late Rabbi Daniel Frish of Jerusalem under the title Masok MiDvash.\n\n\n== Influence ==\n\n\n=== Judaism ===\nOn the one hand, the Zohar was lauded by many rabbis because it opposed religious formalism, stimulated one's imagination and emotions, and for many people helped reinvigorate the experience of prayer. In many places prayer had become a mere external religious exercise, while prayer was supposed to be a means of transcending earthly affairs and placing oneself in union with God.According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, \"On the other hand, the Zohar was censured by many rabbis because it propagated many superstitious beliefs, and produced a host of mystical dreamers, whose overexcited imaginations peopled the world with spirits, demons, and all kinds of good and bad influences.\" Many classical rabbis, especially Maimonides, viewed all such beliefs as a violation of Judaic principles of faith.\nIts mystic mode of explaining some commandments was applied by its commentators to all religious observances, and produced a strong tendency to substitute mystic Judaism in the place of traditional rabbinic Judaism. For example, Shabbat, the Jewish Sabbath, began to be looked upon as the embodiment of God in temporal life, and every ceremony performed on that day was considered to have an influence upon the superior world.Elements of the Zohar crept into the liturgy of the 16th and 17th centuries, and the religious poets not only used the allegorism and symbolism of the Zohar in their compositions, but even adopted its style, e.g. the use of erotic terminology to illustrate the relations between man and God. Thus, in the language of some Jewish poets, the beloved one's curls indicate the mysteries of the Deity; sensuous pleasures, and especially intoxication, typify the highest degree of divine love as ecstatic contemplation; while the wine-room represents merely the state through which the human qualities merge or are exalted into those of God.In the 17th century, it was proposed that only Jewish men who were at least 40 years old could study Kabbalah, and by extension read the Zohar, because it was believed to be too powerful for those less emotionally mature and experienced. \n\n\n=== Christian mysticism ===\nAccording to the Jewish Encyclopedia, \"The enthusiasm felt for the Zohar was shared by many Christian scholars, such as Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Johann Reuchlin, Aegidius of Viterbo, etc., all of whom believed that the book contained proofs of the truth of Christianity. They were led to this belief by the analogies existing between some of the teachings of the Zohar and certain Christian dogmas, such as the fall and redemption of man, and the dogma of the Trinity, which seems to be expressed in the Zohar in the following terms:\n\n'The Ancient of Days has three heads. He reveals himself in three archetypes, all three forming but one. He is thus symbolized by the number Three. They are revealed in one another. [These are:] first, secret, hidden 'Wisdom'; above that the Holy Ancient One; and above Him the Unknowable One. None knows what He contains; He is above all conception. He is therefore called for man 'Non-Existing' [Ayin]'\" (Zohar, iii. 288b).\n\nAccording to the Jewish Encyclopedia, \"This and other similar doctrines found in the Zohar are now known to be much older than Christianity, but the Christian scholars who were led by the similarity of these teachings to certain Christian dogmas deemed it their duty to propagate the Zohar.\"However, fundamental to the Zohar are descriptions of the absolute Unity and uniqueness of God, in the Jewish understanding of it, rather than a trinity or other plurality. One of the most common phrases in the Zohar is \"raza d'yichuda \"the secret of his Unity\", which describes the Oneness of God as completely indivisible, even in spiritual terms. A central passage, Patach Eliyahu (introduction to Tikunei Zohar 17a), for example, says:\n\nElijah opened and said: \"Master of the worlds! You are One, but not in number. You are He Who is Highest of the High, Most Hidden of the Hidden; no thought can grasp You at all...And there is no image or likeness of You, inside or out...And aside from You, there is no unity on High or Below. And You are acknowledged as the Cause of everything and the Master of everything...And You are the completion of them all. And as soon as You remove Yourself from them, all the Names remain like a body without a soul...All is to show how You conduct the world, but not that You have a known righteousness that is just, nor a known judgement that is merciful, nor any of these attributes at all...Blessed is God forever, amen and amen!\n\nThe meaning of the three heads of Keter, according to the kabbalists, has extremely different connotations from ascribing validity to any compound or plurality in God, even if the compound is viewed as unified. In Kabbalah, while God is an absolutely simple (non-compound), infinite Unity beyond grasp, as described in Jewish philosophy by Maimonides, through His Kabbalistic manifestations such as the Sephirot and the Shekhinah (Divine Presence), we relate to the living dynamic Divinity that emanates, enclothes, is revealed in, and incorporates, the multifarious spiritual and physical plurality of Creation within the Infinite Unity. Creation is plural, while God is Unity. Kabbalistic theology unites the two in the paradox of human versus Divine perspectives. The spiritual role of Judaism is to reach the level of perceiving the truth of the paradox, that all is One, spiritual and physical Creation being nullified into absolute Divine Monotheism. Ascribing any independent validity to the plural perspective is idolatry. Nonetheless, through the personalised aspects of God, revealing the concealed mystery from within the Divine Unity, man can perceive and relate to God, who otherwise would be unbridgably far, as the supernal Divine emanations are mirrored in the mystical Divine nature of man's soul.\nThe relationship between God's absolute Unity and Divine manifestations may be compared to a man in a room - there is the man himself, and his presence and relationship to others in the room. In Hebrew, this is known as the Shekhinah. It is also the concept of God's Name - it is His relationship and presence in the world towards us. The Wisdom (literally written as Field of Apples) in kabbalistic terms refers to the Shekhinah, the Divine Presence. The Unknowable One (literally written as the Miniature Presence) refers to events on earth when events can be understood as natural happenings instead of God's act, although it is actually the act of God. This is known as perceiving the Shekhinah through a blurry, cloudy lens. This means to say, although we see God's Presence (not God Himself) through natural occurrences, it is only through a blurry lens; as opposed to miracles, in which we clearly see and recognize God's presence in the world. The Holy Ancient One refers to God Himself, Who is imperceivable. (see Minchas Yaakov and anonymous commentary in the Siddur Beis Yaakov on the Sabbath hymn of Askinu Seudasa, composed by the Arizal based on this lofty concept of the Zohar).\nWithin the descending Four Worlds of Creation, each successive realm perceives Divinity less and apparent independence more. The highest realm Atziluth-Emanation, termed the \"Realm of Unity\", is distinguished from the lower three realms, termed the \"Realm of Separation\", by still having no self-awareness; absolute Divine Unity is revealed and Creation is nullified in its source. The lower three Worlds feel progressive degrees of independence from God. Where lower Creation can mistake the different Divine emanations as plural, Atziluth feels their non-existent unity in God. Within the constricted appearance of Creation, God is revealed through various and any plural numbers. God uses each number to represent a different supernal aspect of reality that He creates, to reflect their comprehensive inclusion in His absolute Oneness: 10 Sephirot, 12 Partzufim, 2 forms of Light, 2 Partzufim and 3 Heads in Keter, 4 letters of the Tetragrammaton, 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet, 13 Attributes of Mercy, etc. All such forms when traced back to their source in God's infinite light, return to their state of absolute Oneness. This is the consciousness of Atziluth. In Kabbalah, this perception is considered subconsciously innate to the souls of Israel, rooted in Atzilut. The souls of the Nations are elevated to this perception through adherence to the 7 Laws of Noah, that bring them to absolute Divine Unity and away from any false plural perspectives.\nThere is an alternative notion of three in the Zohar that is One, \"Israel, the Torah and the Holy One Blessed Be He are One.\" From the perspective of God, before constriction in Creation, these three are revealed in their source as a simple (non-compound) absolute Unity, as is all potential Creation from God's perspective. In Kabbalah, especially in Hasidism, the communal divinity of Israel is revealed Below in the righteous Tzadik Jewish leader of each generation who is a collective soul of the people. In the view of Kabbalah, however, no Jew would worship the supernal community souls of the Jewish people, or the Rabbinic leader of the generation, nor the totality of Creation's unity in God itself, as Judaism innately perceives the absolute Monotheism of God. In a Kabbalistic phrase, one prays \"to Him, not to His attributes\". As Kabbalah sees the Torah as the Divine blueprint of Creation, so any entity or idea in Creation receives its existence through an ultimate lifeforce in Torah interpretation. However, in the descent of Creation, the Tzimtzum constrictions and impure Qliphoth side of false independence from God result in distortion of the original vitality source and idea. Accordingly, in the Kabbalistic view, the non-Jewish belief in the Trinity, as well as the beliefs of all religions, have parallel, supernal notions within Kabbalah from which they ultimately exist in the process of Creation. However, the impure distortion results from human ascription of false validity and worship to Divine manifestations, rather than realising their nullification to God's Unity alone.In normative Christian theology, as well as the declaration of the First Council of Nicaea, God is declared to be \"one\". Declarations such as \"God is three\" or \"God is two\" are condemned in later counsels as entirely heretical and idolatrous. The beginning of the essential declaration of belief for Christians, the Nicene Creed (somewhat equivalent to Maimonides' 13 principles of Faith), starts with the Shema influenced declaration that \"We Believe in One God...\" Like Judaism, Christianity asserts the absolute monotheism of God.Unlike the Zohar, Christianity interprets the coming of the Messiah as the arrival of the true immanence of God. Like the Zohar the Messiah is believed to be the bringer of Divine Light: \"The Light (the Messiah) shineth in the Darkness and the Darkness has never put it out\", yet the Light, although being God, is separable within God since no one has seen God in flesh: \"for no man has seen God...\" (John 1). It is through the belief that Jesus Christ is the Messiah, since God had vindicated him by raising him from the dead, that Christians believe that Jesus is paradoxically and substantially God, despite God's simple undivided unity. The belief that Jesus Christ is \"God from God, Light from Light\" is assigned as a mystery and weakness of the human mind-affecting and effecting in our comprehension of him. The mystery of the Trinity and our mystical union with the Ancient of Days will only be made, like in the Zohar, in the new Garden of Eden, which is made holy by the Light of God where people's love for God is unending.\n\n\n== Zohar study (Jewish view) ==\nWho Should Study Tikunei haZohar\n\nDespite the preeminence of Tikunei haZohar and despite the topmost priority of Torah study in Judaism, much of the Zohar has been relatively obscure and unread in the Jewish world in recent times, particularly outside of Israel and outside of Chasidic groups. Although some rabbis since the Shabbetai Tzvi debacle still maintain that one should be married and forty years old in order to study Kabbalah, since the time of Baal Shem Tov there has been relaxation of such stringency, and many maintain that it is sufficient to be married and knowledgeable in halakhah and hence permitted to study Kabbalah and by inclusion, Tikunei haZohar; and some rabbis will advise learning Kabbalah without restrictions of marriage or age. In any case the aim of such caution is to not become caught up in Kabbalah to the extent of departing from reality or halakhah.\nRabbinic Accolades; the Importance of Studying Tikunei haZohar\nMany eminent rabbis and sages have echoed the Zohar's own urgings for Jews to study it, and have and urged people in the strongest of terms to be involved with it. To quote from the Zohar and from some of those rabbis:\n\n \"Vehamaskilim yavinu/But they that are wise will understand\" (Dan. 12:10) \u2013 from the side of Binah (understanding), which is the Tree of Life. Therefore it is said, \"Vehamaskilim yaz'hiru kezohar haraki'a\"/And they that are wise will shine like the radiance of the sky\" (Dan. 12:3) \u2013 by means of this book of yours, which is the book of the Zohar, from the radiance (Zohar) of Ima Ila'ah (the \"Higher Mother\", the higher of the two primary partzufim that develop from Binah) [which is] teshuvah; with those [who study this work], trial is not needed. And because Yisrael will in the future taste from the Tree of Life, which is this book of the Zohar, they will go out, with it, from Exile, in a merciful manner, and with them will be fulfilled, \"Hashem badad yanchenu, ve'ein 'imo El nechar/Hashem alone will lead them, and there is no strange god with Him\" (Deut. 32:12).\n\nWoe to the [people of the] world who hide the heart and cover the eyes, not gazing into the secrets of the Torah!\nRabbi Nachman of Breslov said the following praise of the Zohar's effect in motivating mitzvah performance, which is the main focus in Judaism:\n\nIt is [already] known that learning the Zohar is very, very mesugal [capable of bringing good effects]. Now know, that by learning the Zohar, desire is generated for all types of study of the holy Torah; and the holy wording of the Zohar greatly arouses [a person] towards service of Hashem Yitbarakh. Namely, the praise with which it praises and glorifies a person who serves Hashem, that is, the common expression of the Zohar in saying, \"Zaka'ah/Fortunate!\" etc. regarding any mitzvah; and vice-versa, the cry that it shouts out, \"Vai!\" etc., \"Vai leh, Vai lenishmateh/Woe to him! Woe to his soul!\" regarding one who turns away from the service of Hashem \u2014 these expressions greatly arouse the man for the service of the Blessed One.\n\n\n== English translations ==\nZohar Pages in English, at ha-zohar.net, including the Introduction translated in English\nBerg, Michael: Zohar 23 Volume Set- The Kabbalah Centre International. Full 23 Volumes English translation with commentary and annotations.\nMatt, Daniel C., Nathan Wolski, & Joel Hecker, trans. The Zohar: Pritzker Edition (12 vols.) Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004-2017.\nMatt, Daniel C. Zohar: Annotated and Explained. Woodstock, Vt.: SkyLights Paths Publishing Co., 2002. (Selections)\nMatt, Daniel C. Zohar: The Book of Enlightenment. New York: Paulist Press, 1983. (Selections)\nScholem, Gershom, ed. Zohar: The Book of Splendor. New York: Schocken Books, 1963. (Selections)\nSperling, Harry and Maurice Simon, eds. The Zohar (5 vols.). London: Soncino Press.\nTishby, Isaiah, ed. The Wisdom of the Zohar: An Anthology of Texts (3 vols.). Translated from the Hebrew by David Goldstein. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.\nShimon Bar Yochai. Sefer ha Zohar (Vol. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 English). Createspace, 2015\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nBahir\nBaqashot\nDor Daim\nKabbalah: Primary texts\nMoses de Le\u00f3n\nSepher Yetzirah\nSimeon bar Yochai\nTreatise on the Left Emanation\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nBeyer, Klaus. \"Aramaic language, its distribution and subdivisions\". 1986. (from reference 2 above)\nTenen, Stan, Zohar, \"B'reshit, and the Meru Hypothesis: Scholars debate the origins of Zohar\", Meru Foundation eTorus Newsletter #40, July 2007\nBlumenthal, David R. \"Three is not enough: Jewish Reflections on Trinitarian Thinking\", in Ethical Monotheism, Past and Present: Essays in Honor of Wendell S. Dietrich, ed. T. Vial and M. Hadley (Providence, RI), Brown Judaic Studies:\nThe Encyclopedia of Jewish Myth, Magic, and Mysticism, Geoffrey Dennis, Llewellyn Worldwide, 2007\nStudies in the Zohar, Yehuda Liebes (Author), SUNY Press, SUNY series in Judaica: Hermeneutics, Mysticism, and Religion, 1993\n\"Challenging the Master: Moshe Idel's critique of Gershom Scholem\" Micha Odenheimer, MyJewishLearning.Com, Kabbalah and Mysticism\nScholem, Gershom, Zohar in Encyclopadeia Judaica, Keter Publishing\nScholem, Gershom, \"Kabbalah\" in Encyclopadeia Judaica, Keter Publishing\nMargolies, Reuvein \"Peninim U' Margolies\" and \"Nitzotzei Zohar\" (Heb.), Mossad R' Kook\nLuria, David \"Kadmus Sefer Ha'Zohar\" (Heb.)\nUnterman, Alan Reinterpreting Mysticism and Messianism, MyJewishLearning.Com, Kabbalah and Mysticism\nAdler, Jeremy, \"Beyond the Law: the artistry and enduring counter-cultural power of the kabbala\", Times Literary Supplement 24 February 2006, reviewing: Daniel C Matt, translator The Zohar; Arthur Green A Guide to the Zohar; Moshe Idel Kabbalah and Eros.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n\n=== Zohar texts ===\n\u05e1\u05e4\u05e8 \u05d4\u05d6\u05d4\u05e8, Sefer haZohar, Zohar text in original Aramaic\nTranslation:Zohar at English Wikisource\nZohar Pages in English, at ha-zohar.net, including the Introduction translated in English, and The Importance of Study of the Zohar, and more\nComplete Zohar, Tikkunim, and Zohar Chadash in Aramaic with Hebrew translation, in 10 volumes of PDF, divided for yearly or 3-year learning\nA four-pages-per-sheet PDF arrangement of the above, allowing for printing on 3 reams of Letter paper duplex\nZohar and Related Booklets in various formats in PDF files, at ha-zohar.net\nSefer haZohar, Mantua edition (1558), at the National Library of Israel, DjVu file\nSefer haZohar, Cremona edition (1559), at the National Library of Israel, DjVu file\nZohar text files (TXT HTML) among grimoar.cz Hebrew Kabbalistic texts collection\nThe Zohar in English: Bereshith to Lekh Lekha\nThe Zohar in English: some mystical sections\nThe Kabbalah Center translation of the Zohar\nOriginal Zohar with Sulam Commentary\nDaily Zohar study of Tikunei Zohar in English\nZohar texts, Hebrew-English, PDFs in GDrive\nTikkunei Zohar in English, Partial (Intro and Tikkun 1-17), in GDrive; permanent link\n\n\n=== Links about the Zohar ===\nThe Aramaic Language of the Zohar\n7 brief video lectures about The Zohar from Kabbalah Education & Research Institute\nZohar and Later Mysticism, a short essay by Israel Abrahams\nNOTES ON THE ZOHAR IN ENGLISH: An Extensive Bibliography\nThe Zohar Code: The Temple Calendar of King Solomon\nThe Zohar on the website of the National Library of Israel", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/POLIN_11.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Star_of_David.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Zohar.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Kabbalah_%22ein_sof%22_chart.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Kabbalah_%22ein_sof%22_chart.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "The Zohar (Hebrew: \u05d6\u05b9\u05d4\u05b7\u05e8\u200e, lit. \"Splendor\" or \"Radiance\") is a foundational work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought known as Kabbalah. It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah (the five books of Moses) and scriptural interpretations as well as material on mysticism, mythical cosmogony, and mystical psychology. The Zohar contains discussions of the nature of God, the origin and structure of the universe, the nature of souls, redemption, the relationship of Ego to Darkness and \"true self\" to \"The Light of God\". Its scriptural exegesis can be considered an esoteric form of the rabbinic literature known as Midrash, which elaborates on the Torah."}, "Aegidius_of_Viterbo": {"links": ["Zohar", "Isidore Singer", "Pope Alexander VI", "Latin language", "Latin Patriarch of Constantinople", "Tivoli, Italy", "Poet", "ISNI ", "Basilica of Sant'Agostino", "His Eminence", "Pope Leo X", "Italian language", "Jewish mysticism", "Trove ", "Paris", "Theologian", "SUDOC ", "Roman Catholic Diocese of Viterbo", "Canepina", "Pope Adrian VI", "Linguistics", "Minor Prophets", "Papal consistory", "Johanan ben Jacob Sarkuse", "Makiri", "Augustinians", "Cardinal ", "Sentences", "Orator", "Inquisition", "Kabbalah", "RERO ", "Constantin H\u00f6fler", "Jacques-B\u00e9nigne Bossuet", "The Jewish Encyclopedia", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lanciano-Ortona", "Geronimo de Ghinucci", "Marsilio Ficino", "VIAF ", "Holy See", "Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor", "Harduin", "Public domain", "San Matteo in Via Merulana", "Fifth Lateran Council", "Johannes Reuchlin", "Pope Clement VII", "San Bartolomeo all'Isola", "Amelia, Umbria", "Lutheranism", "British Museum", "Munich Academy of Sciences", "Papal legate", "Papal States", "Elias Levita", "Baruch di Benevento", "Biblioteca Angelica", "General Chapter", "Catholic Encyclopedia", "Order of St. Augustine", "Christian cabalist", "Pico della Mirandola", "Prior", "Johann Reuchlin", "Viterbo", "Joseph Hergenr\u00f6ther", "Rome", "Peter Lombard", "Cardinal Priest", "Hebrew language", "Padua", "Priori Palace", "Greek language", "Talmud", "Church historian", "Vicar General", "Bishop", "Giovanni Pontano", "Maranos", "Biblioth\u00e8que Nationale", "Episcopal see", "Friar", "Scriptures", "Istria", "Pope Julius II", "Doctor of theology", "Lateran Palace", "Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem", "San Marcello al Corso", "Titular church", "Prior General", "Midrash", "Mart\u00e8ne", "Florence", "No\u00ebl Alexandre", "Humanism"], "content": "Giles Antonini, O.E.S.A., commonly referred to as Giles of Viterbo (Latin: \u00c6gidius Viterbensis, Italian: Egidio da Viterbo), was a 16th-century Italian Augustinian friar, bishop of Viterbo and cardinal, a reforming theologian, orator, humanist and poet. He was born in Viterbo and died in Rome.\n\n\n== Life ==\nHe was born to humble parents and his given name is not known; his father was Lorenzo Antonini, of Canepina, near Viterbo, and his mother, Maria del Testa. He entered the Order of St. Augustine in June 1488 at which time he was given the name Giles. After a course of studies at priories of the Order in Ameria, Padua, Istria, Florence and Rome, where he studied philosophy. He was later made a doctor of theology. In 1506 became Vicar General of his Order. Upon the death of the Prior General, and, under the patronage of Pope Julius II, he was confirmed by election as his successor at three successive General Chapters of the Order: in 1507, 1511 and 1515.\nAntonini was a noted preacher, presiding at several papal services at the order of Pope Alexander VI. He also traveled widely, due to his responsibilities as head of the Order. This allowed to be in touch with the leading intellectual figures of the period, with many of whom he formed working collaborations. One friend, Giovanni Pontano, dedicated a work to him, entitled \u00c6gidius.Antonini is famous in ecclesiastical history for the boldness and earnestness of the discourse which he delivered at the opening of the Fifth Lateran Council, held in 1512, at the Lateran Palace.Following this service to his Order, Antonini was elevated to the rank of cardinal by Pope Leo X in the consistory of 1 July 1517, and given the titular church of San Bartolomeo all'Isola, which he immediately had changed to the Church of San Matteo in Via Merulana. He resigned the office of Prior General in February 1519. Pope Leo confided to him several sees in succession, employed him as legate on important missions, notably to Charles of Spain, soon to be Emperor. In 1523 Pope Leo gave him the title of Latin Patriarch of Constantinople.Antonini's zeal for the genuine reformation of conditions in the Catholic Church prompted him to present Pope Adrian VI with a Promemoria. He was universally esteemed as a learned and virtuous member of the great pontifical senate and many deemed him destined to succeed Pope Clement VII.\nWhen the forces of Emperor Charles sacked the city in 1527, Antonini's extensive library was destroyed. He spent the next year living in exile in Padua. In 1530 he requested the transfer of his titular church to that of the Church of San Marcello al Corso.Antonini died in Rome and was buried in the Basilica of Sant'Agostino.\n\n\n== Christian cabalist ==\nAntonini knew Marsilio Ficino from a visit to Florence, and he was familiar with Pico della Mirandola's interpretations of the Kabbalah, which he was to surpass in the depth of his understanding; his interest in the Talmud led him into correspondence with Johannes Reuchlin.In Jewish history, Antonini is coupled with the grammarian Elias Levita, who honed his knowledge of Hebrew and Aramaic. When the turmoil of war drove Levita from Padua to Rome, he was welcomed at the palace of the bishop, where, with his family, he lived and was supported for more than ten years. It was there that Levita's career as the foremost tutor of Christian notables in Hebrew lore commenced. The first edition of Levita's Ba\u1e25ur (Rome, 1518) is dedicated to Aegidius. Aegidius introduced Levita to classical scholarship and the Greek language, thus enabling him to utilize Greek in his Hebrew lexicographic labors \u2014 a debt acknowledged by Levita, who, in 1521, dedicated his Concordance to the cardinal.\nAntonini's main motive was to penetrate the mysteries of the Cabala. \u00c6gidius belonged to the group of sixteenth century Christian cabalists, among whom Johann Reuchlin and Pico della Mirandola also were prominent, who believed that Jewish mysticism, and particularly the Zohar, contained incontrovertible testimony to the truth of the Christian religion. In the course of Reuchlin's conflict with the obscurantists (1507\u201321), in which the preservation of the Jewish books was at issue, the cardinal wrote (1516) to his friend: \"While we labor on thy behalf, we defend not thee, but the law; not the Talmud, but the Church.\"\nAntonini also engaged another Jewish scholar, Baruch di Benevento, to translate for him the Zohar (the mystic Book of Splendor). The scholar last named may also have been partly responsible for the numerous cabalistic translations and treatises which appeared under the name of \u00c6gidius. The cardinal was a collector of Hebrew manuscripts, of which many are still to be seen at the Munich Library, bearing both faint traces of his signature and brief Latin annotations.\nIn the Biblioteca Angelica at Rome an old Hebrew manuscript is extant, which was given to Antonini by Pope Leo X. The richly illuminated manuscript (Ms. Or 72), produced in the 14th century, contains Biblical texts in Hebrew, grammatical and rabbinic works. The British Museum contains a copy of Makiri and the Midrash on the minor Prophets, written for the cardinal at Tivoli, in the year 1514, by Johanan ben Jacob Sarkuse. The study of Jewish literature led the cardinal to a friendly interest in the Jews themselves, which he manifested both in his energetic encouragement of Reuchlin in the struggle referred to above and in a vain attempt which he made in the year 1531, in conjunction with the cardinal Geronimo de Ghinucci, to prevent the issue of the papal edict authorizing the introduction of the Inquisition against the Maranos.\n\n\n== Works ==\nAntonini was a profound student of the Scriptures and a good scholar in Greek as well as Hebrew. Giovanni Pontano dedicated to him one of his Dialoghi.\nThe writings commonly attributed to Antonini are numerous. Most of them are to be found in manuscript form in the Biblioth\u00e8que Nationale, Paris, but their authenticity is still to be established. Aside from minor works on the Hebrew language, the majority by far are of a cabalistic nature. There is scarcely a classic of Jewish medieval mysticism that he has not translated, annotated, or commented upon. Among these works may be mentioned the Zohar.\nOnly a few of Antonini's writings have been printed in the third volume of the Collectio Novissima of Mart\u00e8ne. When urged by Pope Clement VII to publish his works, he is said, by the Augustinian historian, Friar Tom\u00e1s de Herrera, O.E.S.A., to have replied that he feared to contradict famous and holy men by his exposition of Scripture. The Pope replied that human respect should not deter him; it was quite permissible to preach and write what was contrary to the opinions of others, provided one did not depart from the truth and from the common tradition of the Church.Antonini's major original work is an historical treatise: Historia viginti s\u00e6culorum per totidem psalmos conscripta. It deals in a philosophico-historical way with the history of the world before and after the birth of Christ, is valuable for the history of its own time, and offers a certain analogy with Bossuet's famous Discours sur l'histoire universelle.\nThe six books of Antonini's important correspondence (1497\u20131523) concerning the affairs of his Order, much of which is addressed to Friar Gabriel of Venice, his successor as Prior General, are preserved in Rome in the Biblioteca Angelica. Cardinal Joseph Hergenr\u00f6ther, a leading Church historian of the 19th century, praised particularly the circular letter in which Antonini made known (27 February 1519), his resignation of the office of Prior General of the Augustinian friars.Other of Antonini's known works are a commentary on the first book of the Sentences of Peter Lombard, three Eclogae Sacrae, a dictionary of Hebrew roots, a Libellus de ecclesiae incremento, a Liber dialogorum, and an Informatio pro sedis apostolicae auctoritate contra Lutheranam sectam.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. \n This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Singer, Isidore;  et al., eds. (1901\u20131906). \"Aegidius of Viterbo\". The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.\nSignorelli, Giuseppe, Il cardinal Egidio da Viterbo: Agostino, umanista e riformatore (1469-1532) (Florence, 1929).\nJohn W. O'Malley, S.J., Giles of Viterbo on Church and Reform: A Study in Renaissance Thought. Leiden: Brill, 1968.\n\n\n== External links ==\nbta.it\nPaper on Giles of Rome\n(in Italian) Egidio da Viterbo", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Egidio_2.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/62/PD-icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/P_vip.svg"], "summary": "Giles Antonini, O.E.S.A., commonly referred to as Giles of Viterbo (Latin: \u00c6gidius Viterbensis, Italian: Egidio da Viterbo), was a 16th-century Italian Augustinian friar, bishop of Viterbo and cardinal, a reforming theologian, orator, humanist and poet. He was born in Viterbo and died in Rome.\n\n"}, "Isidore_Singer": {"links": ["Cyrus Adler", "Humboldt University of Berlin", "ISNI ", "Shuly Rubin Schwartz", "Vienna", "VIAF ", "Moravia", "New York City", "Austrian Empire", "Isadore Singer", "Public domain", "The Jewish Encyclopedia", "Paris", "SUDOC ", "ISBN ", "New Testament", "La Libre Parole", "Jesus", "The Jacob Rader Marcus Center of the American Jewish Archives", "Trove ", "Alfred Dreyfus", "University of Vienna", "Sabbath"], "content": "Isidore Singer (10 November 1859 \u2013 1939) was an editor of The Jewish Encyclopedia and founder of the American League for the Rights of Man.\n\n\n== Biography ==\nSinger was born in 1859 in Weisskirchen, Moravia, in the Austrian Empire. He studied at the University of Vienna and the Humboldt University of Berlin, receiving his Ph.D. in 1884.\n\n\n=== France ===\nAfter editing the Allgemeine oesterreichische Literaturzeitung (Austrian literary newspaper) from 1885 to 1886, he became literary secretary to the French ambassador in Vienna. From 1887, he worked in Paris in the press bureau of the French foreign office and was active in the campaign on behalf of Alfred Dreyfus. In 1893 he founded a short-lived biweekly called La Vraie Parole as a foil to the anti-Jewish La Libre Parole.\n\n\n=== New York ===\nSinger moved to New York City in 1895 where he learned English and taught French, raising the money for the Jewish Encyclopedia he had envisioned.Over the course of his career, Singer also proposed many projects which never won backing, including a multi-million-dollar loan to aid the Jews of Eastern Europe, a Jewish university open to students of any background, various encyclopedias about secular topics, and a 25-volume publication series of Hebrew classics. By 1911, the date of this latter proposal, \"neither the [Jewish] Publication Society nor any body of respectable scholars would work with him,\" according to encyclopedist Cyrus Adler.\n\n\n== Religious views ==\nSinger held extremely liberal views which at times proved unpopular. He endorsed Jesus and the Christian New Testament and proposed a Hebrew translation. He founded the Amos Society to promote understanding among followers of monotheistic religions.His 1897 prospectus for the encyclopedia project called for harmony between religions; called the Sabbath and holidays \"heavy burdens, or, at best, mere ceremonies\" for most Jews; and made the radical suggestion that Jewish parents, if honest with their children, would tell them:\n\nOur religion ... does not accord with your ideas. We have neither the power nor the desire to impose it on you. Make your peace with your God and your conscience as best you can,\" and, that said, let us cease to erect new synagogues, let us close our seminaries of theology, and let us disintegrate, little by little, our ancient communal institutions.\nDue to the controversy of Singer's outlooks, his publisher, Funk & Wagnalls, agreed to the encyclopedia project only after divesting Singer of editorial control and appointing a board of prestigious Jewish scholars, including rabbis.\n\n\n== Publications ==\n This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Singer, Isidore;  et al., eds. (1901\u20131906). \"[Online version]\". The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.\nRussia at the Bar of the American People: A Memoir of Kinship.  Funk & Wagnalls, 1904.\nThe German Classics (1913\u20131914), with Kuno Francke: twenty volumes.\nA Religion of Truth, Justice, and Peace: A Challenge to Church and Synagogue to Lead in the Realization of the Social and Peace Gospel of the Hebrew Prophets. Amos Society: 1924.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Sources ===", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Isidore_Singer_%281859%E2%80%931939%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/62/PD-icon.svg"], "summary": "Isidore Singer (10 November 1859 \u2013 1939) was an editor of The Jewish Encyclopedia and founder of the American League for the Rights of Man.\n\n"}, "Candle": {"links": ["Chocolaterie", "Carmine", "Ranger Joe", "Fazer", "Honey", "Polyethylene", "India", "Online Etymology Dictionary", "List of confectionery brands", "Adulteration", "List of candies", "Los Angeles Times", "South Asia", "Sugar substitutes", "Lollipops", "Halloween", "Foodborne illness", "Haribo", "Cochineal", "Dental health", "Lead chromate", "Chocolate truffles", "Streptococcus mutans", "Nut brittle", "Cracker Jack", "Food safety", "Cloves", "Tooth enamel", "Shelf life", "Stranger danger", "White chocolate", "Lead oxide", "Types of chocolate", "Kosher", "France", "Chalk", "List of chocolatiers", "Poisoned candy myths", "Caramel", "Praline", "Granola bars", "Hard candy", "Licorice", "Lead", "Snack bar ", "Bubble gum", "Finland", "Caramel candy", "Karl Fazer", "Baking chocolate", "Boiling point", "List of Japanese desserts and sweets", "Confectionery in the English Renaissance", "Minimal nutritional value", "List of pastries", "Liquorice ", "Functional chewing gum", "PMID ", "Pantteri", "Dental caries", "Dessert", "Arsenic trioxide", "List of breath mints", "Baklava", "Chocolate bar", "Food additive", "Polio", "Hot chocolate", "Cough sweets", "List of desserts", "Vegetarianism", "Fudge", "Gummi candy", "Konpeit\u014d", "Modeling chocolate", "DuPont", "ISBN ", "List of pies, tarts and flans", "Kerria lacca", "Breakfast cereal", "Dark chocolate", "Gum drops", "Drag\u00e9e", "Swiss chocolate", "Syria", "Happy Jax", "British English", "PMC ", "Starch", "Pure Food and Drug Act", "Doi ", "Bengali people", "Chromium oxide", "Copper acetate", "Juniper berries", "List of chocolate manufacturers", "Soft drinks", "Chocolate", "StwoCID ", "Stick candy", "Salty licorice", "Compound chocolate", "New Zealand English", "Sugar candy", "Sugar confectionery", "Australian English", "Damascus", "Gum industry", "Bacteria", "Belgian cuisine", "Simile", "Choking", "Lemon drops", "Working class in the United States", "Amber", "Sweets ", "Glass", "List of cookies", "Marzipan", "Candy press", "Confectionery", "Veganism", "Agar", "Mercury sulfide", "Supermarket", "Mint chocolate", "Sweets", "Aniseed", "Candy corn", "Empty calories", "List of top-selling candy brands", "Southeast Asia", "Milk chocolate", "Food and Nutrition Service", "ISSN ", "Shellac", "Taffy ", "Virginia", "Mint ", "Post Foods", "Trick-or-treating", "Candy store", "Chikki", "Confectioner's glaze", "Sugar Crisp", "Rock candy", "Sexton ", "Corn starch", "Diabetes", "Marshmallows", "Cocoa solids", "Penny candy", "Blood sugar", "Persian people", "Bazaar", "Gum arabic", "Syrup", "Pine kernels", "Greeks", "Undernutrition", "List of cakes", "Joseph Keppler", "Sour sanding", "Sugar", "Oral health", "Sugar candies", "Lychee Mini Fruity Gels", "Industrial Revolution", "Trade secret", "Caramels", "Ancient India", "Acid", "Couverture chocolate", "Puck ", "Candy making", "List of doughnut varieties", "Wayback Machine", "Mold ", "Cough drops", "Sugar stage", "Pectin", "Chocolate eggs", "Chewing gum", "Caramelization", "Gummi bear", "Garnish ", "List of chocolate bar brands", "Marshmallow", "Middle English", "Nicotine gum", "Butterscotch", "Candy ", "Room temperature", "Chocolate truffle", "Toffee", "Meal replacement", "Wax paper", "Cellophane", "Glycyrrhiza glabra", "Glycemic index", "Cardboard ", "Jelly beans", "Sugar syrup", "Corn syrup", "Candied fruit", "Candies ", "Horehound drops", "Gummy bear", "List of chewing gum brands", "Necco", "Nougat", "Gelatin", "The New York Times"], "content": "Candy, also called sweets (British English) or lollies (Australian English, New Zealand English), is a confection that features sugar as a principal ingredient. The category, called sugar confectionery, encompasses any sweet confection, including chocolate, chewing gum, and sugar candy. Vegetables, fruit, or nuts which have been glazed and coated with sugar are said to be candied.\nPhysically, candy is characterized by the use of a significant amount of sugar or sugar substitutes.  Unlike a cake or loaf of bread that would be shared among many people, candies are usually made in smaller pieces.  However, the definition of candy also depends upon how people treat the food.  Unlike sweet pastries served for a dessert course at the end of a meal, candies are normally eaten casually, often with the fingers, as a snack between meals.  Each culture has its own ideas of what constitutes candy rather than dessert.  The same food may be a candy in one culture and a dessert in another.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nCandy has its origins mainly in Ancient India. Between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, the Persians, followed by the Greeks, discovered the people in India and their \"reeds that produce honey without bees\". They adopted and then spread sugar and sugarcane agriculture. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia, while the word sugar is derived from the Sanskrit word sharkara. Pieces of sugar were produced by boiling sugarcane juice in ancient India and consumed as khanda, dubbed as the original candy and the etymology of the word.Before sugar was readily available, candy was based on honey. Honey was used in Ancient China, the Middle East, Egypt, Greece and the Roman Empire to coat fruits and flowers to preserve them or to create forms of candy. Candy is still served in this form today, though now it is more typically seen as a type of garnish.\nBefore the Industrial Revolution, candy was often considered a form of medicine, either used to calm the digestive system or cool a sore throat. In the Middle Ages candy appeared on the tables of only the most wealthy at first. At that time, it began as a combination of spices and sugar that was used as an aid to digestive problems. Digestive problems were very common during this time due to the constant consumption of food that was neither fresh nor well balanced. Banquet hosts would typically serve these types of 'candies' at banquets for their guests. One of these candies, sometimes called chamber spice, was made with cloves, ginger, aniseed, juniper berries, almonds and pine kernels dipped in melted sugar.The Middle English word candy began to be used in the late 13th century.The first candy came to America in the early 18th century from Britain and France. Only a few of the early colonists were proficient in sugar work and sugary treats were generally only enjoyed by the very wealthy. Even the simplest form of candy \u2013 rock candy, made from crystallized sugar \u2013 was considered a luxury.\n\n\n=== Industrial Revolution ===\nThe candy business underwent a drastic change in the 1830s when technological advances and the availability of sugar opened up the market. The new market was not only for the enjoyment of the rich but also for the pleasure of the working class. There was also an increasing market for children. While some fine confectioners remained, the candy store became a staple of the child of the American working class. Penny candies epitomized this transformation of candy. Penny candy became the first material good that children spent their own money on. For this reason, candy store-owners relied almost entirely on the business of children to keep them running. Even penny candies were directly descended from medicated lozenges that held bitter medicine in a hard sugar coating.In 1847, the invention of the candy press (also known under the surprising name of a toy machine) made it possible to produce multiple shapes and sizes of candy at once. In 1851, confectioners began to use a revolving steam pan to assist in boiling sugar. This transformation meant that the candy maker was no longer required to continuously stir the boiling sugar. The heat from the surface of the pan was also much more evenly distributed and made it less likely the sugar would burn. These innovations made it possible for only one or two people to successfully run a candy business.\n\nAs the path from producer to market became increasingly complicated, many foods were affected by adulteration and the addition of additives which ranged from relatively harmless ingredients, such as cheap cornstarch and corn syrup, to poisonous ones.  Some manufacturers produced bright colors in candy by the addition of hazardous substances for which there was no legal regulation: green (chromium oxide and copper acetate), red (lead oxide and mercury sulfide), yellow (lead chromate) and  white (chalk, arsenic trioxide).In an 1885 cover cartoon for Puck, Joseph Keppler satirized the dangers of additives in candy by depicting the \"mutual friendship\" between striped candy, doctors, and gravediggers.  By 1906, research into the dangers of additives, expos\u00e9s of the food industry, and public pressure led to the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act, the first federal United States law to regulate food and drugs, including candy.\n\n\n== Classification ==\nSugar candies include hard candies, soft candies, caramels, marshmallows, taffy, and other candies whose principal ingredient is sugar. Commercially, sugar candies are often divided into groups according to the amount of sugar they contain and their chemical structure.Hard-boiled candies made by the vacuum cooking process include stick candy, lemon drops and horehound drops. Open-fire candy, like molasses taffy and cream taffy, is cooked in open kettles and then pulled. Pan work candies include nuts and other candies like jelly beans and sugar-coated almonds, made by coating with sugar in revolving copper kettles. Gum work candy is cooked in large kettles fashioned for melting and molded, dried and sugared like gum drops. They are soaked for a time in sugar syrup to allow crystals to form.\nComparison of sugar candies\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\nChocolate is sometimes treated as a separate branch of confectionery.  In this model, chocolate candies like chocolate candy bars and chocolate truffles are included.  Hot chocolate or other cocoa-based drinks are excluded, as is candy made from white chocolate.  However, when chocolate is treated as a separate branch, it also includes confections whose classification is otherwise difficult, being neither exactly candies nor exactly baked goods, like chocolate-dipped foods, tarts with chocolate shells, and chocolate-coated cookies.\n\nComparison of chocolate types\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\nSugar candies can be classified into noncrystalline and crystalline types. Noncrystalline candies are homogeneous and may be chewy or hard; they include hard candies, caramels, toffees, and nougats. Crystalline candies incorporate small crystals in their structure, are creamy that melt in the mouth or are easily chewed; they include fondant and fudge.\n\n\n== Production ==\n\nSugar candy is made by dissolving sugar in water or milk to form a syrup, which is boiled until it reaches the desired concentration or starts to caramelize. Candy comes in a wide variety of textures, from soft and chewy to hard and brittle. The texture of candy depends on the ingredients and the temperatures that the candy is processed at.\nThe final texture of sugar candy depends primarily on the concentration of sugar. As the syrup is heated, it boils, water evaporates, the sugar concentration increases and the boiling point rises. A given temperature corresponds to a particular sugar concentration.  These are called sugar stages.  In general, higher temperatures and greater sugar concentrations result in hard, brittle candies, and lower temperatures result in softer candies.  Once the syrup reaches 171 \u00b0C (340 \u00b0F) or higher, the sucrose molecules break down into many simpler sugars, creating an amber-colored substance known as caramel. This should not be confused with caramel candy, although it is the candy's main flavoring.\n\nMost candies are made commercially.  The industry relies significantly on trade secret protection, because candy recipes cannot be copyrighted or patented effectively, but are very difficult to duplicate exactly.  Seemingly minor differences in the machinery, temperature, or timing of the candy-making process can cause noticeable differences in the final product.\n\n\n== Packaging ==\n\nCandy wrapper or sweets wrapper is a common term for this packaging.\n\n\n=== Purposes of packaging ===\nPackaging preserves aroma and flavor and eases shipping and dispensation. Wax paper seals against air, moisture, dust, and germs, while cellophane is valued by packagers for its transparency and resistance to grease, odors and moisture. In addition, it is often resealable. Polyethylene is another form of film sealed with heat, and this material is often used to make bags in bulk packaging. Plastic wraps are also common. Aluminum foils wrap chocolate bars and prevent a transfer of water vapor while being lightweight, non-toxic and odor proof. Vegetable parchment lines boxes of high-quality confections like gourmet chocolates. Cardboard cartons are less common, though they offer many options concerning thickness and movement of water and oil.\nPackages are often sealed with a starch-based adhesive derived from tapioca, potato, wheat, sago, or sweet potato. Occasionally, glues are made from the bones and skin of cattle and hogs for a stronger and more flexible product, but this is not as common because of the expense.\n\n\n=== History ===\nPrior to the 1900s, candy was commonly sold unwrapped from carts in the street, where it was exposed to dirt and insects. By 1914, there were some machines to wrap gum and stick candies, but this was not the common practice. After the polio outbreak in 1916, unwrapped candies garnered widespread censure because of the dirt and germs. At the time, only upscale candy stores used glass jars. With advancements in technology, wax paper was adopted, and foil and cellophane were imported to the U.S. from France by DuPont in 1925. Necco packagers were one of the first companies to package without human touch.Candy packaging played a role in its adoption as the most popular treat given away during trick-or-treating for Halloween in the US.  In the 1940s, most treats were homemade.  During the 1950s, small, individually wrapped candies were recognized as convenient and inexpensive.  By the 1970s, after widely publicized but largely false stories of poisoned candy myths circulating in the popular press, factory-sealed packaging with a recognizable name brand on it became a sign of safety.\n\n\n=== Marketing and design ===\nPackaging helps market the product as well. Manufacturers know that candy must be hygienic and attractive to customers. In the children's market quantity, novelty, large size and bright colors are the top sellers. Many companies redesign the packaging to maintain consumer appeal.\n\n\n== Shelf life ==\nBecause of its high sugar concentration, bacteria are not usually able to grow in candy. As a result, the shelf life is longer for candy than for many other foods. Most candies can be safely stored in their original packaging at room temperature in a dry, dark cupboard for months or years. As a rule, the softer the candy or the damper the storage area, the sooner it goes stale.Shelf life considerations with most candies are focused on appearance, taste, and texture, rather than about the potential for food poisoning; that is, old candy may not look appealing or taste very good, even though it is very unlikely to make the eater sick. Candy can be made unsafe by storing it badly, such as in a wet, moldy area. Typical recommendations are these:\nHard candy may last indefinitely in good storage conditions.\nDark chocolate lasts up to two years.\nMilk chocolates and caramels usually become stale after about one year.\nSoft or creamy candies, like candy corn, may last 8 to 10 months in ideal conditions.\nChewing gum and gumballs may stay fresh as long as 8 months after manufacture.\n\n\n== Nutrition ==\n\nMost sugar candies are defined in US law as a food of minimal nutritional value.Even in a culture that eats sweets frequently, candy is not a significant source of nutrition or food energy for most people.  The average American eats about 1.1 kg (2.5 pounds) of sugar or similar sweeteners each week, but almost 95% of that sugar\u2014all but about 70 grams (2.5 ounces)\u2014comes from non-candy sources, especially soft drinks and processed foods.\n\n\n=== Meal replacements ===\nCandy is considered a source of empty calories, because it provides little or no nutritional value beyond food energy.  At the start of the 20th century, when undernutrition was a serious problem, especially among poor and working-class people, and when nutrition science was a new field, the high calorie content was promoted as a virtue.  Researchers suggested that candy, especially candy made with milk and nuts, was a low-cost alternative to normal meals.  To get the food energy necessary for a day of labor, candy might cost half as much as eggs.  During the 1920s and 1930s, candy bars selling for five cents were often marketed as replacements for lunch.At the 1904 World Fair, the Quaker Oats Company made a candy-coated puffed cereal, a wheat-based product similar to Cracker Jack's candy-coated popcorn.  The product concept was re-introduced unsuccessfully in 1939 by another business as Ranger Joe, the first pre-sweetened, candy-coated breakfast cereal.  Post Foods introduced their own version in 1948, originally called Happy Jax and later Sugar Crisp.  They marketed it as both a replacement for unsweetened breakfast cereals and also for eating as a snack or as candy, using three animated cartoon bears as the mascots:  Candy, Handy, and Dandy.  The early slogans said, \"As a cereal it's dandy\u2014for snacks it's so handy\u2014or eat it like candy!\"In more recent times, a variety of snack bars have been marketed.  These include bars that are intended as meal replacements as well as snack bars that are marketed as having nutritional advantages when compared to candy bars, such as granola bars.  However, the actual nutritional value is often not very different from candy bars, except for usually a higher sodium content, and the flavors (most popularly, chocolate, fudge, and caramel) and the presentation mimic candy bars.\n\nAmong the Bengali people, candy may be eaten for an entire meal, especially during festivals.  Candy may also be offered to vegetarian guests in lieu of fish or meat dishes in India.\n\n\n=== Vegetarianism ===\nMost candy contains no meat or other animal parts, and many contain no milk or other animal products.  Some candy, including marshmallows and gummi bears, contains gelatin derived from animal collagen, a protein found in skin and bones, and is thus avoided by vegans and some vegetarians. \"Kosher gelatin\" is also unsuitable for vegetarians and vegans, as it is derived from fish bones. Other substances, such as agar, pectin, starch and gum arabic may also be used as setting and gelling agents, and can be used in place of gelatin.\nOther ingredients commonly found in candy that are not suitable for vegetarian or vegan diets include carmine, a red dye made from cochineal beetles, and confectioner's glaze, which contains shellac, a resin excreted by female lac bugs.\n\n\n== Health effects ==\n\n\n=== Cavities ===\nCandy generally contains sugar, which is a key environmental factor in the formation of dental caries (cavities).  Several types of bacteria commonly found in the mouth consume sugar, particularly Streptococcus mutans.  When these bacteria metabolize the sugar found in most candies, juice, or other sugary foods, they produce acids in the mouth that demineralize the tooth enamel and can lead to dental caries.  Heavy or frequent consumption of high-sugar foods, especially lollipops, sugary cough drops, and other sugar-based candies that stay in the mouth for a long time, increases the risk of tooth decay.  Candies that also contain enamel-dissolving acids, such as acid drops, increase the risk.  Cleaning the teeth and mouth shortly after eating any type of sugary food, and allowing several hours to pass between eating such foods, reduces the risk and improves oral health.However, frequent consumption of fruits and fruit juice, which contain both acid and sugars, may be a more significant factor in dental decay than candies.\n\n\n=== Glycemic index ===\nMost candy, particularly low-fat and fat-free candy, has a high glycemic index (GI), which means that it causes a rapid rise in blood sugar levels after ingestion. This is chiefly a concern for people with diabetes, but could also be dangerous to the health of non-diabetics.\n\n\n=== Contamination ===\nSome kinds of candy have been contaminated with an excessive amount of lead in it.  Claims of contamination have been made since shortly after industrial-scale candy factories began producing candy in the mid-19th century, although these early claims were rarely true.\n\n\n=== Choking deaths ===\nHard, round candies are a leading cause of choking deaths in children. Some types of candy, such as Lychee Mini Fruity Gels, have been associated with so many choking deaths that their import or manufacture is banned by some countries.Non-nutritive toy products such as chocolate eggs containing packaging with a toy inside are banned from sale in the US. If the material attached to confectionery has a function and will not cause any injury to the consumer, it is allowed to be marketed. In the EU, however, the Toy Safety Directive 2009/48/EC specifies that toys contained in food only need separate packaging that cannot be swallowed.\n\n\n== Sales ==\n\nGlobal sales of candies were estimated to have been approximately US$118 billion in 2012.  In the United States, $2 is spent on chocolate for every $1 spent on non-chocolate candy.Because each culture varies in how it treats some foods, a food may be considered a candy in one place and a dessert in another.  For example, in Western countries, baklava is served on a plate and eaten with a fork as a dessert, but in the Middle East, Northern Africa, and Eastern Europe, it is treated as a candy.\n\n\n== Cultural significance ==\nCandy is the source of several cultural themes. \nAdults worry that other people will use candy to poison or entice children into harmful situations.  Stranger danger warnings include telling children not to take candy from strangers, for fear of the child being abducted.  Poisoned candy myths persist in popular culture, especially around trick-or-treating at Halloween, despite the rarity of actual incidents.The phrase like taking candy from a baby is a common simile, and means that something is very easy to do.A 1959 Swedish dental health campaign encouraged people to reduce the risk of dental problems by limiting consumption of candy to once a week.  The slogan, \"All the sweets you want, but only once a week\", started a tradition of buying candy every Saturday, called l\u00f6rdagsgodis (literally \"Saturday candy\").\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nCandy making\nList of candies\nList of desserts\nList of top-selling candy brands\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nCandy Wrapper Museum \u2013 Extensive photo archive\nNational Confectioners Association \u2013 Information on a variety of candies\nScience of Candy \u2013 Descriptions and videos of hardness stages\n33 Unique Treats From All Around the World in The New York Times", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/2018_05_Fudge_IMG_1913.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/300x300_choc_rose_cake.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Bar_of_Guittard_chocolate.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Batasha_sweets.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Butterscotch-Candies.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Candy_in_Damascus.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Caramels.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Chikki_assortment.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Chocolat_Bonnat._100%25.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Couverture_chocolate_and_compund_chocolate.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Gummy_bears.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Halloween_candy_1.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/HardCandy.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Japanese_confectionery_store_in_%22The_Great_Buddha_Sweet_Shop%22_from_Akizato_Rito%27s_Miyako_meisho_zue_%281787%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Karl_Fazer.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Kompeito_konpeito.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Liquorice.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/M%26M_candy_at_New_York_shop.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Milk_chocolate.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Our_Mutual_Friend_by_Joseph_Keppler_1885_Puck_2017011.tif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Pantteri_Mix.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Sesame_Seed_Ball_%28Candy%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/WeisseLuftschokolade.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/White-Box-of-Chocolates.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"], "summary": "Candy, also called sweets (British English) or lollies (Australian English, New Zealand English), is a confection that features sugar as a principal ingredient. The category, called sugar confectionery, encompasses any sweet confection, including chocolate, chewing gum, and sugar candy. Vegetables, fruit, or nuts which have been glazed and coated with sugar are said to be candied.\nPhysically, candy is characterized by the use of a significant amount of sugar or sugar substitutes.  Unlike a cake or loaf of bread that would be shared among many people, candies are usually made in smaller pieces.  However, the definition of candy also depends upon how people treat the food.  Unlike sweet pastries served for a dessert course at the end of a meal, candies are normally eaten casually, often with the fingers, as a snack between meals.  Each culture has its own ideas of what constitutes candy rather than dessert.  The same food may be a candy in one culture and a dessert in another."}, "Tangerine_Dream": {"links": ["New-age music", "Le Parc ", "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", "Facebook", "White Eagle ", "Eindhoven", "Heartbreakers ", "Johann Sebastian Bach", "Mala Kunia ", "Michael Jackson", "Wavelength ", "Florian Fricke", "Kosmische Musik", "Tournado ", "Alfred Lord Tennyson", "David Kristian", "Mona da Vinci", "Rolling Stone", "The New York Times", "Jeanne d'Arc ", "Ohr ", "Bass ", "Chi Coltrane", "Back in the U.S.S.R.", "Cyclone ", "Telepolis", "Carolina Eyck", "The Island of the Fay", "Lily on the Beach", "Risky Business ", "Conrad Schnitzler", "Risky Business", "Sohoman", "AllMusic", "Tomorrow Never Knows", "Vienna", "A Time for Heroes", "Synth pads", "Thief ", "Vincent Canby", "Force Majeure ", "Great Wall of China ", "Royce Hall", "Tangerine Dream filmography", "Global Communication", "Optical Race", "Shy People", "Private Music", "In Search of Hades: The Virgin Recordings 1973\u2013nineteen seventy-nine", "Jerome Froese", "Rumpelstiltskin ", "Steve Jolliffe", "Karlheinz Stockhausen", "Miracle Mile ", "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "Kscope", "Paul Haslinger", "Jean-Michel Jarre", "Involver", "Ambient music", "Union Chapel, Islington", "Susumu Hirasawa", "Tangram ", "La Folia", "Under Cover \u2013 Chapter One", "Sorcerer ", "Iannis Xenakis", "Ambient Monkeys", "Arcangelo Corelli", "Cleopatra Records", "Music of Grand Theft Auto V", "Porcupine Tree", "Jimi Hendrix", "Synthesizer", "Knights of Asheville", "Near Dark", "Melrose ", "UCLA", "two twenty Volt Live", "Cello", "Custom-made instrument", "Ableton", "Thorsten Quaeschning", "Der Meteor", "Antique Dreams", "Colin Larkin ", "Turn of the Tides", "Berlin", "In Search of Hades: The Virgin Recordings nineteen seventy-three\u20131979", "Tyranny of Beauty", "Mona da Vinci ", "Laserium", "Flute", "John Peel", "Sasha ", "Flashpoint ", "DJ Shadow", "Encyclopedia of Popular Music", "Michael Hoenig", "Electric viola", "Gerald Gradwohl", "Stratosfear", "Surrealism", "MBA ", "SUDOC ", "Walt Whitman", "TimeSquare \u2013 Dream Mixes II", "Bandleader", "Salvador Dal\u00ed", "Edgar Froese", "Moog synthesizer", "ISNI ", "Quantum Gate ", "Valentine Wheels", "The Independent", "Christopher Franke", "What a Blast", "Zlatko Perica", "Electronica one: The Time Machine", "Theme music", "Catch Me If You Can ", "Invisible Hands Music", "Elbphilharmonie", "The Park Is Mine ", "William Blake", "Percussion", "The Beatles", "Recoil ", "Firestarter ", "Eberswalde", "IMDb", "Aurora ", "KQED Inc.", "Inferno ", "Divine Comedy", "Der Meteor ", "Maurice Ravel", "Mala Kunia", "Franz Liszt", "UK Albums Chart", "Brandt Brauer Frick", "VIAF ", "Underwater Sunlight", "Recurring Dreams ", "Music director", "Jayney Klimek", "Syd Barrett", "Pink Floyd", "Kasabian", "Exclaim!", "Linda Spa", "Finnegans Wake ", "Mannheim", "Music sequencer", "Ombra mai f\u00f9", "Pergamon ", "Relativity Records", "Janet Maslin", "Ricochet ", "Kosmische musik", "Purple Pyramid Records", "Royal Albert Hall", "Loreley", "Tangerine Dream bootleg recordings", "Gy\u00f6rgy Ligeti", "Saxophone", "Tyger ", "Electronica", "Bootleg recording", "Street Hawk", "Tangerine Dream ", "Vangelis", "Dante Alighieri", "Violin", "Electronic dance music", "Alpha Centauri ", "Madcap's Flaming Duty", "Virgin Records", "Eleanor Rigby", "Warsaw in the Sun ", "East Berlin", "Interstellar Overdrive", "The Man Inside ", "E-mu Audity", "Franz Bargmann", "Cut Copy", "The Madcap Laughs", "Drum kit", "Quinoa ", "Totentanz ", "Meighty-three ", "Salon ", "Synth", "Electric violin", "Goblins' Club", "Electronic Meditation", "The Soldier ", "Green Desert", "Zeit", "ISBN ", "Livemiles", "Netflix", "Quantum Key", "Rockoon ", "Klaus Schulze", "Phaedra ", "Norwegian Wood ", "Tangerine Tree", "Ulrich Schnauss", "Zodiak Free Arts Lab", "Logos Live", "Destination Berlin", "Jive Electro", "Purgatorio ", "Digital data", "Loop ", "Hyperborea ", "Survive ", "Locksley Hall", "Agitation Free", "Krautrock", "Atem ", "Yes ", "Stranger Things", "York Minster", "Avant garde", "Dead Solid Perfect", "Jim DeRogatis", "Terry Riley", "Love on a Real Train", "Legend ", "Plays Tangerine Dream", "Encore ", "Germany", "Szczecin", "The Future Sound of London", "Psychedelic rock", "Esoteric Recordings", "Barbican Centre", "Bernhard Beibl", "Richard Barbieri", "The Keep ", "West Berlin", "Hoshiko Yamane", "Mail-order", "Dream Music \u2013 The Movie Music of Tangerine Dream", "Roland V-Drums", "Mota Atma", "Pulmonary embolism", "Three O'Clock High", "Pierre Boulez", "Sanctuary Records", "Phaedra two thousand and five", "Pictures at an Exhibition", "Mars Polaris", "Betrayal ", "Steve Reich", "Piano", "Canyon Dreams", "Steven Wilson", "Rubycon ", "Peter Baumann", "Virgin Books", "Trance music", "Mellotron", "Guitar", "Grand Theft Auto V", "SubHuman", "Das M\u00e4dchen auf der Treppe", "Electronic music", "Exit ", "Tangerine Dream discography", "BMG Records", "Trove ", "Johannes Schmoelling", "Alte Oper", "London", "Purple Haze", "Poland ", "Multimedia", "Soundmill Navigator", "Music for eighteen Musicians", "Caroline Records", "Ralf Wadephul", "Zoning ", "Bianca Froese-Acquaye", "Japan ", "Daydream \u2013 Moorland", "The Dream Mixes"], "content": "Tangerine Dream is a German electronic music band founded in 1967 by Edgar Froese. The group has seen many personnel changes over the years, with Froese having been the only continuous member until his death in January 2015. \nThe best-known lineup of the group was its mid-1970s trio of Froese, Christopher Franke, and Peter Baumann. In 1979, Johannes Schmoelling replaced Baumann. Since Froese's death in 2015, the group has been under the leadership of Thorsten Quaeschning (Froese's chosen successor and the current longest-serving band member, having joined in 2005). He is joined by violinist Hoshiko Yamane who joined in 2011, Ulrich Schnauss who joined in 2014 and Paul Frick who joined 9 June 2020.\nTangerine Dream are considered a pioneering act in electronica. Their work with the electronic music Ohr label produced albums that had a pivotal role in the development of the German musical scene known as kosmische (\"cosmic\"). Their \"Virgin Years\", so called because of their association with Virgin Records, produced albums that further explored synthesizers and sequencers, including the UK top 20 albums Phaedra (1974) and Rubycon (1975). The group also had a successful career composing film soundtracks, creating over 60 scores, which include those for the films Sorcerer, Thief, The Soldier, Risky Business, Flashpoint, The Keep, Firestarter, Legend, Three O'Clock High, Near Dark, Shy People, and Miracle Mile.\nFrom the late 1990s into the 2000s, Tangerine Dream continued to explore other styles of instrumental music as well as electronica. Their recorded output has been prolific, including over one hundred albums. Among other scoring projects, they helped create the soundtrack for the video game Grand Theft Auto V. Their mid-1970s work has been profoundly influential in the development of electronic music styles such as new-age (although the band themselves disliked the term) and electronic dance music.\nTheir most recent album of all-new music, Quantum Gate, was released on 29 September 2017. In December 2019, the band released Recurring Dreams, a compilation of new recordings of some of the band's classic compositions.\n\n\n== Lineup ==\nIn the late 1960s and early 1970s, Tangerine Dream existed as several short-lived incarnations, all of which included Froese, who teamed up with several musicians from West Berlin's underground music scene, including Steve Jolliffe, Klaus Schulze, and Conrad Schnitzler.Froese's most notable association was his partnership with Christopher Franke. Franke joined Tangerine Dream in 1970 after serving time in the group Agitation Free, originally to replace Schulze as the drummer. Franke is credited with starting to use electronic sequencers, which were introduced on Phaedra, a development that had not only a large impact on the group's music but to many electronic musicians to this day. Franke stayed with the group for 17 years, leaving in 1988 because of exhausting touring schedules, as well as creative differences with Froese.Other long-term members of the group include Peter Baumann (1971\u20131977), who later went on to found the new-age label Private Music, to which the band was signed from 1988 to 1991; Johannes Schmoelling (1979\u20131985); Paul Haslinger (1986\u20131990); Froese's son Jerome Froese (1990\u20132006); Linda Spa (1990\u20131996, 2005\u20132014), a saxophonist who appeared on numerous albums and concerts and contributed one track on Goblins' Club; and most recently Thorsten Quaeschning of Picture Palace Music (2005\u2013present).\nA number of other members were also part of Tangerine Dream for shorter periods of time. Unlike session musicians, these players also contributed to compositions of the band during their tenures. Some of the more notable members are Steve Schroyder (organist, 1971\u20131972), Michael Hoenig (who replaced Baumann for a 1975 Australian tour and a London concert, included on Bootleg Box Set Vol. 1), Steve Jolliffe (wind instruments, keyboards and vocals on Cyclone and the following tour; he was also part of a short-lived 1969 line-up), Klaus Kr\u00fcger (drummer on Cyclone and Force Majeure) and Ralf Wadephul (in collaboration with Edgar Froese recorded album Blue Dawn, but it was released only in 2006; also credited for one track on Optical Race (1988) and toured with the band in support of this album).\nThroughout the 1990s and into the 2000s, Tangerine Dream was often joined on stage by Zlatko Perica or Gerald Gradwohl on guitars, and Emil Hachfeld on electronic drums. Jerome Froese left in 2006 after a concert at the Tempodrom in Berlin. Until late 2014, Tangerine Dream comprised Edgar Froese, as well as Thorsten Quaeschning, who first collaborated in the composition of Jeanne d'Arc (2005). For concerts and recordings, they were usually joined by Linda Spa on saxophone and flute, Iris Camaa on drums and percussion, and Bernhard Beibl on guitar. In 2011, electric violinist Hoshiko Yamane was added to the lineup and is featured on some of the most recent albums.In late 2014, Bernhard Beibl announced on his Facebook page that he would stop collaborating with Tangerine Dream. Shortly thereafter, it was announced that Tangerine Dream would no longer be touring with Linda Spa or Iris Camaa, but that Ulrich Schnauss had been brought into the fold. Edgar Froese's death in January 2015, however, left this a short-lived line-up.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Origins: psychedelia and krautrock ===\nEdgar Froese arrived in West Berlin in the mid-1960s to study art. His first band, the psychedelic rock-styled The Ones, disbanded after releasing only one single. After The Ones, Froese experimented with musical ideas, playing smaller gigs with a variety of musicians. Most of these performances were in the famous Zodiak Free Arts Lab, although one grouping also had the distinction of being invited to play for the surrealist painter Salvador Dal\u00ed. The music was partnered with literature, painting, early forms of multimedia, and more. It seemed as though only the most outlandish ideas attracted any attention, leading Froese to comment: \"In the absurd often lies what is artistically possible.\" As members of the group came and went, the direction of the music continued to be inspired by the Surrealists, and the group came to be called by the surreal-sounding name of Tangerine Dream, inspired by mishearing the line \"tangerine trees and marmalade skies\" from the Beatles' track \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\".Froese was fascinated by technology and skilled in using it to create music. He built custom-made instruments and, wherever he went, collected sounds with tape recorders for use in constructing musical works later. His early work with tape loops and other repeating sounds was the obvious precursor to the emerging technology of the sequencer, which Tangerine Dream quickly adopted upon its arrival.\nThe first Tangerine Dream album, Electronic Meditation, was a tape-collage Krautrock piece, using the technology of the time rather than the synthesized music they later became famous for. The line-up for the album was Froese, Klaus Schulze, and Conrad Schnitzler. Electronic Meditation was published by Ohr in 1970 and began the period known as the Pink Years (the Ohr logo was a pink ear). Subsequent albums, beginning with Alpha Centauri, relied heavily on electronic instruments. The band's music during the early 1970s prominently featured organ from Steve Schroyder (on Alpha Centauri) or Peter Baumann (on subsequent releases), commonly augmented by guitar from Froese and drums from Christopher Franke. They also started their heavy usage of the Mellotron during this period.\n\n\n=== Rise to fame: the Virgin years ===\nThe band's 1973 album Atem was named as Album of the Year by British DJ John Peel, and this attention helped Tangerine Dream to sign to the fledgling Virgin Records in the same year. Soon afterward they released the album Phaedra, an eerie soundscape that unexpectedly reached No. 15 in the UK Albums Chart and became one of Virgin's first bona fide hits. Phaedra was one of the first commercial albums to feature sequencers and came to define much more than just the band's own sound. The creation of the album's title track was something of an accident: the band was experimenting in the studio with a recently acquired Moog synthesizer, and the tape happened to be rolling at the time. They kept the results and later added flute, bass guitar, and Mellotron performances. The Moog, like many other early synthesizers, was so sensitive to changes in temperature that its oscillators would drift badly in tuning as the equipment warmed up, and this drift can easily be heard on the final recording. This album marked the beginning of the period known as the 'Virgin Years'.\nTheir mid-1970s work has been profoundly influential in the development of electronic music styles such as new-age (although the band themselves disliked the term) and electronic dance music.In the 1980s, along with other electronic music pioneers such as Jean-Michel Jarre (with whom Edgar Froese collaborated on Jarre's 2015 album Electronica 1: The Time Machine) and Vangelis, the band were early adopters of the new digital technology, which revolutionized the sound of the synthesizer, although the group had been using digital equipment (in some shape or form) as early as the mid-1970s. Their technical competence and extensive experience in their early years with self-made instruments and unusual means of creating sounds meant that they were able to exploit this new technology to make music quite unlike anything heard before.\n\n\n=== Tangerine Dream live ===\nTangerine Dream's earliest concerts were visually simple by modern standards, with three men sitting motionless for hours alongside massive electronic boxes festooned with patch cords and a few flashing lights. Some concerts were even performed in complete darkness, as happened during the performance at York Minster on 20 October 1975. As time went on and technology advanced, the concerts became much more elaborate, with visual effects, lighting, lasers, pyrotechnics, and projected images. By 1977 their North American tour featured full-scale Laserium effects.\nThrough the 1970s and 1980s, the band toured extensively. The concerts generally included large amounts of unreleased and improvised material and were consequently widely bootlegged. They were notorious for playing extremely loudly (reaching 134 dB in 1976) and for a long time. The band released recordings of a fair number of their concerts, and on some of these the band worked out material that would later form the backbone of their studio recordings. (For example, Tangerine Dream, re-released as Pergamon, which documents a concert given in East Berlin shortly after Johannes Schmoelling joined the group, contains themes that would appear later on Tangram.) An early example of this was the Ricochet album, which was recorded during a tour that included European cathedrals, with some later overdubbing.\n\n\n=== Forays into vocals ===\n\nMost of Tangerine Dream's albums are entirely instrumental.  Three albums that prominently featured lyrics were Cyclone (1978), Tyger and Under Cover \u2013 Chapter One. While there have occasionally been a few vocals on the band's other releases, such as the track \"Kiew Mission\" from 1981's Exit and \"The Harbor\" from 1987's Shy People, the group only recently returned to featuring vocals in a musical trilogy based on Dante's Divine Comedy and their 2007 album Madcap's Flaming Duty.\nAfter their 1980 East Berlin gig, when they became one of the first major Western bands to perform in a communist country.  Tangerine Dream released a double live album of one of their performances there, called Poland, recorded during their tour in the winter at the end of 1983. With Poland, the band moved to the Jive Electro label, marking the beginning of the Blue Years.\n\n\n=== Soundtracks ===\nThroughout the 1980s, Tangerine Dream composed scores for more than 20 films. This had been an interest of Froese's since the late 1960s, when he scored an obscure Polish film, as well as appearing as an actor in several German underground films. He made the score for the experimental film \"Never shoot the bathroom man\", directed by J\u00fcrgen Polland. Many of the group's soundtracks were composed at least partially of reworked material from the band's studio albums or work that was in progress for upcoming albums; see, for example, the resemblance between the track \"Igneous\" on their soundtrack for Thief and the track \"Thru Metamorphic Rocks\" on their studio release Force Majeure. Their first exposure on U.S. television came when a track for the then in-progress album Le Parc was used as the theme for the television program Street Hawk. Some of the more famous soundtracks have been Sorcerer, Thief, Legend, Risky Business, The Keep, Firestarter, Flashpoint, Heartbreakers, Shy People and Near Dark.Tangerine Dream also composed the soundtrack score for the video game Grand Theft Auto V.In 2016, Tangerine Dream released their own version of the theme music for the television series Stranger Things.  Tangerine Dream had inspired music for the series.\n\n\n=== Going independent ===\nSeveral of the band's albums released during the 1990s were nominated for Grammy Awards. Since then, Tangerine Dream with Jerome Froese took a directional change away from the new-age leanings of those albums and toward an electronica style. After Jerome's departure, founder Edgar Froese steered the band in a direction somewhat reminiscent of material throughout their career.\nIn later years, Tangerine Dream released albums in series. The Dream Mixes series began in 1995 with the last being released in 2010. The Divine Comedy series, based on the writings of Dante Alighieri, spanned 2002\u20132006. From 2007 to 2010, the Five Atomic Seasons were released. Most recently, the Eastgate Sonic Poems series, based on the works of famous poetic authors such as Edgar Allan Poe and Franz Kafka, began in 2011, with the last appearing in 2013. Also, beginning in 2007, Tangerine Dream released a number of EPs, referred to as \"CupDiscs\" by the band.\nEdgar Froese also released a number of solo recordings, which are similar in style to Tangerine Dream's work. Jerome Froese released a number of singles as TDJ Rome, which are similar to his work within the Dream Mixes series. In 2005 he released his first solo album Neptunes under the name Jerome Froese.  In 2006 Jerome left Tangerine Dream to concentrate on his solo career. His second solo album Shiver Me Timbers was released on 29 October 2007, and his third, Far Side of the Face, was released in 2012. Beginning in 2011, Jerome Froese joined with former Tangerine Dream member Johannes Schmoelling and keyboardist Robert Waters to form the band Loom, which plays original material, as well as Tangerine Dream classics. Thorsten Quaeschning, leader of Picture Palace Music, was brought into Tangerine Dream in 2005 and contributed to most of the band's albums and CupDiscs since then.\nThe group had recording contracts with Ohr, Virgin, Jive Electro, Private Music, and Miramar, and many of the minor soundtracks were released on Var\u00e8se Sarabande. In 1996, the band founded their own record label, TDI, and more recently, Eastgate. Subsequent albums are today generally not available in normal retail channels but are sold by mail-order or through online channels. The same applies to their Miramar releases, the rights to which the band bought back. Meanwhile, their Ohr and Jive Electro catalogs (known as the \"Pink\" and \"Blue\" Years) are currently owned by Esoteric Recordings.\n\n\n=== Concert updates ===\n\nTo celebrate their 40th anniversary (1967\u20132007), Tangerine Dream announced their only UK concert: at London Astoria on 20 April 2007. The band also played a totally free open-air concert in Eberswalde on 1 July 2007 and at the Alte Oper in Frankfurt on Main on 7 October 2007. 2008 saw the band in Eindhoven Netherlands playing at E-Day (an electronic music festival); later in the year they also played the Night of the Prog Festival in Loreley, Germany, as well as concerts at the Kentish Town Forum, in London on 1 November, at the Picture House, Edinburgh on 2 November, and their first live concert in the US for over a decade, at the UCLA Royce Hall, Los Angeles on 7 November.\nIn 2009, the group announced that they would play a concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London, on 1 April 2010, titled the Zeitgeist concert, 35 years after their milestone concert there on 2 April 1975. The entire concert was released as a 3-CD live album on 7 July 2010.Tangerine Dream embarked in spring and summer 2012 on a tour of Europe, Canada and the USA called The Electric Mandarine Tour 2012: The 1st leg was a 5-date European tour, beginning on 10 April in Budapest (Hungary) via Padua (Italy), Milano (Italy), Zurich (Switzerland), and ending on 10 May in Berlin (Germany). The 2nd leg was a North-American tour which started with the Jazz Festival in Montr\u00e9al (Canada) on 30 June, followed by a concert on 4 July at the Bluesfest in Ottawa (Canada) and continued as a 10-date US journey beginning in July in Boston, then New York, Philadelphia, Washington, and California. On 16 November 2014, Tangerine Dream performed in Melbourne, Australia, as part of Melbourne Music Week. They were the final shows with Froese.  Tangerine Dream played two consecutive nights at the Union Chapel, Islington London on April 23 & 24 2018, the second supported by ex-Japan and Porcupine Tree musician Richard Barbieri. In October and November 2019, Tangerine Dream went on its 16 step Random & Revision Tour.\n\n\n=== After Edgar Froese's death ===\nEdgar Froese died suddenly in Vienna on 20 January 2015 from a pulmonary embolism. On 6 April 2015, the group's remaining members (Quaeschning, Schnauss and Yamane) and Bianca Acquaye (Froese's widow), pledged to continue working together in an effort to fulfill Froese's vision for the group. However, ex-member Jerome Froese announced in his Facebook time line that in his opinion Tangerine Dream will not exist without his father.Tangerine Dream played their first show following Froese's death on 9 June 2016 in Szczecin, Poland.On 29 September 2017, Tangerine Dream released their new studio album entitled Quantum Gate, celebrating the 50th anniversary of the band's foundation. The album is based on ideas and musical sketches by founder Edgar Froese and was completed by the remaining members of the band.On 31 January 2020, Tangerine Dream re-released their December 2019 album Recurring Dreams, an 11-track collection of new recordings of some of the band's classic tracks, worldwide through Kscope. This was launched to coincide with the Tangerine Dream: Zeitraffer exhibition which opened on 17 January 2020 at London's Barbican and runs until 2 May 2020.On 9 June 2020 Paul Frick became the first member to join the group following Edgar's death after making guest appearances the prior two years. The group is currently working on a new album as a four-piece to be released in fall 2021 via Kscope. Frick has the unique distinction of being the first addition to the group who did not ever personally meet Froese. \n\n\n== Artistic connections ==\n\n\n=== Influences ===\nTangerine Dream began as a surreal rock band, with each of the members contributing different musical influences and styles. Edgar Froese's guitar style was inspired by Jimi Hendrix, while Christopher Franke contributed the more avant garde elements of Karlheinz Stockhausen and Terry Riley. Yes-like progressive rock influence was brought in by Steve Jolliffe on Cyclone. The sample-based sound collages of Johannes Schmoelling drew their inspiration from a number of sources; one instance is Steve Reich's Music for 18 Musicians on parts of Logos Live, and the track \"Love on a Real Train\" from the Risky Business soundtrack.Classical music has had an influence on the sound of Tangerine Dream over the years. Gy\u00f6rgy Ligeti, Johann Sebastian Bach, Pierre Boulez, Iannis Xenakis, Maurice Ravel, and Arcangelo Corelli are clearly visible as dominant influences in the early albums. A Baroque sensibility sometimes informs the more coordinated sequencer patterns, which has its most direct expression in the La Folia section that comes at the very end of the title track of Force Majeure. In live performances, the piano solos often directly quoted from Romantic classical works for piano, such as the Beethoven and Mozart snippets in much of the late 1970s \u2013 early 1980s stage shows. In the bootleg recording of the Mannheim Mozartsaal concert of 1976 (Tangerine Tree volume 13), the first part of the first piece also clearly quotes from Franz Liszt's Totentanz. The first phrase is played on a harpsichord synthesizer patch and is answered by the second half of the phrase in a flute voicing on a Mellotron. During the 1990s, many releases included recordings of classical compositions: Pictures at an Exhibition (on Turn of the Tides), Largo (from Xerxes) (on Tyranny of Beauty), Symphony in A Minor (by J. S. Bach), and Concerto in A Major / Adagio (by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart) (both on Ambient Monkeys).\nSince the 1990s, Tangerine Dream have also recorded cover versions of Jimi Hendrix' \"Purple Haze\" (first on 220 Volt Live) and The Beatles' \"Eleanor Rigby\", \"Back in the U.S.S.R.\", \"Tomorrow Never Knows\", and \"Norwegian Wood\".\nAn infrequently recurring non-musical influence on Tangerine Dream, and Edgar Froese in particular, have been 12th\u201319th-century poets. This was first evident on the 1981 album Exit, the track title \"Pilots of the Purple Twilight\" being a quote from Alfred Lord Tennyson's poem Locksley Hall. Six years later, the album Tyger featured poems from William Blake set to music; and around the turn of the millennium, Edgar Froese started working on a musical trilogy based on Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, completed in 2006. Most recently, the 2007 album Madcap's Flaming Duty features more poems set to music, some again from Blake but also e.g. Walt Whitman.\nPink Floyd were also an influence on Edgar Froese and Tangerine Dream, the band in its very early psychedelic rock band phase playing improvisations based on Pink Floyd's \"Interstellar Overdrive\". Madcap's Flaming Duty is dedicated to the memory of the late Syd Barrett. The title refers to Barrett's solo release \"The Madcap Laughs\".\nThe band's influence can be felt in ambient artists such as Deepspace, The Future Sound of London, David Kristian, and Global Communication, as well as rock, pop, and dance artists such as Porcupine Tree, M83, DJ Shadow, Ulrich Schnauss, Cut Copy, and Kasabian. The band also clearly influenced 1990s and 2000s trance music, where lush soundscapes and synth pads are used along with repetitive synth sequences, much like in their 1975 releases Rubycon and Ricochet, as well as some of their music from the early 1980s. The group have also been sampled countless times, more recently by Recoil on the album SubHuman, by Sasha on Involver, and on several Houzan Suzuki albums. Michael Jackson also cited Tangerine Dream as one of his favourite bands, especially their 1977 soundtrack for Sorcerer.\n\n\n=== In popular culture ===\nSteven Wilson, of Porcupine Tree, stated that Tangerine Dream was one of his influences to make his music, and often cites Zeit as his all-time favorite album.\nJapanese electronic musician Susumu Hirasawa dedicated his song \"Island Door (Paranesian Circle)\" (\u30c8\u30d3\u30e9\u5cf6\uff08\u30d1\u30e9\u30cd\u30b7\u30a2\u30f3\u30fb\u30b5\u30fc\u30af\u30eb\uff09, Tobira Shima (Paraneshian Circle)) to Tangerine Dream.\nIn 2016, Netflix's original show Stranger Things used three Tangerine Dream tracks in its soundtrack: \"Green Desert\" from Green Desert (1986) in episode five, \"Exit\" from Exit (1981) in episode six and \"Tangent (Rare Bird)\" from Poland (1984) in episode eight. Composers of the soundtrack for the show, Kyle Dixon and Michael Stein of the electronic band Survive, also cited Tangerine Dream as the key influence behind the soundtrack, some of which were later covered by Tangerine Dream themselves.\n\n\n== Personnel ==\n\n\n=== Members ===\nCurrent membersThorsten Quaeschning \u2013 bandleader, music director, synthesizer, sequencer, drums, guitar (2005\u2013present)\nHoshiko Yamane \u2013 acoustic violin, electric viola, electric violin, cello, Ableton Push controller, looper, synthesizer (2011\u2013present)\nUlrich Schnauss \u2013 synthesizer, piano, sequencer, Ableton (2014\u20132019. 2020 to present studio only)\nPaul Frick \u2013 synthesizer, piano (2020\u2013present, guest:2018-2020)Bianca Froese-Acquaye, Edgar Froese's widow, has taken up the mantle of continuing the legacy of the group and works closely in a non-musical capacity with the remaining members.\n\nFormer members\n\n\n=== Line-ups ===\n\n\n=== Timeline ===\n\n\n=== Guest musicians ===\n\n\n== Discography ==\nTangerine Dream has released over one hundred albums (not counting compilations and fan releases) over the last five decades. A project to collect and release fan concert recordings, known as the Tangerine Tree, was active from 2002 to 2006.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website\nTangerine Dream at IMDb\nTANGAUDIMAX \u2013 The Tangerine Dream Sound Museum", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/E-mu_Audity.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Tangerine-dream-blo--w.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Tangerine_Dream_-_Elbphilharmonie_Hamburg_2018_02.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "Tangerine Dream is a German electronic music band founded in 1967 by Edgar Froese. The group has seen many personnel changes over the years, with Froese having been the only continuous member until his death in January 2015. \nThe best-known lineup of the group was its mid-1970s trio of Froese, Christopher Franke, and Peter Baumann. In 1979, Johannes Schmoelling replaced Baumann. Since Froese's death in 2015, the group has been under the leadership of Thorsten Quaeschning (Froese's chosen successor and the current longest-serving band member, having joined in 2005). He is joined by violinist Hoshiko Yamane who joined in 2011, Ulrich Schnauss who joined in 2014 and Paul Frick who joined 9 June 2020.\nTangerine Dream are considered a pioneering act in electronica. Their work with the electronic music Ohr label produced albums that had a pivotal role in the development of the German musical scene known as kosmische (\"cosmic\"). Their \"Virgin Years\", so called because of their association with Virgin Records, produced albums that further explored synthesizers and sequencers, including the UK top 20 albums Phaedra (1974) and Rubycon (1975). The group also had a successful career composing film soundtracks, creating over 60 scores, which include those for the films Sorcerer, Thief, The Soldier, Risky Business, Flashpoint, The Keep, Firestarter, Legend, Three O'Clock High, Near Dark, Shy People, and Miracle Mile.\nFrom the late 1990s into the 2000s, Tangerine Dream continued to explore other styles of instrumental music as well as electronica. Their recorded output has been prolific, including over one hundred albums. Among other scoring projects, they helped create the soundtrack for the video game Grand Theft Auto V. Their mid-1970s work has been profoundly influential in the development of electronic music styles such as new-age (although the band themselves disliked the term) and electronic dance music.\nTheir most recent album of all-new music, Quantum Gate, was released on 29 September 2017. In December 2019, the band released Recurring Dreams, a compilation of new recordings of some of the band's classic compositions.\n\n"}, "Ambient_Monkeys": {"links": ["A Time for Heroes", "Steve Jolliffe", "Thief ", "Betrayal ", "Jerome Froese", "The Island of the Fay", "Electronic music", "Ralf Wadephul", "Tangerine Dream bootleg recordings", "Tangram ", "The Dream Mixes", "Green Desert", "Brandt Brauer Frick", "Quantum Key", "Johannes Schmoelling", "Mozart", "Klaus Schulze", "Record label", "Exit ", "Daydream \u2013 Moorland", "The Park Is Mine ", "TimeSquare \u2013 Dream Mixes II", "Mota Atma", "Mona da Vinci", "Finnegans Wake ", "Christopher Franke", "Three O'Clock High", "two twenty Volt Live", "Lily on the Beach", "Bernhard Beibl", "Phaedra ", "Stratosfear", "Der Meteor", "Conrad Schnitzler", "AllMusic", "The Keep ", "Love on a Real Train", "Ulrich Schnauss", "Music of Grand Theft Auto V", "Phaedra two thousand and five", "Soundmill Navigator", "Edgar Froese", "Paul Haslinger", "Tangerine Dream discography", "Atem ", "Ricochet ", "Logos Live", "Mini-album", "Peter Baumann", "Dead Solid Perfect", "Dream Music \u2013 The Movie Music of Tangerine Dream", "Legend ", "Tyranny of Beauty", "Wavelength ", "Zoning ", "George Frideric Handel", "Tangerine Dream filmography", "Force Majeure ", "Optical Race", "Alpha Centauri ", "Antique Dreams", "Shy People", "Tangerine Tree", "What a Blast", "Zeit", "In Search of Hades: The Virgin Recordings 1973\u2013nineteen seventy-nine", "Heartbreakers ", "Electronic Meditation", "Flashpoint ", "Hoshiko Yamane", "Destination Berlin", "Catch Me If You Can ", "Miracle Mile ", "Plays Tangerine Dream", "Das M\u00e4dchen auf der Treppe", "Knights of Asheville", "Le Parc ", "Linda Spa", "J.S. Bach", "Sorcerer ", "Melrose ", "Inferno ", "Livemiles", "Mars Polaris", "Tangerine Dream", "Zlatko Perica", "In Search of Hades: The Virgin Recordings nineteen seventy-three\u20131979", "Mala Kunia", "Music genre", "White Eagle ", "Record producer", "Poland ", "Valentine Wheels", "Tournado ", "Turn of the Tides", "Firestarter ", "The Man Inside ", "Purgatorio ", "Canyon Dreams", "Cyclone ", "Ambient music", "Under Cover \u2013 Chapter One", "Rockoon ", "Sohoman", "Tyger ", "Rumpelstiltskin ", "Encore ", "Hyperborea ", "Recurring Dreams ", "Album", "Thorsten Quaeschning", "Quinoa ", "Pergamon ", "Risky Business ", "Madcap's Flaming Duty", "Warsaw in the Sun ", "Near Dark", "Underwater Sunlight", "Great Wall of China ", "Quantum Gate ", "Rubycon ", "Michael Hoenig", "Goblins' Club", "Jeanne d'Arc ", "MBRG "], "content": "Ambient Monkeys subtitled (Dream Folder #1 At Crimson's Train Lodge \"Myopia World\") is the fifty-ninth release by Tangerine Dream.\n\n\n== Background ==\nRight before TD entered the stage during their Europe gigs in 1997, spectators could hear some mellow music overlaid by some nature, animal or environment sounds. \"On public demand\", as stated in the booklet, this \"pre-concert ambient music\" has become available on the CD Ambient Monkeys on the TDI label. Pre-release CDs had been sold on the merchandise stall during TD's British tour in November 1997 first. The first version of the CD came with the track \"Largo (from Xerxes)\". It was released with different cover artwork in June 1998 without \"Largo (from Xerxes)\" included in the Dream Dice box set, and later also separately. In 1999 Ambient Monkeys was re-released once more with different cover design.\nIn March 2009, the album was re-released with completely different cover design as part of an extensive digipack series (consisting of a total of more than 60 CD and DVD releases) by the Germany-based Membran record label.\n\n\n== Track listing ==\nAll tracks are written by Edgar Froese except where noted.\n\n\n== Personnel ==\nJerome Froese - composer and performer\nEdgar Froese - composer and performerOther personnelGisela Kloetzer - performed on original version of \"Largo (From Xerxes)\" from the 1995 album Tyranny of Beauty so she technically performs on this album.\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Star_empty.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Star_full.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b8/Tangerine_Dream_-_Ambient_Monkeys_cover_art.jpg"], "summary": "Ambient Monkeys subtitled (Dream Folder #1 At Crimson's Train Lodge \"Myopia World\") is the fifty-ninth release by Tangerine Dream."}, "Iron": {"links": ["Richard N. 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power", "Abbasid Caliphate", "Santur", "ISBN ", "Iranian oil bourse", "Hassan Abad Moshir qanat", "Iranian hip hop", "Defense industry of Iran", "Islamic republic", "fiveth ECO Summit", "Shia Islam", "Amir Chakhmaq Mosque", "Concession ", "Huddersfield Daily Examiner", "Khoresh B\u0101denj\u0101n Lapeh", "Myanmar", "Ghamishloo National Park", "Inflation", "Zarch qanat", "Picnic", "Farahabad Mosque", "Shahr-e Sukhteh", "Old Aramaic", "Persian miniature", "Moro National Liberation Front", "eightth ECO Summit", "East Asia", "twelveth ECO Summit", "3rd G-fifteen summit", "Intangible Cultural Heritage", "Jameh Mosque of Pachian", "Sharia", "Ethnic group", "Cyropaedia", "Arg-\u00e9 Bam", "Ahvaz", "Kaj Mosque", "Bandar Abbas", "Gando Protected Area", "Before Common Era", "Ancient Iran", "Mountaineering", "Provinces of Iran", "Desert climate", "List of national parks and protected areas of Iran", "Virtual private network", "Fields Medal", "Berberis", "Flags of the Islamic Republic of Iran 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athletes", "Jameh Mosque of Urmia", "Eponym", "Iranian Cyber Police", "Neo-Aramaic languages", "Meydan Mosque, Kashan", "Cyaxares", "Assyrians in Iran", "Defense Industries Organization", "Iranian nuclear program", "Iranian rial", "Iranian Gendarmerie", "Jameh Mosque of Kabir Neyriz", "Shetab Banking System", "Sierra Leone", "Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf", "Fararu", "Parthia", "Chogha Zanbil", "Samuel Rahbar", "AmirKabir", "United States Army Center of Military History", "Skiing", "Morocco", "Buddhism in Iran", "Cambyses I", "Merriam-Webster", "Bamou National Park", "Jameh Mosque of Borujerd", "Bushehr Province", "Cherry", "Flag of Iran", "Bahrain", "List of dishes from the Caucasus", "Tahirid dynasty", "Jews in Iran", "New Year", "Sumerian language", "List of festivals in Iran", "Universal suffrage", "Islamic Republic News Agency", "Kish Island", "LGBT rights in Iran", "Iranian Traffic Police", "Qanun ", "Tadeusz Swietochowski", "List of largest shopping malls", "Chapar Khaneh", "Laki 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Kh\u0101neg\u0101h and Shrine Ensemble", "Henry Miers Elliot", "Summer solstice", "Qatar", "Thrace", "Argentina", "List of airports in Iran", "Kayhan", "Imam Reza shrine", "Kabab koobideh", "Hedayat Mosque", "Ronald Reagan", "Tar ", "Treaty of Turkmenchay", "Ballet", "Pahlevani and zoorkhaneh rituals", "Deioces", "nineteen seventy-nine revolution", "Department of Environment, Iran", "Qashqai language", "Prehistory of Iran", "Economy of the Middle East", "West Azerbaijan Province", "Yemen", "Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa", "Mirza Ebrahim Khan Akkas Bashi", "Fajr-three ", "Daf", "Bandar Torkaman", "Armenian genocide", "Camel", "Gonbad-e Qabus ", "Ottoman\u2013Persian wars", "Middle Paleolithic", "Chief Justice of Iran", "Populist", "Middle Eastern music", "IISS", "Iranian involvement in the Syrian Civil War", "onest G-one5 summit", "Masoud Kimiai", "Cinema of the Middle East", "Isfahan", "Yahni", "Jameh Mosque of Kashmar", "Etiquette in the Middle East", "Views on the nuclear program of Iran", "Kabab torsh", "United States Geological Survey", "Cubic metre", "Harp", "7th G-fifteen summit", "Iranian Police Criminal Investigation Department", "Siy\u00e2vash", "Turkish coffee", "Mashregh News", "Allies of Iran", "Chickpea", "Ravand Institute", "Censorship in Iran", "Foreign involvement in the Syrian Civil War", "Seleucid Empire", "Cyberwarfare in Iran", "Gilaks", "List of mountains in Iran", "Islamization of Iran", "Shemshak ", "five June 1963, demonstrations in Iran", "Masghati", "Tandooreh National Park", "Satellite", "Architects of Iran", "Largest metropolitan areas of the Middle East", "Jameh Mosque of Makki", "United States withdrawal from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action", "Persecution of Zoroastrians", "Evacuation of Polish civilians from the USSR in World War II", "Jameh Mosque of Fahraj", "Expediency Discernment Council", "Puppetry", "Azerbaijan", "IRISL Group", "Western Europe", "Mirza Mousa Mosque", "Fruit production in Iran", "Ralph Waldo Emerson", "Niger", "Esfand", "Center for Strategic and International Studies", "Privatization in Iran", "Haraz Protected Area", "Iranian calendars", "Telephone numbers in Iran", "Kerman Province", "Ardashir Khurreh", "Afghan cuisine", "Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System", "Ivory Coast", "Urmia", "Higher education in Iran", "SUDOC ", "Jordan", "Abkhazia", "Judicial system of the Islamic Republic of Iran", "Entekhab", "Mali", "Hakim Mosque, Isfahan", "Tarbiat Modares University", "Refugee", "Toloo ", "Sadeq Larijani", "List of largest empires", "Shia", "December nineteen seventy-nine Iranian constitutional referendum", "Military history of Iran", "Jameh Mosque of Ashtarjan", "Islamic culture", "Cookie", "Kebab", "Iranian Green Movement", "Iran national football team", "Fateh-one ten", "University of Tehran", "Semnani language", "Metalworking", "State-owned enterprise", "Casualties of the Iranian Revolution", "Ministry of Education ", "Government of Iran", "Nabopolassar", "Gregorian calendar", "Icana News Agency", "Roudaki Hall", "Fireworks", "Borani", "Guran ", "Islamic literature", "Shekarpareh", "Spenta Armaiti", "West Asia", "Shirini Yazdi", "Iranian diaspora", "National sport", "Hafez", "AryoGen", "Vohu Manah", "Pharmaceuticals in Iran", "Golden jackal", "Iranian modern and contemporary art", "Temple of Anahita, Kangavar", "Kura-Araxes culture", "Stonemasonry", "Jameh Mosque of Natanz", "Persian pottery", "Persian literature", "Qom Province", "North America", "Imperial Anthem of Iran", "Luri language", "Oil reserves", "Agha Zia ol Din Mosque", "Pomegranate", "Urartu", "Ghormeh sabzi", "Motif ", "Iranian Crown Jewels", "Nader Shah's invasion of the Mughal Empire", "Yafteh", "Venetian school ", "Zir Deh Mosque", "General Staff of Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran", "Endangered species", "Uffizi", "Solar power", "List of economic laws in Iran", "Assyrian Neo-Aramaic", "Rasad one", "Old Persian", "History of Iranian animation", "Georges Roux", "Qal'eh Dokhtar", "Circassian languages", "Omar Khayyam", "Passover", "Sejjil", "Mandane of Media", "Sudan", "Darvazeh No Mosque", "Nationalization of the Iranian oil industry", "Vincent Arthur Smith", "Ziyarid dynasty", "Kazakhstan", "Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action", "Azerbaijanis", "Wildlife of Iran", "Avant-garde", "List of Prime Ministers of Iran", "ISSN ", "Abdolhossein Sepanta", "Persian Sign Language", "History of Asian art", "Meymand, Kerman", "Iranian rock", "Atar", "Khash ", "Football in Iran", "Islamic Republic of Iran Navy", "Chang ", "Mazanderani language", "Qazvin Province", "Sistan and Baluchestan Province", "Green Revolution ", "Persian art", "Venezuela", "Doogh", "Bulgaria", "Greater Iran", "World War I", "Oil well", "Shirin polo", "Economy of Angola", "Economy of Kuwait", "Amol County", "Eurasian Steppe", "Ministry of Intelligence and National Security ", "Iran ", "Gherkin", "eightth G-15 summit", "Khordad", "Parviz Mahmoud", "Nut ", "Bamshad", "Middle Platonism", "Cambridge University Press", "Jameh Mosque of Lar", "Chapel of Chupan", "New Julfa", "Lorzadeh Mosque", "Talysh language", "Chinese culture", "Allies of World War II", "Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization of Iran", "Aragh sagi", "Proto-Indo-Europeans", "Supreme Audit Court of Iran", "Statue, National Museum of Iran twenty-four oh-one", "Khuzestan", "Mazanderani people", "Hinduism in Iran", "Muzaffarids ", "Georgia ", "Nepal", "India", "Nanotechnology", "Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance", "Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force", "Avestan", "Fereidoun Biglari", "Dome of Soltaniyeh", "Jameh Mosque of Tehran", "Sacred language", "Chaldean Catholic Church", "2nd G-fifteen summit", "Kings of Persis", "Intellectual property in Iran", "List of military equipment manufactured in Iran", "Ottoman cuisine", "Tank", "Anglo-Iranian Oil Company", "Mesbah-two", "Yald\u0101 Night", "Middle East", "threerd ECO Summit", "Stork", "Official language", "Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar", "Chogha Bonut", "Blue Mosque, Tabriz", "Pheasant", "Automotive industry in Iran", "Al-Monitor", "Balochi language", "Sanctions against Iran", "onest ECO Summit", "Maghsoudbeyk Mosque", "Eldiguzids", "Jameh Mosque of Damghan", "Persian famine of nineteen seventeen\u20131919", "List of countries and dependencies by population", "Kavir Protected Area", "Indo-European migrations", "Marionette", "Cumrun Vafa", "Proto-Indo-European language", "Nagisa ", "Fuzzy set", "Ahwazi Arabs", "Sohan ", "Arthur Upham Pope", "List of dams and reservoirs in Iran", "Civilian casualties", "Kashafrud", "Samanu", "Manesht & Ghelarang Protected Area", "International Bank for Reconstruction and Development", "Poolaki", "Rahim Khan Mosque", "Shiraz", "Pasargadae Persian Garden", "Middle Persian", "Kyrgyzstan", "Ervand Abrahamian", "Nuclear program of Iran", "Caucasus Mountains", "Ash-e doogh", "Commoner", "Jameh Mosque of Aradan", "Tarhana", "Hanukkah", "Jujeh kabab", "North Khorasan Province", 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"Tahmuras", "Zayandeh River Culture", "Kashk e bademjan", "Cyprus", "Death penalty for homosexuality", "Jameh Mosque of Bandar Abbas", "Alborz", "Sorkhankol Wildlife Refuge", "Country code top-level domain", "Islamic Republic of Iran Army Ground Forces", "Roman\u2013Parthian Wars", "Human rights", "Textile", "Persian dialects in Khuzestan", "Akkadian Empire", "Askold Ivanchik", "State ownership", "List of cities in Iran", "BBC News Online", "Ruhollah Khomeini", "Tomato", "Babylon", "Israel", "Persian famine of 1917\u2013nineteen nineteen", "Rostam and Sohrab ", "Khar Turan National Park", "Minoo Khaleghi", "Encyclopaedia Iranica", "Kermanshah", "Kenya", "Missing in action", "Encyclop\u00e6dia Iranica", "Persian Constitutional Revolution", "nineth ECO Summit", "Lend-Lease", "Venture capital in Iran", "Arts of Iran", "Berlin International Film Festival", "Strabo", "Iranian Assyrians", "Eurasian lynx", "Balkans", "13th G-fifteen summit", "Gorani language", "Religion in the Middle East", "Twitter", "Naz\u00ed Paikidze", "List of Iran-related topics", "PMC ", "Crime in Iran", "Asia", "History of Iran", "Economy of Iran", "Albania", "Persian alphabet", "Iran national basketball team", "Dolatabad Garden", "Bell pepper", "Kermanshah Province", "Collins English Dictionary", "Currency", "Baloch people", "Jafar Panahi", "Mausoleum of Ruhollah Khomeini", "Masud-two", "Zahedan", "Maliki", "Aush-e-Sholeh-Ghalam-Kar", "Nuclear power plant", "Georgian language", "Eslamshahr", "Ministry of Defense and Armed Forces Logistics ", "1st G-fifteen summit", "Shirvan", "The Cow ", "Persian name", "Social security", "SAVAK", "Stanley Lane-Poole", "Baklava", "University-preparatory school", "Sovereign state", "Nowruz", "Turkic tribal confederations", "Near Eastern archaeology", "Isfahan Beryani", "Iranian Anti-Narcotics Police", "Bamiyeh", "Zafar ", "Rashidun Caliphate", "Cezve", "Southern Kurdish", "Bibi Shahr Banu Shrine", "Qajar art", "Aush-e-Shalqham", "Uranium hexafluoride", "Persian Gulf", "Dashti Mosque", "Jameh Mosque of Yazd", "Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers", "Student News Network", "Blogging in Iran", "Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania", "Persepolis", "Ashura", "Buitenhof ", "United Nations Security Council Resolution nineteen twenty-nine", "Economy of United Arab Emirates", "The School of Athens", "Zereshk polo", "Iranian Revolution", "Nan-e Nokhodchi", "Kaymak", "Law Enforcement Force of Islamic Republic of Iran", "Behistun Inscription", "VIAF ", "Turkmen language", "PMID ", "Plutarch", "Lullubi", "Ahmad Azari Qomi", "Rock climbing", "Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam", "Tasnim News Agency", "Medieval Iran", "Climate", "Humid continental climate", "Lentil", "\u0100sh", "Iranian Armenian", "Armenia", "Asiatic lion", "Ilkhanate", "Bakhsh", "Markazi Province", "Islamic Principlism in Iran", "List of famines", "Chahar Suq And Hajj Muhammad Husayn Mosque", "List of companies of Iran", "Greeks", "The World Factbook", "List of Middle Eastern countries by population", "Neo-Babylonian Empire", "Winston Churchill", "Hamadan Province", "Unicameralism", "Unmanned aerial vehicle", "Iranian Americans", "Iron Age", "Armenian language", "MBAREA ", "Operation Barbarossa", "Parthian art", "Kesme", "Roknolmolk Mosque", "Ghalieh Mahi", "Surena ", "SCImago Journal Rank", "Iranian folk music", "Symbol", "twond ECO Summit", "Winter solstice", "Byzantine\u2013Sasanian wars", "Shatt al-Arab", "Naqsh-e Rostam", "fortyth parallel north", "List of countries by number of Internet users", "Tandoor", "Border Guard Command ", "Sasanian art", "Sa'dabad Complex", "Economy of Equatorial Guinea", "Dagestan", "Turkmens", "Neanderthal", "Jameh Mosque of Sojas", "Bonyad", "Brunei", "Miandasht Wildlife Refuge", "Chapel of Dzordzor", "Persian clothing", "Sheermal", "Kabab mahi", "List of monarchs of Persia", "Abdolhossein Zarrinkoob", "Kul-e Farah", "Women's rights in Iran", "Transcaucasia", "Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province", "Iran Air Flight six fifty-five", "Dasht-e Kavir", "National symbols of Iran", "List of ancient Iranian peoples", "Ministry of Petroleum ", "Uzbekistan", "Goharshad Mosque", "Japan", "Jameh Mosque of Khorramshahr", "President of Iran", "Anatolia", "Demographics of the Middle East", "Ghaznavids", "Libya", "List of universities in Iran", "Joseph Stalin", "Associate degree", "Abu Muslim", "English language in England", "Enriched uranium", "Meze", "Shazdeh Garden", "Dushabi", "Western Caucasus", "Iranian Assyrian", "Gulf of Oman", "Elections in Iran", "Zanjan, Iran", "nineteen forty-six Iran crisis", "Vladimir Putin", "Mixed nuts", "Akbarieh Garden", "Kowsar", "Takht-e Soleym\u0101n", "Gosh-e Fil", "Peppermint", "Persian leopard", "Sarkash", "Bozbash", "Doctor of Philosophy", "Paris Agreement", "Islamic Consultative Assembly", "Lezgins", "Eastern Europe", "Paeonia ", "Vazvan qanat", "Iran Standard Time", "Chobanids", "Columbia University Press", "Jameh Mosque of Zavareh", "List of Iranian cities by population", "Jiroft culture", "Chahar Padshahan", "Arasbaran Protected Area", "Tabriziha Mosque", "Sarigol National Park", "Achomi language", "Economic Cooperation Organization Trade Agreement", "Kofta", "Ministry of Science, Research and Technology ", "Hellenistic period", "Shermine Shahrivar", "Kura\u2013Araxes culture", "Khoresh", "10th G-fifteen summit", "Economy of Qatar", "AFC Asian Cup", "Kabir Kouh Protected Area", "Kingdom of Armenia ", "Maku, Iran", "Kamancheh", "Middle Eastern dance", "Mohammad Mosaddegh", "Mahvid Mosque", "Military intervention against ISIL", "twenty eighteen\u20132019 Iranian general strikes and protests", "fourth ECO Summit", "Jameh Mosque of Takab", "K\u00f6ppen-Geiger", "Shatt al-Arab clashes", "Timeline of Middle Eastern history", "Stone Tark Mosque", "Sabalan", "Tachara", "Group of seventy-seven", "K\u2013twelve", "Touran Protected Area", "Jajrud", "Glycated hemoglobin", "Shadow play", "Media of Iran", "Denkard", "Kingdom of Cappadocia", "Sasanian Empire", "Sarvestan Palace", "Special administrative regions of China", "Islamic architecture", "Cinema of Iran", "Oxford University Press", "Recession", "Hebrew language", "Iran and weapons of mass destruction", "Zand dynasty", "Watermelon", "Bastani", "Hulagu Khan", "Social justice", "Venice Film Festival", "Ruhollah Khaleqi", "Byzantine\u2013Sasanian War of six oh-two\u2013628", "twenty twenty Iranian attack on U.S. forces in Iraq", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Lake Urmia", "Gazelle", "Jameh Mosque of Namin", "Wild boar", "Lonban Mosque", "Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Zimbabwe", "Arsacid dynasty of Iberia", "Fesenj\u0101n", "Kingdom of Pontus", "Naqsh-e Jahan Square", "State of Palestine", "Lower Paleolithic", "Nader Shah", "Khuske-shirin", "Water politics in the Middle East", "Economic Cooperation Organization", "Samovar", "Tomb of Cyrus", "Economy of Bolivia", "Azar", "Republic of Artsakh", "Bundahishn", "Baghala ghatogh", "Semnan Province", "Jameh Mosque of Darab", "Eghtesad Online", "Anthony Cordesman", "Left- and right-hand traffic", "Pilgrimage", "Facebook", "Cumin", "Goat", "Turkic Council", "Economy of Libya", "Mandaeans", "Black Sea", "Mongol invasions and conquests", "Espi Mazget", "Saudi Arabia", "Iran\u2013United States relations", "Human Development Index", "List of speakers of the Parliament of Iran", "Iranian Space Research Center", "Alam-Kuh", "Arabian Peninsula", "Somalia", "Basketball", "Imam Khomeini Spaceport", "Brouhaha", "Energy in the Middle East", "Hazelnut", "Abgoosht", "Iranian frigate Jamaran", "Uganda", "Shapur cave", "Tishtrya", "Faloodeh", "Akrotiri and Dhekelia", "Health care in Iran", "Bronze Age", "OPEC Fund for International Development", "Democracy in the Middle East and North Africa", "Sharif University of Technology", "World War II", "Qased ", "Opera", "Taq Bostan", "Jameh Mosque of Qiblah", "Nasir-ol-Molk Mosque", "Khoy", "Jameh Mosque of Semnan", "Mirza Kuchik Khan", "United Nations Special Rapporteur on Human Rights in Iran", "Rey, Iran", "Ghurid dynasty", "Radiocarbon dating", "Darya Dadvar", "Apricot", "United Nations Security Council Resolution seventeen forty-seven", "Christopher Whatley", "Mixed economy", "Tahdig", "Animal skin", "Gas Exporting Countries Forum", "tenth G-15 summit", "Cinnamon", "International Finance Corporation", "two thousand and five Iranian presidential election", "thirteenth G-15 summit", "Pamenar Mosque, Mehdishahr", "Chad", "Shahrivar", "Cimmerians", "Kara Koyunlu", "Taq Kasra", "Mirza Ghassemi", "4th G-fifteen summit", "Safir ", "Ottoman Empire", "Travel visa", "Banking and insurance in Iran", "Mir-Hossein Mousavi", "UNHCR", "Treaty of Izmir", "Taftan ", "Shahrbani", "Mamluk", "Taste of Cherry", "Timurid Empire", "Healthcare in Iran", "Bear", "Lorestan Province", "Chogha Golan", "Iranian peoples", "Hoot ", "Russia", "Turkish occupation of northern Syria", "Semnani languages", "Black pepper", "Jizya", "Asian Men's Volleyball Championship", "Salt lake", "Hamoon Wildlife Refuge", "Management and Planning Organization of Iran", "Iran Aerospace Association", "Athenaeus", "Piti ", "Mountain range", "Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran", "Iranian Labour News Agency", "Jihad of Construction", "Persian calligraphy", "Telecommunication Company of Iran", "Gonbad Kabud Mosque", "Timeline of first orbital launches by country", "Jameh Mosque of Qeshm", "Fossil fuel", "Jamkaran Mosque", "Khabr National Park", "Interim Government of Iran", "Pahlevanpour Garden", "Library of Congress", "Mount Damavand", "Shirazi salad", "Financial Tribune", "Islamic Republic of Iran Air Defense Force", "Central Asia", "Qom Flight Center", "Philology", "Rolling pin", "Hamadan", "South Asia", "NRC Handelsblad", "sixty-fourth meridian east", "Fatima Masumeh Shrine", "South Khorasan Province", "Alexa Internet", "Akbarabad qanat", "Dayereh", "Mining in Iran", "National Consultative Majlis", "Kalam polo", "Ballistic missile", "General Inspection Office ", "Hafshuye Mosque", "Jameh Mosque of Gonabad", "Bandar-e Anzali", "Demonym", "fourth G-15 summit", "List of Secretaries General of OPEC", "Telecommunications in Iran", "Salmas", "Bandar-Abbas", "Tomb", "Regional power", "List of contemporary Iranian scientists, scholars, and engineers", "Mangal ", "Equinox", "Church of the Holy Mother of God, Darashamb", "nineth G-15 summit", "twelveth G-15 summit", "Jameh Mosque of Babol", "IDRO Group", "Haram ", "Vafa\u2013Witten theorem", "Amnesty International", "Babylonian captivity", "Shah Mosque ", "E-commerce", "Senegal", "Iraq", "Halva", "Haurvatat", "List of modern conflicts in the Middle East", "Fighter aircraft", "Soup", "Tourism in Iran", "twenty seventeen Iranian presidential election", "Press Freedom Index", "Ancient Greece", "Background and causes of the Iranian Revolution", "Laity", "British Empire", "Ferdowsi", "Nazi Germany", "Proxy server", "Dena Protected Area", "Falcon", "Laleh Bakhtiar", "twenty nineteen Internet blackout in Iran", "Ossetian language", "Elizabeth Shakman Hurd", "Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran", "Turkey", "Cannes Film Festival", "Jameh Mosque of Shahrud", "Jamaica", "Mesri Mosque", "Jungle Movement of Gilan", "Amu Darya", "Kamal-ol-molk", "Wind power in Iran", "Fars News Agency", "Shahrud, Iran", "Khuzestan Province", "Aerospace Force of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps", "Thoreau", "Palace of Ardashir", "Iranian Space Agency", "UNESCO World Heritage List", "Tochal Complex", "Cloning", "Ministry of Industries and Mines ", "Iranian literature", "Jameh Mosque of Shushtar", "Outline of Iran", "Kuku sibzamini", "Sovereignty", "Parthian Empire", "Treaty of Gulistan", "Iran and the World Trade Organization", "Jameh Mosque of Nushabad", "twenty-fourth parallel north", "Mesbah-one", "Human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran", "Culture of Iran", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Agha Nour Mosque", "Freestyle wrestling", "Georgians", "Ag Qoyunlu", "Iranian architecture", "Gilan Province", "World Heritage site", "Ardabil Province", "Multinational state", "Ney", "The Gambia", "List of current Iran governor-generals", "Mianjangal Protected Area", "Golestan National Park", "Deipnosophistae", "Ethnicities in Iran", "Iran\u2013PJAK conflict", "Sikhism in Iran", "Malek bin Abbas Mosque", "Hellenistic art", "Persia ", "Mughal Empire", "Guardian Council", "Roman\u2013Persian Wars", "Bean", "Persian Jews", "Khorramshahr", "Water scarcity", "Firecracker", "Pomegranate soup", "Chehel Akhtaran Mosque", "Culture of ancient Rome", "Imam Reza Shrine", "Goethe", "Oud", "Iran men's national volleyball team", "Jameh Mosque of Gorgan", "nineteen eighty-seven Mecca incident", "Circassians in Iran", "Aras ", "Iran hostage crisis", "Iranian labor law", "Persian language", "Al-Nabi Mosque, Qazvin", "Dash Aghlian Mosque", "Girls of Enghelab Street", "Oregano", "Abi and Rabi", "Kurdish languages", "Iranian Immigration & Passport Police Office", "Scythians", "Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line", "Baharestan", "sixth G-15 summit", "Naucratis", "Xerxes I", "Sheikh Fayz Mosque", "Takbir", "Domestic tourism", "Kavoshgar-one", "Pfive+1", "Kabab chenjeh", "Ionian Revolt", "Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults", "Geometry", "List of Iranian news agencies", "Opium in Iran", "Pashmak", "Repatriation", "Mirza Ebrahim Khan Sahhafbashi", "Safavid art", "Disability", "Iran\u2013Israel relations", "CIA", "Operation Eagle Claw", "Aneran", "Sharbat", "5th G-fifteen summit", "twenty twenty Baghdad International Airport airstrike", "Ali Gholi Agha Mosque", "Iranian studies", "Alexander the Great", "Jameh Mosque of Golpayegan", "Mahmoud Ahmadinejad", "Simorgh ", "Turkic peoples", "Jameh Mosque of Marand", "Edward Witten", "Asghar Farhadi", "Khomeinism", "Fajr ", "United States recognition of Jerusalem as capital of Israel", "Kerman", "Public holidays in Iran", "Cucumber", "Mithra", "Yalasarat", "Mohammad Ali Forghani", "Shikand-gumanig Vizar", "Fars Province", "Gaza Strip", "Jameh Mosque of Marandiz", "Umayyad Caliphate", "Hajj Shahbazkhan Mosque", "Cyrus Cylinder", "Gulf Cooperation Council", "Aban ", "Luristan Province", "Iran Chamber of Commerce, Industries, Mines & Agriculture", "Hamshahri", "Philippines", "Hindu Kush", "Zoroaster", "Israeli\u2013Palestinian conflict", "Kuku sabzi", "Jameh Mosque of Shafi\u2018i", "Turkish cuisine", "Saint Stepanos Monastery", "Economy of Gabon", "Mohammad Khatami", "Economy of Saudi Arabia", "Iran crisis of nineteen forty-six", "Radar", "Sheikh Bastami Mosque", "Tir ", "Lurs", "Noghl", "Mauritania", "Seljuk dynasty", "Archaeological sites in Iran", "Twelver", "Raymond K\u00e9vorkian", "List of countries by Human Development Index", "Supreme Leader of Iran", "Tehran Stock Exchange", "Elamite cuneiform", "Armenian cuisine", "Soltani Mosque of Borujerd", "Tofy Mussivand", "The New York Times", "Gilaki language", "Sarv-e Abarkuh", "Zaydi Shi'a", "List of years in Iran", "Zelzal", "Isfahan City Center", "Jameh Mosque of Qazvin", "Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant", "Jameh Mosque of Khozan", "Sheikh Ahmad-e Jami mausoleum complex", "Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed Faith in Iran", "Darius the Great", "Oil reserves in Iran", "Golestan Province", "Jameh Mosque of Ahar", "United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees", "Time ", "Greco-Persian Wars", "List of power stations in Iran", "Ke\u015fkek", "StwoCID ", "Etemad", "Secular state", "Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics", "Ehsan Yarshater", "Persian mythology", "12th G-fifteen summit", "North Caucasus", "List of countries by GDP ", "Iraj", "Ey Iran", "Hajj Samad Khan Mosque", "Ruhollah Khomeini's return to Iran", "Tabriz k\u00f6ftesi", "Zuljanah ", "Herodotus", "Bakhtiari people", "Christianity in Iran", "Setad", "Ali Khamenei", "Jameh Mosque of Eslamiyeh", "Cave painting", "Common Era", "Iranian Students News Agency", "Kshatra Vairya", "Abadan", "Jameh Mosque of Sari", "Arthur Pope", "Borders of Iran", "Guinea", "Iran Mercantile Exchange", "Semi-arid climate", "Voice of America", "Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests", "Iranian University Entrance Exam", "Arabization", "Social networking service", "Emad o dolah Mosque", "Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran", "Afsharid dynasty", "List of heads of state of Iran", "JSTOR ", "Sorna", "Jameh Mosque of Tabriz", "Northern Hemisphere", "OPEC", "Hushang", "Battle of Issus", "Culture of India", "Sheep", "8th G-fifteen summit", "Google Search", "List of countries by natural gas production", "Proto-Elamite", "Tehran", "Levant", "North Korea", "Port sausage", "Aristocracy", "National Iranian Oil Company", "Iranian languages", "Launch pad", "Caspian tiger", "Iran", "Regions of Iran", "Ethnic minorities in Iran", "Chorba", "Planned economy", "Lar National Park", "Loris Tjeknavorian", "Tarikhaneh", "Bojagh National Park", "Alfred Comyn Lyall", "Sour cherry", "14th G-fifteen summit", "Jameh Mosque of Bastak", "International Baccalaureate", "Total fertility rate", "Middle Eastern studies", "Muslim conquest of Persia", "Levantine cuisine", "Talysh people", "Paramount leader", "Encyclopaedia of Islam", "Elam", "Islamic Republic of Iran", "ISO forty-two seventeen", "J. B. Bury", "Royal Road", "Omelette", "Moun qanat", "Jameh Mosque of Kermanshah", "Cyrus the Great", "Delal sauce", "Pistachio", "Nigeria", "World Bank", "Garlic", "White Revolution", "Jameh Mosque of Khansar", "Chile", "Togo", "Beyaz Peynir", "Demographics of Iran", "Mashhad", "Dayer-Nakhiloo National Park", "Lent", "Pahlavi Iran", "Scouting in Iran", "Amirkabir University of Technology", "Artificial heart", "Bushire", "Treaty of Constantinople ", "Nader Ardalan", "List of earthquakes in Iran", "Middle Eastern cuisine", "The Washington Post", "Khoresh Reevaas", "eleventh G-15 summit", "Wool", "Torshi", "Daylight saving time", "Jameh Mosque of Qerveh", "Jameh Mosque of Raqqeh", "United States", "Group of twenty-four", "Qajar dynasty", "Tomb of Hassan Modarres", "Kurdish cuisine", "Yazd Province", "Jameh Mosque of Damavand", "Central African Republic", "Women in Iran", "Fravashi", "Ancient Egypt", "Routledge", "Tanbur", "Kurmanji", "The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language", "Flag of the Economic Cooperation Organization", "Peoples of the Caucasus", "Classical Anatolia", "ACT ", "Ancient philosophy", "Khoresh alou Esfenaj", "Stem cell", "Macedonia ", "Taq-e Bostan", "Qoba Mosque", "Energy superpower", "List of countries and dependencies by population density", "Consolidation of the Iranian Revolution", "Timur", "tenth ECO Summit", "OPEC Reference Basket", "Jameh Mosque of Saveh", "Plateau", "Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic", "Taxation in Iran", "Culture of Africa", "Kiasar National Park", "Oman", "Economic Cooperation Organization Secretariat", "Plain", "twond G-15 summit", "Jameh Mosque of Isfahan", "List of trade unions", "Xenophon", "Haft-Seen", "Guinea-Bissau", "Education in Iran", "Harold Walter Bailey", "Jameh Mosque of Khalilabad", "Iranian presidential election, two thousand and nine", "Feta", "Islamic calendar", "Persia", "Hormozgan Province", "Turko-Persian tradition", "Economy of Iraq", "Gaz ", "Natural gas reserves in Iran", "Basij", "Iron people", "Arab separatism in Khuzestan", "Chestnut", "Lavash", "Iran\u2013Iraq War", "Kurdistan Province", "Bastani Sonnati", "Economy of Venezuela", "FLOPS", "Jameh Mosque of Jahrom", "Azerbaijani pakhlava", "China\u2013Iran relations", "Arabs", "Shahab-three", "Interpol", "Cleric", "East Timor", "Dariush Mehrjui", "University of Chicago Persian antiquities dispute", "Prime Minister of Iran", "SAT", "Azadi Sport Complex", "Sabzi khordan", "Vermicelli", "Bandar Imam", "Jameh Mosque of Ardakan", "Sohan asali", "Jameh Mosque of Atigh", "Selkeh Wildlife Refuge", "Zoolbida", "Mehregan", "Ebrahimabad qanat", "Jameh Mosque of Dezful", "Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Ezhe'i", "Battle of Krtsanisi", "Jalebi", "Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province", "Dasht-e Loot", "2018\u2013twenty nineteen Iranian general strikes and protests", "List of World Heritage Sites in Iran", "National epic", "Barbari bread", "Heidarieh Mosque, Qazvin", "Snowboarding", "Iran and state-sponsored terrorism", "Tajikistan", "Bavar-three seventy-three", "Dilip Hiro", "Horse", "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "Iranian nationalism", "Master's degree", "Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran", "Eid al-Fitr", "UNESCO", "Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary", "Alid dynasties of northern Iran", "George Braziller", "Islam", "Albaloo polo", "Lavashak", "Dutar", "Khanates of the Caucasus", "Yazd", "Jome Mosque", "Iran hostage crisis negotiations", "Relief", "Yarsanism", "Tava", "Jameh Mosque of Amol", "two thousand and nine Iranian presidential election", "The Times", "Tabriz", "Indonesia", "Eshaq Jahangiri", "Tablet ", "Jameh Mosque of Nishapur", "Abadan Refinery", "Bishapur", "Helicopter", "Proto-Indo-Iranian religion", "Dolma", "Tbilisi", "Early Islamic philosophy", "Farvardin", "Submarine", "Franklin D. Roosevelt", "Grolier", "Zoroastrians in Iran", "Irreligion in Iran", "Greece", "Khoresh Lubia-Sabz", "Religious minorities in Iran", "Asiatic cheetah", "Curlie", "Tehran Conference", "Mathematics", "Tandoor bread", "Critically endangered", "Anders' Army", "Marcos Grigorian", "United Nations Security Council", "Qasem Soleimani", "Cattle", "History of democracy in classical Iran", "Laos", "Algeria", "Algiers Accords", "OCLC ", "United States sanctions against Iran", "Ganj Par", "East Azarbaijan", "Tunisia", "St. Thaddeus Monastery", "List of islands of Iran", "Hijab", "Imam Hasan al-Askari Mosque", "Khoresh Havij", "Geographica", "nineteen eighty-nine Iranian constitutional referendum", "Mehr ", "nineteen twenty-one Persian coup d'\u00e9tat", "University of Berne", "Fox", "Reza Shah", "Iranian Economic Reform Plan", "Khoresh Q\u0101rch", "Morasa polo", "World Health Organization", "Khoresh Kadu", "Navid ", "Indus River", "Kushk Complex", "11th G-fifteen summit", "English in the Commonwealth of Nations", "Anglo-Persian Oil Company", "Geographic coordinate system", "Fashion in Iran", "List of association football stadiums by capacity", "Purim", "Dinar Kouh Protected Area", "Khoresh Beh", "Civilization", "Henry David Thoreau", "Qom Space Center", "State religion", "Strait of Hormuz", "Tursu", "Fin Garden", "Azerbaijan ", "Kefir", "Gini coefficient", "Azam Mosque of Qom", "Economy of the United Arab Emirates", "Ancient Iranian medicine", "Arabic", "Malek Mosque", "Metropolitan Museum of Art", "Persian people", "Hiking", "Syria", "Falak-ol-Aflak Castle", "Hong Kong", "IRGC", "Khoresh B\u0101mieh Lapeh", "Free market", "Doi ", "Karnay", "Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting", "Sunni", "Downpour ", "Ilchi Mosque", "Qeysar ", "Cambodia", "Seljuk Empire", "Zurna", "Sardar Mosque", "Jameh Mosque of Kerman", "Propaganda in Iran", "Si-o-se-pol", "Ramadan", "Razavi Khorasan", "Kurds in Iran", "Supply line", "Cowpea", "Suriname", "Iranian folklore", "List of countries and dependencies by area", "National Olympic Committee of the Islamic Republic of Iran", "Terrorism in Iran", "Brain drain in Iran", "Pishgam", "Foreign relations of Iran", "Bakhtegan Wildlife Refuge", "Space", "Music of Iran", "Economy of Trinidad and Tobago", "Nader's Dagestan campaign", "Agriculture in Iran", "Counties of Iran", "Spinach", "Afghanistan", "Biosphere Reserve", "Epic poetry", "Ordibehesht", "Dover Publications", "Sizdah Be-dar", "National Development Fund of Iran", "Civil calendar", "Iranian subsidy reform plan", "Mongolia", "History of the Islamic Republic of Iran", "Jarchi Mosque", "Nationalization", "Olympic weightlifting", "Darius III", "Pupils Association News Agency", "Qajar Iran", "Coordinated Universal Time", "Ismail I", "Rostam and Sohrab", "Ali Javan", "Hot-summer Mediterranean climate", "Instagram", "Cultural policy", "Jameh Mosque of Zanjan", "Persian traditional music", "Mirpanj Mosque", "United Nations Security Council Resolution five ninety-eight", "Guilford Press", "Haji Jalal Mosque", "Afghan refugees", "Victory Relief of Ardashir", "World Scientific", "Jameh Mosque of Qom", "Economy of Algeria", "Mohammad Reza Pahlavi", "Mordad", "Iranian philosophy", "Qadamgah Mosque", "Islamic Republic of Iran Army", "Economy of Egypt", "United Nations", "Arjan and Parishan Protected Area", "Irregular Warfare Headquarters", "Shafi'i", "Satellite dish", "Assyria", "Kurds", "The Wall Street Journal", "ISO 3166-two:IR", "Economic sector", "Presidential system", "Heena Sidhu", "Baghali polo", "Warwasi", "Islamic Golden Age", "Comoros", "Paband National Park", "Western Asia", "Molotov\u2013Ribbentrop Pact", "Dizin", "Lighvan cheese", "European Union", "Maldives", "Politics of Iran", "Water supply and sanitation in Iran", "Mesopotamia", "Saffarid dynasty", "Safa Mosque", "Brazil", "Proto-Iranian language", "Republic of Mahabad", "Xi Jinping", "Iranian parliament", "East Azerbaijan Province", "Naqsh-e Rustam", "Malaysia", "Benin", "International Labour Organization", "Pasargadae", "Ta'zieh", "Resalat ", "University of Colorado Boulder Libraries", "Washington Jewish Week", "Persis", "Dey ", "Nuclear facilities in Iran", "Stew", "Tirgan", "Islamic Republic of Iran Railways", "Assyrian Church of the East", "Jimmy Carter", "Geno Protected Area", "Gheimeh", "Transport in Iran", "Milad Tower", "History of the Jews in Iran", "nineteen seventy-four Asian Games", "Kateh", "Rajanews", "Iranic peoples", "FIFA World Rankings", "ISO thirty-one sixty-six-2:IR", "Koloocheh", "Anti-Iranian sentiment", "Tehran Province", "Chaharshanbe Suri", "Donkey", "Russian Empire", "Iranian Security Police", "Non-Aligned Movement", "Mahyawa", "Foreign direct investment in Iran", "Mihranids", "Iranian Embassy siege", "Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar", "Jadgali language", "twenty nineteen\u201320 Iranian protests", "Iranian Armenians", "Jameh Mosque of Sarabi", "Bahram Beyzai", "Tzatziki", "Emblem of Iran", "Iranian Cultural Revolution", "Weaving", "Miss Germany", "National Iranian Gas Company", "Religion in Iran", "twenty19\u2013twenty Iranian protests", "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe", "Ministry of Economic Affairs and Finance ", "Uzbek cuisine", "Tranquility in the Presence of Others", "Northern Cyprus", "Hydroelectricity", "China", "Young Journalists Club", "Drainage basin", "Jameh Mosque of Sabzevar", "Guyana", "Shargh", "List of states with limited recognition", "Treaty of Georgievsk", "Bahman", "Persian Constitution of nineteen oh-six", "Ukraine International Airlines Flight seven fifty-two protests", "Aban", "Kus", "Khoresh B\u0101mieh", "Marlik", "Iran Air", "Sasanian music", "Sorkheh Hesar National Park", "Gusans", "William Wilson Hunter", "Hanbali", "Mandeans", "Jameh Mosque of Nain", "Director of National Intelligence", "Ukraine International Airlines Flight seven fifty-two", "Eagle", "Seyyed Mosque ", "Recombinant factor VIIa", "Shidvar Wildlife Refuge", "Libretto", "Intellectual movements in Iran", "Persian theater", "Khwarazmian dynasty", "Lotfi A. Zadeh", "Naqareh", "The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy", "List of mosques in Iran", "Haleem", "nineteen fifty-three Iranian coup d'\u00e9tat", "Human rights in Iran", "National Petrochemical Company", "Dar ul-Ihsan Mosque", "Deterrence theory", "Barbad", "Zagros Mountains", "Hojjatieh Mosque", "Persian gardens", "nineteen seventy-three oil crisis", "Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica", "Vank Cathedral", "Shashlik", "Mozaffari Protected Area", "High school diploma", "Salouk National Park", "Water buffalo", "Hijab by country", "Jean Chardin", "Soviet Union", "Parthian language", "Agha Bozorg Mosque", "Ancient Greek", "Yogurt", "Iran\u2013Saudi Arabia relations", "Islamic world", "Pilaf", "Lydia", "Bazaar of Tabriz", "Saffron", "March nineteen seventy-nine Iranian Islamic Republic referendum", "seventh G-15 summit", "Fakhr al-Dawla Mosque", "Persians", "nineteen seventy-nine Khuzestan uprising", "International Development Association", "Hassan Rouhani", "Maragheh observatory", ".ir", "Jameh Mosque of Radkan", "Rojava", "Missile", "New York City", "Bangladesh", "American English", "Iran Constituent Assembly, nineteen forty-nine", "Byzantine Empire", "Karaj", "Khoresh bademjan", "African Union", "GCE Advanced Level", "The Daily Beast", "Barbat ", "Electric guitar", "Kabab barg", "Achaemenid architecture", "Environmental issues in Iran", "Tabrizi Lovuez", "Iranian jazz", "Mongol Empire", "Nasser Taghvai", "Astyages", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Caviar", "Armoured personnel carrier", "Irreligion in the Middle East", "Rud", "Iranian Kurdistan", "Abbasabad Garden", "Bakhtegan National Park", "List of airlines of Iran", "Islamabad Declaration", "Manichaeism", "Kurdistan Region", "two thousand and seven Gasoline Rationing Plan in Iran", "Academy Award", "Onion", "Pamenar Mosque, Kerman", "Gross domestic product", "Burkina Faso", "Freedom of the press", "6th G-fifteen summit", "Qom", "Jameh Mosque of Ferdows", "Raphael", "Salad Shoor", "Sirabi", "Avesta", "Vakil Mosque", "Polo"], "content": "Iran (Persian: \u0627\u06cc\u0631\u0627\u0646\u200e Ir\u0101n [\u0294i\u02d0\u02c8\u027e\u0252\u02d0n] (listen)), also called Persia, and officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered to the northwest by Armenia and Azerbaijan, to the north by the Caspian Sea, to the northeast by Turkmenistan, to the east by Afghanistan, to the southeast by Pakistan, to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, and to the west by Turkey and Iraq. Iran covers an area of 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), with a population of 83 million. It is the second-largest country in the Middle East, and its capital and largest city is Tehran.\nIran is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations, beginning with the formation of the Elamite kingdoms in the fourth millennium BC. It was first unified by the Iranian Medes in the seventh century BC, and reached its territorial height in the sixth century BC, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire, which became one of the largest empires in history and the world's first superpower. The empire fell to Alexander the Great in the fourth century BC and was divided into several Hellenistic states. An Iranian rebellion established the Parthian Empire in the third century BC, which was succeeded in the third century AD by the Sasanian Empire, a major world power for the next four centuries. Arab Muslims conquered the empire in the seventh century AD, which led to the Islamization of Iran. It subsequently becoming a major center of Islamic culture and learning, with its art, literature, philosophy, and architecture spreading across the Muslim world and beyond during the Islamic Golden Age. Over the next two centuries, a series of native Muslim dynasties emerged before the Seljuq Turks and the Mongols conquered the region. In the 15th century, the native Safavids re-established a unified Iranian state and national identity and converted the country to Shia Islam. Under the reign of Nader Shah in the 18th century, Iran once again became a major world power, though by the 19th century a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses. The early 20th century saw the Persian Constitutional Revolution. Efforts to nationalize its fossil fuel supply from Western companies led to an Anglo-American coup in 1953, which resulted in greater autocratic rule under Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and growing Western political influence. He went on to launch a far-reaching series of reforms in 1963. After the Iranian Revolution, the current Islamic Republic was established in 1979 by Ruhollah Khomeini, who became the country's first Supreme Leader.\nThe Government of Iran is an Islamic theocracy which includes elements of a presidential democracy, with the ultimate authority vested in an autocratic \"Supreme Leader\", a position held by Ali Khamenei since Khomeini's death in 1989. The Iranian government is widely considered to be authoritarian, and has attracted widespread criticism for its significant constraints and abuses against human rights and civil liberties, including several violent suppressions of mass protests, unfair elections, and limited rights for women and children.\nIran is a regional and middle power, with a geopolitically strategic location in the Asian continent. It is a founding member of the United Nations, the ECO, the OIC, and the OPEC. It has large reserves of fossil fuels\u2014including the world's second-largest natural gas supply and the fourth-largest proven oil reserves. The country's rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 22 UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Historically a multinational state, Iran remains a pluralistic society comprising numerous ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups, the largest being Persians, Azeris, Kurds, Mazandaranis and Lurs.\n\n\n== Name ==\n\nThe term Iran derives directly from Middle Persian \u0112r\u0101n, first attested in a third-century inscription at Naqsh-e Rostam, with the accompanying Parthian inscription using the term Ary\u0101n, in reference to the Iranians. The Middle Iranian \u0113r\u0101n and ary\u0101n are oblique plural forms of gentilic nouns \u0113r- (Middle Persian) and ary- (Parthian), both deriving from Proto-Iranian language *arya- (meaning \"Aryan\", i.e. \"of the Iranians\"), recognized as a derivative of Proto-Indo-European language *ar-yo-, meaning \"one who assembles (skilfully)\". In the Iranian languages, the gentilic is attested as a self-identifier, included in ancient inscriptions and the literature of the Avesta, and remains also in other Iranian ethnic names Alan (Ossetian: \u0418\u0440 Ir) and Iron (\u0418\u0440\u043e\u043d). According to the Iranian mythology, the country's name comes from the name of Iraj, a legendary prince and shah who was killed by his brothers.Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who referred to all of Iran as Pers\u00eds (Ancient Greek: \u03a0\u03b5\u03c1\u03c3\u03af\u03c2; from Old Persian \ud800\udfb1\ud800\udfa0\ud800\udfbc\ud800\udfbf P\u0101rsa), meaning \"land of the Persians\", while Persis itself was one of the provinces of ancient Iran that is today known as Fars. As the most extensive interaction the ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, the term persisted, even long after the Greco-Persian Wars (499\u2013449 BC).\nIn 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, Iran, on Nowruz, falling on 21 March 1935; effective 22 March that year. Opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision in 1959, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclop\u00e6dia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably.Today, both Iran and Persia are used in cultural contexts, while Iran remains irreplaceable in official state contexts.Historical and cultural usage of the word Iran is not restricted to the modern state proper. \"Greater Iran\" (Ir\u0101nzam\u012bn or Ir\u0101n e Bozorg) refers to territories of the Iranian cultural and linguistic zones. In addition to modern Iran, it includes portions of the Caucasus, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, and Central Asia.\n\n\n=== Pronunciation ===\nThe Persian pronunciation of Iran is [\u0294i\u02d0\u02c8\u027e\u0252\u02d0n]. Common Commonwealth English pronunciations of Iran are listed in the Oxford English Dictionary as  and , while American English dictionaries such as Merriam-Webster's provide pronunciations which map to , or likewise in Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary as . The Cambridge Dictionary lists  as the British pronunciation and  as the American pronunciation. Similarly, Glasgow-based Collins English Dictionary provides both English English and American English pronunciations. The pronunciation guide from Voice of America also provides .The American English pronunciation  eye-RAN may be heard in U.S. media. Max Fisher in The Washington Post prescribed  for Iran, while proscribing . The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, in the dictionary's 2014 Usage Ballot, addressed the topic of the pronunciations of Iran and Iraq. According to this survey, the pronunciations  and  were deemed almost equally acceptable, while  was preferred by most panelists participating in the ballot. With regard to the  pronunciation, more than 70% of the panelists deemed it unacceptable. Among the reasons given by those panelists were that  has \"hawkish connotations\" and sounds \"angrier\", \"xenophobic\", \"ignorant\", and \"not ... cosmopolitan\". The  pronunciation remains standard and acceptable, reflected in the entry for Iran in the American Heritage Dictionary itself, as well as in each of the other major dictionaries of American English.\n\n\n== History ==\n \n\n\n=== Prehistory ===\n\nThe earliest attested archaeological artifacts in Iran, like those excavated at Kashafrud and Ganj Par in northern Iran, confirm a human presence in Iran since the Lower Paleolithic. Iran's Neanderthal artifacts from the Middle Paleolithic have been found mainly in the Zagros region, at sites such as Warwasi and Yafteh. From the 10th to the seventh millennium BC, early agricultural communities began to flourish in and around the Zagros region in western Iran, including Chogha Golan, Chogha Bonut, and Chogha Mish.The occupation of grouped hamlets in the area of Susa, as determined by radiocarbon dating, ranges from 4395\u20133955 to 3680-3490 BC. There are dozens of prehistoric sites across the Iranian Plateau, pointing to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the fourth millennium BC. During the Bronze Age, the territory of present-day Iran was home to several civilizations, including Elam, Jiroft, and Zayanderud. Elam, the most prominent of these civilizations, developed in the southwest alongside those in Mesopotamia, and continued its existence until the emergence of the Iranian empires. The advent of writing in Elam was paralleled to Sumer, and the Elamite cuneiform was developed since the third millennium BC.From the 34th to the 20th century BC, northwestern Iran was part of the Kura-Araxes culture, which stretched into the neighboring Caucasus and Anatolia. Since the earliest second millennium BC, Assyrians settled in swaths of western Iran and incorporated the region into their territories.\n\n\n=== Classical antiquity ===\n\nBy the second millennium BC, the ancient Iranian peoples arrived in what is now Iran from the Eurasian Steppe, rivaling the native settlers of the region. As the Iranians dispersed into the wider area of Greater Iran and beyond, the boundaries of modern-day Iran were dominated by Median, Persian, and Parthian tribes.\nFrom the late 10th to the late seventh century BC, the Iranian peoples, together with the \"pre-Iranian\" kingdoms, fell under the domination of the Assyrian Empire, based in northern Mesopotamia. Under king Cyaxares, the Medes and Persians entered into an alliance with Babylonian ruler Nabopolassar, as well as the fellow Iranian Scythians and Cimmerians, and together they attacked the Assyrian Empire. The civil war ravaged the Assyrian Empire between 616 and 605 BC, thus freeing their respective peoples from three centuries of Assyrian rule. The unification of the Median tribes under king Deioces in 728 BC led to the foundation of the Median Empire which, by 612 BC, controlled almost the entire territory of present-day Iran and eastern Anatolia. This marked the end of the Kingdom of Urartu as well, which was subsequently conquered and dissolved.\n\nIn 550 BC, Cyrus the Great, the son of Mandane and Cambyses I, took over the Median Empire, and founded the Achaemenid Empire by unifying other city-states. The conquest of Media was a result of what is called the Persian Revolt. The brouhaha was initially triggered by the actions of the Median ruler Astyages, and was quickly spread to other provinces, as they allied with the Persians. Later conquests under Cyrus and his successors expanded the empire to include Lydia, Babylon, Egypt, parts of the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper, as well as the lands to the west of the Indus and Oxus rivers.\n539 BC was the year in which Persian forces defeated the Babylonian army at Opis, and marked the end of around four centuries of Mesopotamian domination of the region by conquering the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Cyrus entered Babylon and presented himself as a traditional Mesopotamian monarch. Subsequent Achaemenid art and iconography reflect the influence of the new political reality in Mesopotamia.\n\nAt its greatest extent, the Achaemenid Empire included territories of modern-day Iran, Republic of Azerbaijan (Arran and Shirvan), Armenia, Georgia, Turkey (Anatolia), much of the Black Sea coastal regions, northeastern Greece and southern Bulgaria (Thrace), northern Greece and North Macedonia (Paeonia and Macedon), Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and the Palestinian territories, all significant population centers of ancient Egypt as far west as Libya, Kuwait, northern Saudi Arabia, parts of the United Arab Emirates and Oman, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and much of Central Asia, making it the largest empire the world had yet seen.It is estimated that in 480 BC, 50 million people lived in the Achaemenid Empire. The empire at its peak ruled over 44% of the world's population, the highest such figure for any empire in history.The Achaemenid Empire is noted for the release of the Jewish exiles in Babylon, building infrastructures such as the Royal Road and the Chapar (postal service), and the use of an official language, Imperial Aramaic, throughout its territories. The empire had a centralized, bureaucratic administration under the emperor, a large professional army, and civil services, inspiring similar developments in later empires.Eventual conflict on the western borders began with the Ionian Revolt, which erupted into the Greco-Persian Wars and continued through the first half of the fifth century BC, and ended with the withdrawal of the Achaemenids from all of the territories in the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper.In 334 BC, Alexander the Great invaded the Achaemenid Empire, defeating the last Achaemenid emperor, Darius III, at the Battle of Issus. Following the premature death of Alexander, Iran came under the control of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire. In the middle of the second century BC, the Parthian Empire rose to become the main power in Iran, and the century-long geopolitical arch-rivalry between the Romans and the Parthians began, culminating in the Roman\u2013Parthian Wars. The Parthian Empire continued as a feudal monarchy for nearly five centuries, until 224 CE, when it was succeeded by the Sasanian Empire. Together with their neighboring arch-rival, the Roman-Byzantines, they made up the world's two most dominant powers at the time, for over four centuries.\n\nThe Sasanians established an empire within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids, with their capital at Ctesiphon. Late antiquity is considered one of Iran's most influential periods, as under the Sasanians their influence reached the culture of ancient Rome (and through that as far as Western Europe), Africa, China, and India, and played a prominent role in the formation of the medieval art of both Europe and Asia.Most of the era of the Sasanian Empire was overshadowed by the Roman\u2013Persian Wars, which raged on the western borders at Anatolia, the Western Caucasus, Mesopotamia, and the Levant, for over 700 years. These wars ultimately exhausted both the Romans and the Sasanians and led to the defeat of both by the Muslim invasion.Throughout the Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian eras, several offshoots of the Iranian dynasties established eponymous branches in Anatolia and the Caucasus, including the Pontic Kingdom, the Mihranids, and the Arsacid dynasties of Armenia, Iberia (Georgia), and Caucasian Albania (present-day Republic of Azerbaijan and southern Dagestan).\n\n\n=== Medieval period ===\n\nThe prolonged Byzantine\u2013Sasanian wars, most importantly the climactic war of 602\u2013628, as well as the social conflict within the Sasanian Empire, opened the way for an Arab invasion of Iran in the seventh century. The empire was initially defeated by the Rashidun Caliphate, which was succeeded by the Umayyad Caliphate, followed by the Abbasid Caliphate. A prolonged and gradual process of state-imposed Islamization followed, which targeted Iran's then Zoroastrian majority and included religious persecution, demolition of libraries and fire temples, a special tax penalty (\"jizya\"), and language shift.In 750, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads. Arabs Muslims and Persians of all strata made up the rebel army, which was united by the converted Persian Muslim, Abu Muslim. In their struggle for power, the society in their times gradually became cosmopolitan and the old Arab simplicity and aristocratic dignity, bearing and prestige were lost. Persians and Turks began to replace the Arabs in most fields. The fusion of the Arab nobility with the subject races, the practice of polygamy and concubinage, made for a social amalgam wherein loyalties became uncertain and a hierarchy of officials emerged, a bureaucracy at first Persian and later Turkish which decreased Abbasid prestige and power for good.After two centuries of Arab rule, semi-independent and independent Iranian kingdoms\u2014including the Tahirids, Saffarids, Samanids, and Buyids\u2014began to appear on the fringes of the declining Abbasid Caliphate.\n\nThe blossoming literature, philosophy, mathematics, medicine, astronomy and art of Iran became major elements in the formation of a new age for the Iranian civilization, during a period known as the Islamic Golden Age. The Islamic Golden Age reached its peak by the 10th and 11th centuries, during which Iran was the main theater of scientific activities.The cultural revival that began in the Abbasid period led to a resurfacing of the Iranian national identity; thus, the attempts of Arabization never succeeded in Iran. The Shu'ubiyya movement became a catalyst for Iranians to regain independence in their relations with the Arab invaders. The most notable effect of this movement was the continuation of the Persian language attested to the works of the epic poet Ferdowsi, now considered the most prominent figure in Iranian literature.\n\nThe 10th century saw a mass migration of Turkic tribes from Central Asia into the Iranian Plateau. Turkic tribesmen were first used in the Abbasid army as mamluks (slave-warriors), replacing Iranian and Arab elements within the army. As a result, the Mamluks gained significant political power. In 999, large portions of Iran came briefly under the rule of the Ghaznavids, whose rulers were of mamluk Turkic origin, and longer subsequently under the Seljuk and Khwarezmian empires. The Seljuks subsequently gave rise to the Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia, while taking their thoroughly Persianized identity with them. The result of the adoption and patronage of Persian culture by Turkish rulers was the development of a distinct Turko-Persian tradition.\nFrom 1219 to 1221, under the Khwarazmian Empire, Iran suffered a devastating invasion by the Mongol Empire army of Genghis Khan. According to Steven R. Ward, \"Mongol violence and depredations killed up to three-fourths of the population of the Iranian Plateau, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Some historians have estimated that Iran's population did not again reach its pre-Mongol levels until the mid-20th century.\"Following the fracture of the Mongol Empire in 1256, Hulagu Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, established the Ilkhanate in Iran. In 1370, yet another conqueror, Timur, followed the example of Hulagu, establishing the Timurid Empire which lasted for another 156 years. In 1387, Timur ordered the complete massacre of Isfahan, reportedly killing 70,000 citizens. The Ilkhans and the Timurids soon came to adopt the ways and customs of the Iranians, surrounding themselves with a culture that was distinctively Iranian.\n\n\n=== Early modern period ===\n\n\n==== Safavids ====\n\nBy the 1500s, Ismail I of Ardabil established the Safavid Empire, with his capital at Tabriz. Beginning with Azerbaijan, he subsequently extended his authority over all of the Iranian territories, and established an intermittent Iranian hegemony over the vast relative regions, reasserting the Iranian identity within large parts of Greater Iran. Iran was predominantly Sunni, but Ismail instigated a forced conversion to the Shia branch of Islam, spreading throughout the Safavid territories in the Caucasus, Iran, Anatolia, and Mesopotamia. As a result, modern-day Iran is the only official Shia nation of the world, with it holding an absolute majority in Iran and the Republic of Azerbaijan, having there the first and the second highest number of Shia inhabitants by population percentage in the world. Meanwhile, the centuries-long geopolitical and ideological rivalry between Safavid Iran and the neighboring Ottoman Empire led to numerous Ottoman\u2013Iranian wars.\n\nThe Safavid era peaked in the reign of Abbas I (1587\u20131629), surpassing their Turkish archrivals in strength, and making Iran a leading science and art hub in western Eurasia. The Safavid era saw the start of mass integration from Caucasian populations into new layers of the society of Iran, as well as mass resettlement of them within the heartlands of Iran, playing a pivotal role in the history of Iran for centuries onwards. Following a gradual decline in the late 1600s and the early 1700s, which was caused by internal conflicts, the continuous wars with the Ottomans, and the foreign interference (most notably the Russian interference), the Safavid rule was ended by the Pashtun rebels who besieged Isfahan and defeated Sultan Husayn in 1722.\n\n\n==== Afsharids ====\n\nIn 1729, Nader Shah, a chieftain and military genius from Khorasan, successfully drove out and conquered the Pashtun invaders. He subsequently took back the annexed Caucasian territories which were divided among the Ottoman and Russian authorities by the ongoing chaos in Iran. During the reign of Nader Shah, Iran reached its greatest extent since the Sasanian Empire, reestablishing the Iranian hegemony all over the Caucasus, as well as other major parts of the west and central Asia, and briefly possessing what was arguably the most powerful empire at the time.\n\nNader Shah invaded India and sacked far off Delhi by the late 1730s. His territorial expansion, as well as his military successes, went into a decline following the final campaigns in the Northern Caucasus against then revolting Lezgins. The assassination of Nader Shah sparked a brief period of civil war and turmoil, after which Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty came to power in 1750, bringing a period of relative peace and prosperity.\n\n\n==== Zands ====\n\nCompared to its preceding dynasties, the geopolitical reach of the Zand dynasty was limited. Many of the Iranian territories in the Caucasus gained de facto autonomy, and were locally ruled through various Caucasian khanates. However, despite the self-ruling, they all remained subjects and vassals to the Zand king. Another civil war ensued after the death of Karim Khan in 1779, out of which Agha Mohammad Khan emerged, founding the Qajar dynasty in 1794.\n\n\n==== Qajars ====\n\nIn 1795, following the disobedience of the Georgian subjects and their alliance with the Russians, the Qajars captured Tbilisi by the Battle of Krtsanisi, and drove the Russians out of the entire Caucasus, reestablishing the Iranian suzerainty over the region.\n\nThe Russo-Iranian wars of 1804\u20131813 and 1826\u20131828 resulted in large irrevocable territorial losses for Iran in the Caucasus, comprising all of Transcaucasia and Dagestan, which made part of the very concept of Iran for centuries, and thus substantial gains for the neighboring Russian Empire.\nAs a result of the 19th-century Russo-Iranian wars, the Russians took over the Caucasus, and Iran irrevocably lost control over its integral territories in the region (comprising modern-day Dagestan, Georgia, Armenia, and Republic of Azerbaijan), which got confirmed per the treaties of Gulistan and Turkmenchay. The area to the north of Aras River, among which the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan, eastern Georgia, Dagestan, and Armenia are located, were Iranian territory until they were occupied by Russia in the course of the 19th century.As Iran shrank, many Transcaucasian and North Caucasian Muslims moved towards Iran, especially until the aftermath of the Circassian Genocide, and the decades afterwards, while Iran's Armenians were encouraged to settle in the newly incorporated Russian territories, causing significant demographic shifts.\nAround 1.5 million people\u201420 to 25% of the population of Iran\u2014died as a result of the Great Famine of 1870\u20131871.\n\nBetween 1872 and 1905, a series of protests took place in response to the sale of concessions to foreigners by Qajar monarchs Naser-ed-Din and Mozaffar-ed-Din, and led to the Constitutional Revolution in 1905. The first Iranian constitution and the first national parliament of Iran were founded in 1906, through the ongoing revolution. The Constitution included the official recognition of Iran's three religious minorities, namely Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians, which has remained a basis in the legislation of Iran since then. The struggle related to the constitutional movement was followed by the Triumph of Tehran in 1909, when Mohammad Ali Shah was defeated and forced to abdicate. On the pretext of restoring order, the Russians occupied northern Iran in 1911 and maintained a military presence in the region for years to come. But this did not put an end to the civil uprisings and was soon followed by Mirza Kuchik Khan's Jungle Movement against both the Qajar monarchy and foreign invaders.\n\nDespite Iran's neutrality during World War I, the Ottoman, Russian and British empires occupied the territory of western Iran and fought the Persian Campaign before fully withdrawing their forces in 1921. At least 2 million Persian civilians died either directly in the fighting, the Ottoman perpetrated anti-Christian genocides or the war induced famine of 1917-1919. A large number of Iranian Assyrian and Iranian Armenian Christians, as well as those Muslims who tried to protect them, were victims of mass murders committed by the invading Ottoman troops, notably in and around Khoy, Maku, Salmas, and Urmia.Apart from the rule of Agha Mohammad Khan, the Qajar rule is characterized as a century of misrule. The inability of Qajar Iran's government to maintain the country's sovereignty during and immediately after World War I led to the British directed 1921 Persian coup d'\u00e9tat and Reza Shah's establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty. Reza Shah, became the new Prime Minister of Iran and was declared the new monarch in 1925.\n\n\n==== Pahlavis ====\n\nIn the midst of World War II, in June 1941, Nazi Germany broke the Molotov\u2013Ribbentrop Pact and invaded the Soviet Union, Iran's northern neighbor. The Soviets quickly allied themselves with the Allied countries and in July and August, 1941 the British demanded that the Iranian government expel all Germans from Iran. Reza Shah refused to expel the Germans and on 25 August 1941, the British and Soviets launched a surprise invasion and Reza Shah's government quickly surrendered. The invasion's strategic purpose was to secure a supply line to the USSR (later named the Persian Corridor), secure the oil fields and Abadan Refinery (of the UK-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company), prevent a German advance via Turkey or the USSR on Baku's oil fields, and limit German influence in Iran. Following the invasion, on 16 September 1941 Reza Shah abdicated and was replaced by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, his 21-year-old son.\n\nDuring the rest of World War II, Iran became a major conduit for British and American aid to the Soviet Union and an avenue through which over 120,000 Polish refugees and Polish Armed Forces fled the Axis advance. At the 1943 Tehran Conference, the Allied \"Big Three\"\u2014Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill\u2014issued the Tehran Declaration to guarantee the post-war independence and boundaries of Iran. However, at the end of the war, Soviet troops remained in Iran and established two puppet states in north-western Iran, namely the People's Government of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Mahabad. This led to the Iran crisis of 1946, one of the first confrontations of the Cold War, which ended after oil concessions were promised to the USSR and Soviet forces withdrew from Iran proper in May 1946. The two puppet states were soon overthrown and the oil concessions were later revoked.\n\n\n=== 1951\u20131978: Mosaddegh, Shah Reza Pahlavi ===\n\nIn 1951, Mohammad Mosaddegh was appointed as the Prime Minister. He became enormously popular in Iran after he nationalized Iran's petroleum industry and oil reserves. He was deposed in the 1953 Iranian coup d'\u00e9tat, an Anglo-American covert operation that marked the first time the United States had participated in the overthrow of a foreign government during the Cold War.After the coup, the Shah became increasingly autocratic and sultanistic, and Iran entered a phase of decades-long controversial close relations with the United States and some other foreign governments. While the Shah increasingly modernized Iran and claimed to retain it as a fully secular state, arbitrary arrests and torture by his secret police, the SAVAK, were used to crush all forms of political opposition.Ruhollah Khomeini, a radical Muslim cleric, became an active critic of the Shah's far-reaching series of reforms known as the White Revolution. Khomeini publicly denounced the government, and was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964, he refused to apologize, and was eventually sent into exile.\nDue to the 1973 spike in oil prices, the economy of Iran was flooded with foreign currency, which caused inflation. By 1974, the economy of Iran was experiencing double digit inflation, and despite the many large projects to modernize the country, corruption was rampant and caused large amounts of waste. By 1975 and 1976, an economic recession led to increased unemployment, especially among millions of youths who had migrated to the cities of Iran looking for construction jobs during the boom years of the early 1970s. By the late 1970s, many of these people opposed the Shah's regime and began to organize and join the protests against it.\n\n\n=== Since the 1979 Islamic Revolution ===\n\nThe 1979 Revolution, later known as the Islamic Revolution, began in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations against the Shah. After a year of strikes and demonstrations paralyzing the country and its economy, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi fled to the United States, and Ruhollah Khomeini returned from exile to Tehran in February 1979, forming a new government. After holding a referendum, Iran officially became an Islamic republic in April 1979. A second referendum in December 1979 approved a theocratic constitution.The immediate nationwide uprisings against the new government began with the 1979 Kurdish rebellion and the Khuzestan uprisings, along with the uprisings in Sistan and Baluchestan and other areas. Over the next several years, these uprisings were subdued in a violent manner by the new Islamic government. The new government began purging itself of the non-Islamist political opposition, as well as of those Islamists who were not considered radical enough. Although both nationalists and Marxists had initially joined with Islamists to overthrow the Shah, tens of thousands were executed by the new regime afterwards. Many former ministers and officials in the Shah's government, including former prime minister Amir-Abbas Hoveyda, were executed following Khomeini's order to purge the new government of any remaining officials still loyal to the exiled Shah.\nOn 4 November 1979, a group of Muslim students seized the United States Embassy and took the embassy with 52 personnel and citizens hostage, after the United States refused to extradite Mohammad Reza Pahlavi to Iran, where his execution was all but assured. Attempts by the Jimmy Carter administration to negotiate for the release of the hostages, and a failed rescue attempt, helped force Carter out of office and brought Ronald Reagan to power. On Jimmy Carter's final day in office, the last hostages were finally set free as a result of the Algiers Accords. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi left the United States for Egypt, where he died of complications from cancer only months later, on 27 July 1980.\nThe Cultural Revolution began in 1980, with an initial closure of universities for three years, in order to perform an inspection and clean up in the cultural policy of the education and training system.\n\nOn 22 September 1980, the Iraqi army invaded the western Iranian province of Khuzestan, launching the Iran\u2013Iraq War. Although the forces of Saddam Hussein made several early advances, by mid 1982, the Iranian forces successfully managed to drive the Iraqi army back into Iraq. In July 1982, with Iraq thrown on the defensive, the regime of Iran took the decision to invade Iraq and conducted countless offensives in a bid to conquer Iraqi territory and capture cities, such as Basra. The war continued until 1988 when the Iraqi army defeated the Iranian forces inside Iraq and pushed the remaining Iranian troops back across the border. Subsequently, Khomeini accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations. The total Iranian casualties in the war were estimated to be 123,220\u2013160,000 KIA, 60,711 MIA, and 11,000\u201316,000 civilians killed.\n\nFollowing the Iran\u2013Iraq War, in 1989, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and his administration concentrated on a pragmatic pro-business policy of rebuilding and strengthening the economy without making any dramatic break with the ideology of the revolution. In 1997, Rafsanjani was succeeded by moderate reformist Mohammad Khatami, whose government attempted, unsuccessfully, to make the country more free and democratic.The 2005 presidential election brought conservative populist candidate, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, to power. By the time of the 2009 Iranian presidential election, the Interior Ministry announced incumbent President Ahmadinejad had won 62.63% of the vote, while Mir-Hossein Mousavi had come in second place with 33.75%. The election results were widely disputed, and resulted in widespread protests, both within Iran and in major cities outside the country, and the creation of the Iranian Green Movement.\nHassan Rouhani was elected as the president on 15 June 2013, defeating Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf and four other candidates. The electoral victory of Rouhani relatively improved the relations of Iran with other countries.\n\nThe 2017\u201318 Iranian protests swept across the country against the government and its longtime Supreme Leader in response to the economic and political situation. The scale of protests throughout the country and the number of people participating were significant, and it was formally confirmed that thousands of protesters were arrested. The 2019\u201320 Iranian protests started on 15 November in Ahvaz, spreading across the country within hours, after the government announced increases in the fuel price of up to 300%. A week-long total Internet shutdown throughout the country marked one of the most severe Internet blackouts in any country, and in the bloodiest governmental crackdown of the protestors in the history of Islamic Republic, tens of thousands were arrested and hundreds were killed within a few days according to multiple international observers, including Amnesty International.On 3 January 2020, the revolutionary guard's general, Qasem Soleimani, was assassinated by the United States in Iraq, which considerably heightened the existing tensions between the two countries. Three days after, Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps launched a retaliatory attack on US forces in Iraq and by accident shot down Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752, killing 176 civilians and leading to nation-wide protests. An international investigation led to the government admitting to the shootdown of the plane by a surface-to-air missile after three days of denial, calling it a \"human error\".\n\n\n== Geography ==\n\nIran has an area of 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi). It lies between latitudes 24\u00b0 and 40\u00b0 N, and longitudes 44\u00b0 and 64\u00b0 E. It is bordered to the northwest by Armenia (35 km or 22 mi), the Azeri exclave of Nakhchivan (179 km or 111 mi), and the Republic of Azerbaijan (611 km or 380 mi); to the north by the Caspian Sea; to the northeast by Turkmenistan (992 km or 616 mi); to the east by Afghanistan (936 km or 582 mi) and Pakistan (909 km or 565 mi); to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; and to the west by Iraq (1,458 km or 906 mi) and Turkey (499 km or 310 mi).\nIran consists of the Iranian Plateau, with the exception of the coasts of the Caspian Sea and Khuzestan. It is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate various basins or plateaux from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus, Zagros, and Alborz, the last containing Mount Damavand, Iran's highest point at 5,610 m (18,406 ft), which is also the highest mountain in Asia west of the Hindu Kush.\nThe northern part of Iran is covered by the lush lowland Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests, located near the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. The eastern part consists mostly of desert basins, such as the Kavir Desert, which is the country's largest desert, and the Lut Desert, as well as some salt lakes. Iran had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.67/10, ranking it 34th globally out of 172 countries.The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where the country borders the mouth of the Arvand river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Gulf of Oman.\nIran located in seismically active area. On average every 10 years one 7 Richter earthquake occurs in Iran. Most earthquakes are Shallow-focus and can be very devastating like tragic 2003 Bam earthquake\n\n\n=== Climate ===\n\nHaving 11 climates out of the world's 13, Iran's climate is diverse, ranging from arid and semi-arid, to subtropical along the Caspian coast and the northern forests. On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain), temperatures rarely fall below freezing and the area remains humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 \u00b0C (84.2 \u00b0F). Annual precipitation is 680 mm (26.8 in) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (66.9 in) in the western part. Gary Lewis, the United Nations Resident Coordinator for Iran, has said that \"Water scarcity poses the most severe human security challenge in Iran today\".To the west, settlements in the Zagros basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters with below zero average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (7.9 in) of rain, and have occasional deserts. Average summer temperatures rarely exceed 38 \u00b0C (100.4 \u00b0F). The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (5.3 to 14.0 in).Despite climate change in the region Iran is one of the few countries in the world which has not ratified the Paris Agreement.\n\n\n=== Biodiversity ===\n\nThe wildlife of Iran is composed of several animal species, including bears, the Eurasian lynx, foxes, gazelles, gray wolves, jackals, panthers, and wild pigs. Other domestic animals of Iran include Asian water buffaloes, camels, cattle, donkeys, goats, horses, and the sheep. Eagles, falcons, partridges, pheasants, and storks are also native to the wildlife of Iran.\nOne of the most famous members of the Iranian wildlife is the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah, also known as the Iranian cheetah, whose numbers were greatly reduced after the 1979 Revolution. The Persian leopard, which is the world's largest leopard subspecies living primarily in northern Iran, is also listed as an endangered species. Iran lost all its Asiatic lions and the now extinct Caspian tigers by the earlier part of the 20th century.At least 74 species of the Iranian wildlife are on the red list of the International Union for Conservation of Nature, a sign of serious threats against the country's biodiversity. The Iranian Parliament has been showing disregard for wildlife by passing laws and regulations such as the act that lets the Ministry of Industries and Mines exploit mines without the involvement of the Department of Environment, and by approving large national development projects without demanding comprehensive study of their impact on wildlife habitats.\n\n\n=== Administrative divisions ===\n\nIran is divided into five regions with thirty-one provinces (ost\u0101n), each governed by an appointed governor (ost\u0101nd\u0101r). The provinces are divided into counties (\u0161ahrest\u0101n), and subdivided into districts (bax\u0161) and sub-districts (dehest\u0101n).\nThe country has one of the highest urban growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002, the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.  Most internal migrants have settled around the cities of Tehran, Isfahan, Ahvaz, and Qom. The listed populations are from the 2006/07 (1385 AP) census.\n\nTehran, with a population of around 8.8 million (2016 census), is the capital and largest city of Iran. It is an economical and cultural center, and is the hub of the country's communication and transport network.\nThe country's second most populous city, Mashhad, has a population of around 3.3 million (2016 census), and is capital of the province of Razavi Khorasan. Being the site of the Imam Reza Shrine, it is a holy city in Shia Islam. About 15 to 20 million pilgrims visit the shrine every year.Isfahan has a population of around 2.2 million (2016 census), and is Iran's third most populous city. It is the capital of the province of Isfahan, and was also the third capital of the Safavid Empire. It is home to a wide variety of historical sites, including the famous Shah Square, Siosepol, and the churches at the Armenian district of New Julfa. It is also home to the world's seventh largest shopping mall, Isfahan City Center.\nThe fourth most populous city of Iran, Karaj, has a population of around 1.9 million (2016 census). It is the capital of the province of Alborz, and is situated 20 km west of Tehran, at the foot of the Alborz mountain range. It is a major industrial city in Iran, with large factories producing sugar, textiles, wire, and alcohol.\nWith a population of around 1.7 million (2016 census), Tabriz is the fifth most populous city of Iran, and had been the second most populous until the late 1960s. It was the first capital of the Safavid Empire, and is now the capital of the province of East Azerbaijan. It is also considered the country's second major industrial city (after Tehran).\nShiraz, with a population of around 1.8 million (2016 census), is Iran's sixth most populous city. It is the capital of the province of Fars, and was also the capital of Iran under the reign of the Zand dynasty. It is located near the ruins of Persepolis and Pasargadae, two of the four capitals of the Achaemenid Empire.\n\n\n== Government and politics ==\n\nThe political system of the Islamic Republic is based on the 1979 Constitution.\n\n\n=== Supreme Leader ===\n\nThe Leader of the Revolution (\"Supreme Leader\") is responsible for delineation and supervision of the policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The Iranian president has limited power compared to the Supreme Leader Khamenei. The current longtime Supreme Leader, Ali Khamenei, has been issuing decrees and making the final decisions on the economy, environment, foreign policy, education, national planning, and everything else in the country. Khamenei also outlines elections guidelines and urges for the transparency, and has fired and reinstated presidential cabinet appointments. Key ministers are selected with the Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei's agreement and he has the ultimate say on Iran's foreign policy. The president-elect is required to gain the Leader Khamenei's official approval before being sworn in before the Parliament (Majlis). Through this process, known as Tanfiz (validation), the Leader agrees to the outcome of the presidential election. The Supreme Leader is directly involved in ministerial appointments for Defense, Intelligence and Foreign Affairs, as well as other top ministries after submission of candidates from the president. Iran's regional policy is directly controlled by the office of the Supreme Leader with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' task limited to protocol and ceremonial occasions. All of Iran's ambassadors to Arab countries, for example, are chosen by the Quds Corps, which directly reports to the Supreme Leader. The budget bill for every year, as well as withdrawing money from the National Development Fund of Iran, require Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei's approval and permission. The Supreme Leader Khamenei can and did order laws to be amended. Setad, estimated at $95 billion in 2013 by the Reuters, accounts of which are secret even to the Iranian parliament, is controlled only by the Supreme Leader.\n\nThe Supreme Leader is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations, and has sole power to declare war or peace. The heads of the judiciary, the state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces, and six of the twelve members of the Guardian Council are directly appointed by the Supreme Leader.The Assembly of Experts is responsible for electing the Supreme Leader, and has the power to dismiss him on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem. To date, the Assembly of Experts has not challenged any of the Supreme Leader's decisions, nor has it attempted to dismiss him. The previous head of the judicial system, Sadeq Larijani, appointed by the Supreme Leader, said that it is illegal for the Assembly of Experts to supervise the Supreme Leader. Due to Khamenei's very longtime unchallenged rule, many believe the Assembly of Experts has become a ceremonial body without any real power. There have been instances when the current Supreme Leader publicly criticized members of the Assembly of Experts, resulting in their arrest and dismissal. For example, Khamenei publicly called then-member of the Assembly of Experts Ahmad Azari Qomi a traitor, resulting in Qomi's arrest and eventual dismissal from the Assembly of Experts. Another instance is when Khamenei indirectly called Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani a traitor for a statement he made, causing Rafsanjani to retract it.\n\n\n=== Guardian Council ===\nPresidential candidates and parliamentary candidates must be approved by the Guardian Council (all members of which are directly or indirectly appointed by the Leader) or the Leader before running, in order to ensure their allegiance to the Supreme Leader. The Leader very rarely does the vetting himself directly, but has the power to do so, in which case additional approval of the Guardian Council would not be needed. The Leader can also revert the decisions of the Guardian Council. The Guardian Council can, and has dismissed some elected members of the Iranian parliament in the past. For example, Minoo Khaleghi was disqualified by Guardian Council even after winning election, as she had been photographed in a meeting without wearing headscarf.\n\n\n=== President ===\n\nAfter the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the President of Iran as the highest state authority. The President is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years, however, the president is still required to gain the Leader's official approval before being sworn in before the Parliament (Majlis). The Leader also has the power to dismiss the elected president anytime. The President can only be re-elected for one term.\n\nThe President is responsible for the implementation of the constitution, and for the exercise of executive powers in implementing the decrees and general policies as outlined by the Supreme Leader, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters. Unlike the executive in other countries, the President of Iran does not have full control over anything, as these are ultimately under the control of the Supreme Leader. Chapter IX of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran sets forth the qualifications for presidential candidates. The procedures for presidential election and all other elections in Iran are outlined by the Supreme Leader. The President functions as the executive of affairs such as signing treaties and other international agreements, and administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs, all as approved by the Supreme Leader.The President appoints the ministers, subject to the approval of the Parliament, as well as the approval of the Supreme Leader, who can dismiss or reinstate any of the ministers at any time, regardless of the decisions made by the President or the Parliament. The President supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature. The current Supreme Leader, Ali Khamenei, has fired as well as reinstated Council of Ministers members. Eight Vice Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty-two ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature.\n\n\n=== Legislature ===\n\nThe legislature of Iran, known as the Islamic Consultative Assembly, is a unicameral body comprising 290 members elected for four-year terms. It drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All parliamentary candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Guardian Council.The Guardian Council comprises twelve jurists, including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. Others are elected by the Parliament, from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the Judiciary. The Council interprets the constitution and may veto the Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or Sharia (Islamic law), it is referred back to the Parliament for revision. The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between the Parliament and the Guardian Council, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country. Local city councils are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran.\n\n\n=== Law ===\n\nThe Supreme Leader appoints the head of the country's judiciary, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts, including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and revolutionary courts which deal with certain categories of offenses, such as crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed.The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving laypeople. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework, and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed. The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 \"virtuous and learned\" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms.\n\n\n=== Foreign relations ===\n\nSince the time of the 1979 Revolution, Iran's foreign relations have often been portrayed as being based on two strategic principles; eliminating outside influences in the region, and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and non-aligned countries.Since 2005, Iran's nuclear program has become the subject of contention with the international community, mainly the United States. Many countries have expressed concern that Iran's nuclear program could divert civilian nuclear technology into a weapons program. This has led the United Nations Security Council to impose sanctions against Iran which had further isolated Iran politically and economically from the rest of the global community. In 2009, the U.S. Director of National Intelligence said that Iran, if choosing to, would not be able to develop a nuclear weapon until 2013.\n\nAs of 2009, the government of Iran maintains diplomatic relations with 99 members of the United Nations, but not with the United States, and not with Israel\u2014a state which Iran's government has derecognized since the 1979 Revolution. Among Muslim nations, Iran has an adversarial relationship with Saudi Arabia due to different political and Islamic ideologies. While Iran is a Shia Islamic Republic, Saudi Arabia is a conservative Sunni monarchy. Regarding the Israeli\u2013Palestinian conflict, the government of Iran has recognized Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine, after Trump recognized Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.Since the 2000s, Iran's controversial nuclear program has raised concerns, which is part of the basis of the international sanctions against the country. On 14 July 2015, Tehran and the P5+1 came to a historic agreement (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action) to end economic sanctions in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing enriched uranium after demonstrating a peaceful nuclear research project that would meet the International Atomic Energy Agency standards.Iran is a member of dozens of international organizations, including the G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, IDA, IDB, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, OIC, OPEC, WHO, and the United Nations, and currently has observer status at the World Trade Organization.\n\n\n=== Military ===\n\nThe Islamic Republic of Iran has two types of armed forces: the regular forces of the Army, the Air Force, and the Navy, and the Revolutionary Guards, totaling about 545,000 active troops. Iran also has around 350,000 Reserve Force, totaling around 900,000 trained troops.The government of Iran has a paramilitary, volunteer militia force within the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, called the Basij, which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed members. Up to 11 million men and women are members of the Basij who could potentially be called up for service. GlobalSecurity.org estimates Iran could mobilize \"up to one million men\", which would be among the largest troop mobilizations in the world. In 2007, Iran's military spending represented 2.6% of the GDP or $102 per capita, the lowest figure of the Persian Gulf nations. Iran's military doctrine is based on deterrence. In 2014, the country spent $15 billion on arms, while the states of the Gulf Cooperation Council spent eight times more.The government of Iran supports the military activities of its allies in Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon (Hezbollah) with military and financial aid. Iran and Syria are close strategic allies, and Iran has provided significant support for the Syrian Government in the Syrian Civil War. According to some estimates, Iran controlled over 80,000 pro-Assad Shi'ite fighters in Syria.Since the 1979 Revolution, to overcome foreign embargoes, the government of Iran has developed its own military industry, produced its own tanks, armored personnel carriers, missiles, submarines, military vessels, missile destroyer, radar systems, helicopters, and fighter planes. In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as the Hoot, Kowsar, Zelzal, Fateh-110, Shahab-3, Sejjil, and a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Iran has the largest and most diverse ballistic missile arsenal in the Middle East. The Fajr-3, a liquid fuel missile with an undisclosed range which was developed and produced domestically, is currently the most advanced ballistic missile of the country.\nIn June 1925, Reza Shah introduced conscription law at National Consultative Majlis. At that time every male person who had reached 21 years old must serve for military for two years. The conscription exempted women from military service after 1979 revolution. Iranian constitution obliges all men of 18 years old and higher to serve in military or police bases. They cannot leave the country or be employed without completion of the service period. The period varies from 18 to 24 months.\n\n\n=== Human rights ===\n\nAccording to international reports, Iran's human rights record is exceptionally poor. The regime in Iran is undemocratic, has frequently persecuted and arrested critics of the government and its Supreme Leader, and severely restricts the participation of candidates in popular elections as well as other forms of political activity. Women's rights in Iran are described as seriously inadequate, and children's rights have been severely violated, with more child offenders being executed in Iran than in any other country in the world. Sexual activity between members of the same sex is illegal and is punishable by up to death.Over the past decade, numbers of anti-government protests have broken out throughout Iran (such as the 2019\u201320 Iranian protests), demanding reforms or the end to the Islamic Republic. However, the IRGC and police often suppressed mass protests by violent means, which resulted in thousands of protesters killed.\n\n\n== Economy ==\n\nIran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures. In 2017, GDP was $427.7 billion ($1.631 trillion at PPP), or $20,000 at PPP per capita. Iran is ranked as an upper-middle income economy by the World Bank. In the early 21st century, the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture.The Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran is responsible for developing and maintaining the Iranian rial, which serves as the country's currency. The government does not recognize trade unions other than the Islamic labour councils, which are subject to the approval of employers and the security services. The minimum wage in June 2013 was 487 million rials a month ($134). Unemployment has remained above 10% since 1997, and the unemployment rate for women is almost double that of the men.\n\nIn 2006, about 45% of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31% came from taxes and fees. As of 2007, Iran had earned $70 billion in foreign-exchange reserves, mostly (80%) from crude oil exports. Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, mostly due to large-scale state subsidies, that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline, totaling more than $84 billion in 2008 for the energy sector alone. In 2010, the economic reform plan was approved by parliament to cut subsidies gradually and replace them with targeted social assistance. The objective is to move towards free market prices in a five-year period and increase productivity and social justice.The administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one, and indicates that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. Iran has also developed a biotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceutical industry. However, nationalized industries such as the bonyads have often been managed badly, making them ineffective and uncompetitive with years. Currently, the government is trying to privatize these industries, and, despite successes, there are still several problems to be overcome, such as the lagging corruption in the public sector and lack of competitiveness.\nIran has leading manufacturing industries in the fields of automobile manufacture, transportation, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology, and petrochemicals in the Middle East. According to the 2012 data from the Food and Agriculture Organization, Iran has been among the world's top five producers of apricots, cherries, sour cherries, cucumbers and gherkins, dates, eggplants, figs, pistachios, quinces, walnuts, and watermelons.Economic sanctions against Iran, such as the embargo against Iranian crude oil, have injured the economy. In 2015, Iran and the P5+1 reached a deal on the nuclear program that removed the main sanctions pertaining to Iran's nuclear program by 2016. According to the BBC, renewed U.S. sanctions against Iran \"have led to a sharp downturn in Iran's economy, pushing the value of its currency to record lows, quadrupling its annual inflation rate, driving away foreign investors, and triggering protests.\"\n\n\n=== Tourism ===\n\nAlthough tourism declined significantly during the war with Iraq, it has been subsequently recovered. About 1,659,000 foreign tourists visited Iran in 2004, and 2.3 million in 2009, mostly from Asian countries, including the republics of Central Asia, while about 10% came from the European Union and North America. Since the removal of some sanctions against Iran in 2015, tourism has re-surged in the country. Over five million tourists visited Iran in the fiscal year of 2014\u20132015, four percent more than the previous year.Alongside the capital, the most popular tourist destinations are Isfahan, Mashhad, and Shiraz. In the early 2000s, the industry faced serious limitations in infrastructure, communications, industry standards, and personnel training. The majority of the 300,000 travel visas granted in 2003 were obtained by Asian Muslims, who presumably intended to visit pilgrimage sites in Mashhad and Qom. Several organized tours from Germany, France, and other European countries come to Iran annually to visit archaeological sites and monuments. In 2003, Iran ranked 68th in tourism revenues worldwide. According to the UNESCO and the deputy head of research for Iran's Tourism Organization, Iran is rated fourth among the top 10 destinations in the Middle East. Domestic tourism in Iran is one of the largest in the world. Weak advertising, unstable regional conditions, a poor public image in some parts of the world, and absence of efficient planning schemes in the tourism sector have all hindered the growth of tourism.\n\n\n=== Transportation ===\n\nIran has a long paved road system linking most of its towns and all of its cities. In 2011 the country had 173,000 kilometres (107,000 mi) of roads, of which 73% were paved. In 2008 there were nearly 100 passenger cars for every 1,000 inhabitants.Trains operate on 11,106 km (6,942 mi) of railroad track. The country's major port of entry is Bandar-Abbas on the Strait of Hormuz. After arriving in Iran, imported goods are distributed throughout the country by trucks and freight trains. The Tehran\u2013Bandar-Abbas railroad, opened in 1995, connects Bandar-Abbas to the railroad system of Central Asia via Tehran and Mashhad. Other major ports include Bandar e-Anzali and Bandar e-Torkeman on the Caspian Sea and Khorramshahr and Bandar-e Emam Khomeyni on the Persian Gulf.\nDozens of cities have airports that serve passenger and cargo planes. Iran Air, the national airline, was founded in 1962 and operates domestic and international flights. All large cities have mass transit systems using buses, and several private companies provide bus service between cities. Hamadan and Tehran hold the highest betweenness and closeness centrality among the cities of Iran, regarding road and air routes, respectively.Transport in Iran is inexpensive because of the government's subsidization of the price of gasoline. The downside is a huge draw on government coffers, economic inefficiency because of highly wasteful consumption patterns, contraband with neighboring countries and air pollution. In 2008, more than one million people worked in the transportation sector, accounting for 9% of GDP.\n\n\n=== Energy ===\n\nIran has the world's second largest proved gas reserves after Russia, with 33.6 trillion cubic metres, and the third largest natural gas production after Indonesia and Russia. It also ranks fourth in oil reserves with an estimated 153,600,000,000 barrels. It is OPEC's second largest oil exporter, and is an energy superpower.\nIn 2005, Iran spent US$4 billion on fuel imports, because of contraband and inefficient domestic use. Oil industry output averaged 4 million barrels per day (640,000 m3/d) in 2005, compared with the peak of six million barrels per day reached in 1974. In the early 2000s, industry infrastructure was increasingly inefficient because of technological lags. Few exploratory wells were drilled in 2005.\nIn 2004, a large share of Iran's natural gas reserves were untapped. The addition of new hydroelectric stations and the streamlining of conventional coal and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33,000 megawatts. Of that amount, about 75% was based on natural gas, 18% on oil, and 7% on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first wind-powered and geothermal plants, and the first solar thermal plant was to come online in 2009. Iran is the world's third country to have developed GTL technology.Demographic trends and intensified industrialization have caused electric power demand to grow by 8% per year. The government's goal of 53,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants, and adding hydropower and nuclear power generation capacity. Iran's first nuclear power plant at Bushire went online in 2011. It is the second nuclear power plant ever built in the Middle East after the Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant in Armenia.\n\n\n== Education, science and technology ==\n\nEducation in Iran is highly centralized. K\u201312 is supervised by the Ministry of Education, and higher education is under the supervision of the Ministry of Science and Technology. The adult literacy rated 93.0% in September 2015, while it had rated 85.0% in 2008, up from 36.5% in 1976.According to the data provided by UNESCO, Iran's literacy rate among people aged 15 years and older was 85.54% as of 2016, with men (90.35%) being significantly more educated than women (80.79%), with the number of illiterate people of the same age amounting to around 8,700,000 of the country's 85 million population. According to this report, Iranian government's expenditure on education amounts to around 4% of the GDP.\nThe requirement to enter into higher education is to have a high school diploma and pass the Iranian University Entrance Exam (officially known as konkur (\u06a9\u0646\u06a9\u0648\u0631)), which is the equivalent of the SAT and ACT exams of the United States. Many students do a 1\u20132-year course of pre-university (pi\u0161-d\u0101ne\u0161g\u0101h), which is the equivalent of the GCE A-levels and the International Baccalaureate. The completion of the pre-university course earns students the Pre-University Certificate.\n\nIran's higher education is sanctioned by different levels of diplomas, including an associate degree (k\u0101rd\u0101ni; also known as fowq e diplom) delivered in two years, a bachelor's degree (k\u0101r\u0161en\u0101si; also known as lis\u0101ns) delivered in four years, and a master's degree (k\u0101r\u0161en\u0101si e ar\u0161ad) delivered in two years, after which another exam allows the candidate to pursue a doctoral program (PhD; known as doktor\u0101).According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities (as of January 2017), Iran's top five universities include Tehran University of Medical Sciences (478th worldwide), the University of Tehran (514th worldwide), Sharif University of Technology (605th worldwide), Amirkabir University of Technology (726th worldwide), and the Tarbiat Modares University (789th worldwide).Iran has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate, followed by China. According to a study by SCImago in 2012, Iran would rank fourth in the world in terms of research output by 2018, if the current trend persists.\n\nIn 2009, a SUSE Linux-based HPC system made by the Aerospace Research Institute of Iran (ARI) was launched with 32 cores, and now runs 96 cores. Its performance was pegged at 192 GFLOPS. The Iranian humanoid robot Sorena 2, which was designed by engineers at the University of Tehran, was unveiled in 2010. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has placed the name of Surena among the five prominent robots of the world after analyzing its performance.In the biomedical sciences, Iran's Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics has a UNESCO chair in biology. In late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the Royan Research Center in Tehran.According to a study by David Morrison and Ali Khadem Hosseini (Harvard-MIT and Cambridge), stem cell research in Iran is amongst the top 10 in the world. Iran ranks 15th in the world in nanotechnologies.\n\nIran placed its domestically built satellite Omid into orbit on the 30th anniversary of the 1979 Revolution, on 2 February 2009, through its first expendable launch vehicle Safir, becoming the ninth country in the world capable of both producing a satellite and sending it into space from a domestically made launcher.The Iranian nuclear program was launched in the 1950s. Iran is the seventh country to produce uranium hexafluoride, and controls the entire nuclear fuel cycle.Iranian scientists outside Iran have also made some major contributions to science. In 1960, Ali Javan co-invented the first gas laser, and fuzzy set theory was introduced by Lotfi A. Zadeh. Iranian cardiologist Tofigh Mussivand invented and developed the first artificial cardiac pump, the precursor of the artificial heart Furthering research and treatment of diabetes, the HbA1c was discovered by Samuel Rahbar. A substantial number of papers in string theory are published in Iran. Iranian American string theorist Kamran Vafa proposed the Vafa\u2013Witten theorem together with Edward Witten. In August 2014, Iranian mathematician Maryam Mirzakhani became the first woman, as well as the first Iranian, to receive the Fields Medal, the highest prize in mathematics.\n\n\n== Demographics ==\n\nIran is a diverse country, consisting of numerous ethnic and linguistic groups that are unified through a shared Iranian nationality.Iran's population grew rapidly during the latter half of the 20th century, increasing from about 19 million in 1956 to more than 84 million by July 2020. However, Iran's fertility rate has dropped significantly in recent years, coming down from a fertility rate of 6.5 per woman to less than 2 just two decades later, leading to a population growth rate of about 1.39% as of 2018. Due to its young population, studies project that the growth will continue to slow until it stabilizes around 105 million by 2050.Iran hosts one of the largest refugee populations in the world, with almost one million refugees, mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq. Since 2006, Iranian officials have been working with the UNHCR and Afghan officials for their repatriation. According to estimates, about five million Iranian citizens have emigrated to other countries, mostly since the 1979 Revolution.According to the Iranian Constitution, the government is required to provide every citizen of the country with access to social security, covering retirement, unemployment, old age, disability, accidents, calamities, health and medical treatment and care services. This is covered by tax revenues and income derived from public contributions.\n\n\n=== Languages ===\n\nThe majority of the population speak Persian, which is also the official language of the country. Others include speakers of a number of other Iranian languages within the greater Indo-European family, and languages belonging to some other ethnicities living in Iran.\nIn northern Iran, mostly confined to Gilan and Mazenderan, the Gilaki and Mazenderani languages are widely spoken, both having affinities to the neighboring Caucasian languages. In parts of Gilan, the Talysh language is also widely spoken, which stretches up to the neighboring Republic of Azerbaijan. Varieties of Kurdish are widely spoken in the province of Kurdistan and nearby areas. In Khuzestan, several distinct varieties of Persian are spoken. Luri and Lari are also spoken in southern Iran.\nAzerbaijani, which is by far the most spoken language in the country after Persian, as well as a number of other Turkic languages and dialects, is spoken in various regions of Iran, especially in the region of Azerbaijan.\nNotable minority languages in Iran include Armenian, Georgian, Neo-Aramaic, and Arabic. Khuzi Arabic is spoken by the Arabs in Khuzestan, as well as the wider group of Iranian Arabs. Circassian was also once widely spoken by the large Circassian minority, but, due to assimilation over the many years, no sizable number of Circassians speak the language anymore.Percentages of spoken language continue to be a point of debate, as many opt that they are politically motivated; most notably regarding the largest and second largest ethnicities in Iran, the Persians and Azerbaijanis. Percentages given by the CIA's World Factbook include 53% Persian, 16% Azerbaijani, 10% Kurdish, 7% Mazenderani and Gilaki, 7% Luri, 2% Turkmen, 2% Balochi, 2% Arabic, and 2% the remainder Armenian, Georgian, Neo-Aramaic, and Circassian.\n\n\n=== Ethnic groups ===\n\nAs with the spoken languages, the ethnic group composition also remains a point of debate, mainly regarding the largest and second largest ethnic groups, the Persians and Azerbaijanis, due to the lack of Iranian state censuses based on ethnicity. The CIA's World Factbook has estimated that around 79% of the population of Iran are a diverse Indo-European ethno-linguistic group that comprise speakers of various Iranian languages, with Persians (including Mazenderanis and Gilaks) constituting 61% of the population, Kurds 10%, Lurs 6%, and Balochs 2%. Peoples of other ethno-linguistic groups make up the remaining 21%, with Azerbaijanis constituting 16%, Arabs 2%, Turkmens and other Turkic tribes 2%, and others (such as Armenians, Talysh, Georgians, Circassians, Assyrians) 1%.The Library of Congress issued slightly different estimates: 65% Persians (including Mazenderanis, Gilaks, and the Talysh), 16% Azerbaijanis, 7% Kurds, 6% Lurs, 2% Baloch, 1% Turkic tribal groups (incl. Qashqai and Turkmens), and non-Iranian, non-Turkic groups (incl. Armenians, Georgians, Assyrians, Circassians, and Arabs) less than 3%. It determined that Persian is the first language of at least 65% of the country's population, and is the second language for most of the remaining 35%.\n\n\n=== Religion ===\n\nTwelver Shia Islam is the official state religion, to which about 90% to 95% of the population adhere. About 4% to 8% of the population are Sunni Muslims, mainly Kurds and Baloches. The remaining 2% are non-Muslim religious minorities, including Christians, Zoroastrians, Jews, Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00eds, Mandeans, and Yarsanis.There are a large population of adherents of Yarsanism, a Kurdish indigenous religion, making it the largest (unrecognized) minority religion in Iran. Its followers are mainly Gorani Kurds and certain groups of Lurs. They are based in Kurdistan Province, Kermanshah Province and Lorestan mainly.\nChristianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and the Sunni branch of Islam are officially recognized by the government, and have reserved seats in the Iranian Parliament. Historically, early Iranian religions such as the Proto-Iranic religion and the subsequent Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism were the dominant religions in Iran, particularly during the Median, Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian eras. This changed after the fall of the Sasanian Empire by the centuries-long Islamization that followed the Muslim Conquest of Iran. Iran was predominantly Sunni until the conversion of the country (as well as the people of what is today the neighboring Republic of Azerbaijan) to Shia Islam by the order of the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century.Judaism has a long history in Iran, dating back to the Achaemenid conquest of Babylonia. Although many left in the wake of the establishment of the State of Israel and the 1979 Revolution, about 8,756 to 25,000 Jewish people live in Iran. Iran has the largest Jewish population in the Middle East outside of Israel.Around 250,000 to 370,000 Christians reside in Iran, and Christianity is the country's largest recognized minority religion. Most are of Armenian background, as well as a sizable minority of Assyrians. A large number of Iranians have converted to Christianity from the predominant Shia Islam.The Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed Faith is not officially recognized and has been subject to official persecution. According to the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Human Rights in Iran, Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00eds are the largest non-Muslim religious minority in Iran, with an estimated 350,000 adherents.  Since the 1979 Revolution, the persecution of Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00eds has increased with executions and denial of civil rights, especially the denial of access to higher education and employment.Iranian officials have continued to support the rebuilding and renovation of Armenian churches in the Islamic Republic. The Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran has also received continued support. In 2019, the Iranian government registered the Holy Savior Cathedral, commonly referred to as Vank Cathedral, in the New Julfa district of Isfahan, as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, with significant expenditures for its congregation. Currently three Armenian churches in Iran have been included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.\n\n\n== Culture ==\n\nThe earliest attested cultures in Iran date back to the Lower Paleolithic. Owing to its geopolitical position, Iran has influenced cultures as far as Greece and Italy to the west, Russia to the north, the Arabian Peninsula to the south, and south and east Asia to the east.\n\n\n=== Art ===\n\nThe art of Iran encompasses many disciplines, including architecture, stonemasonry, metalworking, weaving, pottery, painting, and calligraphy. Iranian works of art show a great variety in style, in different regions and periods. The art of the Medes remains obscure, but has been theoretically attributed to the Scythian style. The Achaemenids borrowed heavily from the art of their neighboring civilizations, but produced a synthesis of a unique style, with an eclectic architecture remaining at sites such as Persepolis and Pasargadae. Greek iconography was imported by the Seleucids, followed by the recombination of Hellenistic and earlier Near Eastern elements in the art of the Parthians, with remains such as the Temple of Anahita and the Statue of the Parthian Nobleman. By the time of the Sasanians, Iranian art came across a general renaissance. Although of unclear development, Sasanian art was highly influential, and spread into far regions. Taq-e-Bostan, Taq-e-Kasra, Naqsh-e-Rostam, and the Shapur-Khwast Castle are among the surviving monuments from the Sasanian period.\nDuring the Middle Ages, Sasanian art played a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asian medieval art, which carried forward to the Islamic world, and much of what later became known as Islamic learning\u2014including medicine, architecture, philosophy, philology, and literature\u2014were of Sasanian basis.The Safavid era is known as the Golden Age of Iranian art, and Safavid works of art show a far more unitary development than in any other period, as part of a political evolution that reunified Iran as a cultural entity. Safavid art exerted noticeable influences upon the neighboring Ottomans, the Mughals, and the Deccans, and was also influential through its fashion and garden architecture on 11th\u201317th-century Europe.\n\nIran's contemporary art traces its origins back to the time of Kamal-ol-Molk, a prominent realist painter at the court of the Qajar dynasty who affected the norms of painting and adopted a naturalistic style that would compete with photographic works. A new Iranian school of fine art was established by Kamal-ol-Molk in 1928, and was followed by the so-called \"coffeehouse\" style of painting.\nIran's avant-garde modernists emerged by the arrival of new western influences during World War II. The vibrant contemporary art scene originates in the late 1940s, and Tehran's first modern art gallery, Apadana, was opened in September 1949 by painters Mahmud Javadipur, Hosein Kazemi, and Hushang Ajudani. The new movements received official encouragement by mid-1950s, which led to the emergence of artists such as Marcos Grigorian, signaling a commitment to the creation of a form of modern art grounded in Iran.\n\n\n=== Architecture ===\n\nThe history of architecture in Iran goes back to the seventh millennium BC. Iranians were among the first to use mathematics, geometry and astronomy in architecture. Iranian architecture displays great variety, both structural and aesthetic, developing gradually and coherently out of earlier traditions and experience. The guiding motif of Iranian architecture is its cosmic symbolism, \"by which man is brought into communication and participation with the powers of heaven\".Iran ranks seventh among UNESCO's list of countries with the most archaeological ruins and attractions from antiquity.Traditionally, the guiding formative motif of Iranian architecture has been its cosmic symbolism \"by which man is brought into communication and participation with the powers of heaven\". This theme has not only given unity and continuity to the architecture of Persia, but has been a primary source of its emotional character as well.\nAccording to Persian historian and archaeologist Arthur Pope, the supreme Iranian art, in the proper meaning of the word, has always been its architecture. The supremacy of architecture applies to both pre- and post-Islamic periods.\n\n\n=== Weaving ===\n\nIran's carpet-weaving has its origins in the Bronze Age, and is one of the most distinguished manifestations of Iranian art. Iran is the world's largest producer and exporter of handmade carpets, producing three-quarters of the world's total output and having a share of 30% of world's export markets.\n\n\n=== Literature ===\n\nIran's oldest literary tradition is that of Avestan, the Old Iranian sacred language of the Avesta, which consists of the legendary and religious texts of Zoroastrianism and the ancient Iranian religion, with its earliest records dating back to the pre-Achaemenid times.Of the various modern languages used in Iran, Persian, various dialects of which are spoken throughout the Iranian Plateau, has the most influential literature. Persian has been dubbed as a worthy language to serve as a conduit for poetry, and is considered one of the four main bodies of world literature. In spite of originating from the region of Persis (better known as Persia) in southwestern Iran, the Persian language was used and developed further through Persianate societies in Asia Minor, Central Asia, and South Asia, leaving massive influences on Ottoman and Mughal literatures, among others.\nIran has a number of famous medieval poets, most notably Rumi, Ferdowsi, Hafez, Saadi Shirazi, Omar Khayyam, and Nezami Ganjavi. Iranian literature also inspired writers such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Henry David Thoreau, and Ralph Waldo Emerson.\n\n\n=== Philosophy ===\n\nIranian philosophy originates from Indo-European roots, with Zoroaster's reforms having major influences.\nAccording to The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, the chronology of the subject and science of philosophy starts with the Indo-Iranians, dating this event to 1500 BC. The Oxford dictionary also states, \"Zarathushtra's philosophy entered to influence Western tradition through Judaism, and therefore on Middle Platonism.\"\nWhile there are ancient relations between the Indian Vedas and the Iranian Avesta, the two main families of the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences, especially in their implications for the human being's position in society and their view of man's role in the universe.\nThe Cyrus Cylinder, which is known as \"the first charter of human rights\", is often seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by Zoroaster, and developed in Zoroastrian schools of the Achaemenid era. The earliest tenets of Zoroastrian schools are part of the extant scriptures of the Zoroastrian religion in Avestan. Among them are treatises such as the Zatspram, Shkand-gumanik Vizar, and Denkard, as well as older passages of the Avesta and the Gathas.\n\n\n=== Mythology ===\n\nIranian mythology consists of ancient Iranian folklore and stories, all involving extraordinary beings, reflecting attitudes towards the confrontation of good and evil, actions of the gods, and the exploits of heroes and fabulous creatures.\nMyths play a crucial part in Iranian culture, and understanding of them is increased when they are considered within the context of actual events in Iranian history. The geography of Greater Iran, a vast area covering present-day Iran, the Caucasus, Anatolia, Mesopotamia and Central Asia, with its high mountain ranges, plays the main role in much of Iranian mythology.\nTenth-century Persian poet Ferdowsi's long epic poem \u0160\u0101hn\u0101me (\"Book of Kings\"), which is for the most part based on Xwad\u0101yn\u0101mag, a Middle Persian compilation of the history of Iranian kings and heroes from mythical times down to the reign of Chosroes II, is considered the national epic of Iran. It draws heavily on the stories and characters of the Zoroastrian tradition, from the texts of the Avesta, the Denkard, and the Bundahishn.\n\n\n=== Music ===\n\nIran is the apparent birthplace of the earliest complex instruments, dating back to the third millennium BC. The use of both vertical and horizontal angular harps have been documented at the sites Madaktu and Kul-e Farah, with the largest collection of Elamite instruments documented at Kul-e Farah. Multiple depictions of horizontal harps were also sculpted in Assyrian palaces, dating back between 865 and 650 BC.\n\nXenophon's Cyropaedia mentions a great number of singing women at the court of the Achaemenid Empire. Athenaeus of Naucratis, in his Deipnosophistae, points out to the capture of Achaemenid singing girls at the court of the last Achaemenid king Darius III (336\u2013330 BC) by Macedonian general Parmenion. Under the Parthian Empire, the g\u014ds\u0101n (Parthian for \"minstrel\") had a prominent role in the society. According to Plutarch's Life of Crassus (32.3), they praised their national heroes and ridiculed their Roman rivals. Likewise, Strabo's Geographica reports that the Parthian youth were taught songs about \"the deeds both of the gods and of the noblest men\".The history of Sasanian music is better documented than the earlier periods, and is especially more evident in Avestan texts. By the time of Chosroes II, the Sasanian royal court hosted a number of prominent musicians, namely Azad, Bamshad, Barbad, Nagisa, Ramtin, and Sarkash.\nIranian traditional musical instruments include string instruments such as chang (harp), qanun, santur, rud (oud, barbat), tar, dotar, setar, tanbur, and kamanche, wind instruments such as sorna (zurna, karna) and ney, and percussion instruments such as tompak, kus, daf (dayere), and naqare.\nIran's first symphony orchestra, the Tehran Symphony Orchestra, was founded by Qolam-Hoseyn Minbashian in 1933. It was reformed by Parviz Mahmoud in 1946, and is currently Iran's oldest and largest symphony orchestra. Later, by the late 1940s, Ruhollah Khaleqi founded the country's first national music society, and established the School of National Music in 1949.Iranian pop music has its origins in the Qajar era. It was significantly developed since the 1950s, using indigenous instruments and forms accompanied by electric guitar and other imported characteristics. The emergence of genres such as rock in the 1960s and hip hop in the 2000s also resulted in major movements and influences in Iranian music.\n\n\n=== Theater ===\n\nThe earliest recorded representations of dancing figures within Iran were found in prehistoric sites such as Tepe Sialk and Tepe M\u016bs\u012b\u0101n. The oldest Iranian initiation of theater and the phenomena of acting can be traced in the ancient epic ceremonial theaters such as Sug-e Si\u0101vu\u0161 (\"mourning of Si\u0101va\u0161\"), as well as dances and theater narrations of Iranian mythological tales reported by Herodotus and Xenophon.\nIran's traditional theatrical genres include Baqq\u0101l-b\u0101zi (\"grocer play\", a form of slapstick comedy), Ruhowzi (or Taxt-howzi, comedy performed over a courtyard pool covered with boards), Si\u0101h-b\u0101zi (in which the central comedian appears in blackface), S\u0101ye-b\u0101zi (shadow play), Xeyme-\u0161ab-b\u0101zi (marionette), and Arusak-b\u0101zi (puppetry), and Ta'zie (religious tragedy plays).Before the 1979 Revolution, the Iranian national stage had become a famous performing scene for known international artists and troupes, with the Roudaki Hall of Tehran constructed to function as the national stage for opera and ballet. Opened on 26 October 1967, the hall is home to the Tehran Symphony Orchestra, the Tehran Opera Orchestra, and the Iranian National Ballet Company, and was officially renamed Vahdat Hall after the 1979 Revolution.\nLoris Tjeknavorian's Rostam and Sohrab, based on the tragedy of Rostam and Sohrab from Ferdowsi's epic poem \u0160\u0101hn\u0101me, is an example of opera with Persian libretto. Tjeknavorian, a celebrated Iranian Armenian composer and conductor, composed it in 25 years, and it was finally performed for the first time at Tehran's Roudaki Hall, with Darya Dadvar in the role of Tahmina.\n\n\n=== Cinema and animation ===\n\nA third-millennium BC earthen goblet discovered at the Burnt City, a Bronze Age urban settlement in southeastern Iran, depicts what could possibly be the world's oldest example of animation. The artifact, associated with Jiroft, bears five sequential images depicting a wild goat jumping up to eat the leaves of a tree. The earliest attested Iranian examples of visual representations, however, are traced back to the bas-reliefs of Persepolis, the ritual center of the Achaemenid Empire. The figures at Persepolis remain bound by the rules of grammar and syntax of visual language. The Iranian visual arts reached a pinnacle by the Sasanian era, and several works from this period have been found to articulate movements and actions in a highly sophisticated manner. It is even possible to see a progenitor of the cinematic close-up shot in one of these works of art, which shows a wounded wild pig escaping from the hunting ground.\n\nBy the early 20th century, the five-year-old industry of cinema came to Iran. The first Iranian filmmaker was probably Mirza Ebrahim (Akkas Bashi), the court photographer of Mozaffar-ed-Din Shah of the Qajar dynasty. Mirza Ebrahim obtained a camera and filmed the Qajar ruler's visit to Europe. Later in 1904, Mirza Ebrahim (Sahhaf Bashi), a businessman, opened the first public movie theater in Tehran. After him, several others like Russi Khan, Ardeshir Khan, and Ali Vakili tried to establish new movie theaters in Tehran. Until the early 1930s, there were around 15 cinema theaters in Tehran and 11 in other provinces. The first Iranian feature film, Abi and Rabi, was a silent comedy directed by Ovanes Ohanian in 1930. The first sounded one, Lor Girl, was produced by Ardeshir Irani and Abd-ol-Hosein Sepanta in 1932.\nIran's animation industry began by the 1950s, and was followed by the establishment of the influential Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults in January 1965. The 1960s was a significant decade for Iranian cinema, with 25 commercial films produced annually on average throughout the early 60s, increasing to 65 by the end of the decade. The majority of the production focused on melodrama and thrillers. With the screening of the films Qeysar and The Cow, directed by Masoud Kimiai and Dariush Mehrjui respectively in 1969, alternative films set out to establish their status in the film industry and Bahram Beyzai's Downpour and Nasser Taghvai's Tranquility in the Presence of Others followed soon. Attempts to organize a film festival, which had begun in 1954 within the framework of the Golrizan Festival, resulted in the festival of Sepas in 1969. The endeavors also resulted in the formation of the Tehran's World Film Festival in 1973.\n\nAfter the Revolution of 1979, and following the Cultural Revolution, a new age emerged in Iranian cinema, starting with Long Live! by Khosrow Sinai and followed by many other directors, such as Abbas Kiarostami and Jafar Panahi. Kiarostami, an acclaimed Iranian director, planted Iran firmly on the map of world cinema when he won the Palme d'Or for Taste of Cherry in 1997. The continuous presence of Iranian films in prestigious international festivals, such as the Cannes Film Festival, the Venice Film Festival, and the Berlin International Film Festival, attracted world attention to Iranian masterpieces. In 2006, six Iranian films, of six different styles, represented Iranian cinema at the Berlin International Film Festival. Critics considered this a remarkable event in the history of Iranian cinema.Asghar Farhadi, a well-known Iranian director, has received a Golden Globe Award and two Academy Awards, representing Iran for Best Foreign Language Film in 2012 and 2017. In 2012, he was named as one of the 100 Most Influential People in the world by the American news magazine Time.\n\n\n=== Observances ===\n\nIran's official New Year begins with Nowruz, an ancient Iranian tradition celebrated annually on the vernal equinox. It is enjoyed by people adhering to different religions, but is considered a holiday for the Zoroastrians. It was registered on the UNESCO's list of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2009, described as the Persian New Year, shared with a number of other countries in which it has historically been celebrated.\nOn the eve of the last Wednesday of the preceding year, as a prelude to Nowruz, the ancient festival of \u010c\u0101r\u0161anbe Suri celebrates \u0100tar (\"fire\") by performing rituals such as jumping over bonfires and lighting off firecrackers and fireworks. The Nowruz celebrations last by the end of the 13th day of the Iranian year (Farvardin 13, usually coincided with 1 or 2 April), celebrating the festival of Sizdebedar, during which the people traditionally go outdoors to picnic.Yald\u0101, another nationally celebrated ancient tradition, commemorates the ancient goddess Mithra and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of the winter solstice (\u010delle ye zemest\u0101n; usually falling on 20 or 21 December), during which families gather together to recite poetry and eat fruits\u2014particularly the red fruits watermelon and pomegranate, as well as mixed nuts. In some regions of the provinces of Mazanderan and Markazi, there is also the midsummer festival of Tirg\u0101n, which is observed on Tir 13 (2 or 3 July) as a celebration of water.Alongside the ancient Iranian celebrations, Islamic annual events such as Ramez\u0101n, Eid e Fetr, and Ruz e \u0100\u0161ur\u0101 are marked by the country's large Muslim population, Christian traditions such as Noel, \u010celle ye Ruze, and Eid e P\u0101k are observed by the Christian communities, Jewish traditions such as Purim, Hanuk\u0101, and Eid e Fatir (Pesah) are observed by the Jewish communities, and Zoroastrian traditions such as Sade and Mehrg\u0101n are observed by the Zoroastrians.\n\n\n==== Public holidays ====\n\nIran's official calendar is the Solar Hejri calendar, beginning at the vernal equinox in the Northern Hemisphere, which was first enacted by the Iranian Parliament on 31 March 1925. Each of the 12 months of the Solar Hejri calendar correspond with a zodiac sign, and the length of each year is absolutely solar. The months are named after the ancient Iranian months, namely Farvardin (Frava\u0161i), Ordibehe\u0161t (A\u0161a Vahi\u0161ta), Xord\u0101d (Haurvat\u0101t), Tir (Ti\u0161trya), Amord\u0101d (Am\u0259r\u0259t\u0101t), \u0160ahrivar (X\u0161a\u03b8ra Vairya), Mehr (Mi\u03b8ra), \u0100b\u0101n (\u0100p\u014d), \u0100zar (\u0100tar), Dey (Da\u03b8u\u0161), Bahman (Vohu Manah), and Esfand (Sp\u0259nt\u0101 \u0100rmaiti).\nAlternatively, the Lunar Hejri calendar is used to indicate Islamic events, and the Gregorian calendar remarks the international events.\nLegal public holidays based on the Iranian solar calendar include the cultural celebrations of Nowruz (Farvardin 1\u20134; 21\u201324 March) and Sizdebedar (Farvardin 13; 2 April), and the political events of Islamic Republic Day (Farvardin 12; 1 April), the death of Ruhollah Khomeini (Khordad 14; 4 June), the Khordad 15 event (Khordad 15; 5 June), the anniversary of the 1979 Revolution (Bahman 22; 10 February), and Oil Nationalization Day (Esfand 29; 19 March).Lunar Islamic public holidays include Tasua (Muharram 9; 30 September), Ashura (Muharram 10; 1 October), Arba'een (Safar 20; 10 November), the death of Muhammad (Safar 28; 17 November), the death of Ali al-Ridha (Safar 29 or 30; 18 November), the birthday of Muhammad (Rabi-al-Awwal 17; 6 December), the death of Fatimah (Jumada-al-Thani 3; 2 March), the birthday of Ali (Rajab 13; 10 April), Muhammad's first revelation (Rajab 27; 24 April), the birthday of Muhammad al-Mahdi (Sha'ban 15; 12 May), the death of Ali (Ramadan 21; 16 June), Eid al-Fitr (Shawwal 1\u20132; 26\u201327 June), the death of Ja'far al-Sadiq (Shawwal 25; 20 July), Eid al-Qurban (Zulhijja 10; 1 September), and Eid al-Qadir (Zulhijja 18; 9 September).\n\n\n=== Cuisine ===\n\nDue to its variety of ethnic groups and the influences from the neighboring cultures, the cuisine of Iran is diverse. Herbs are frequently used, along with fruits such as plums, pomegranate, quince, prunes, apricots, and raisins. To achieve a balanced taste, characteristic flavorings such as saffron, dried lime, cinnamon, and parsley are mixed delicately and used in some special dishes. Onion and garlic are commonly used in the preparation of the accompanying course, but are also served separately during meals, either in raw or pickled form.\nIranian cuisine includes a wide range of main dishes, including various types of kebab, pilaf, stew (khoresh), soup and \u0101sh, and omelette. Lunch and dinner meals are commonly accompanied by side dishes such as plain yogurt or mast-o-khiar, sabzi, salad Shirazi, and torshi, and might follow dishes such as borani, Mirza Qasemi, or kashk e bademjan as the appetizer.\nIn Iranian culture, tea (\u010d\u0101y) is widely consumed. Iran is the world's seventh major tea producer, and a cup of tea is typically the first thing offered to a guest. One of Iran's most popular desserts is the falude, consisting of vermicelli in a rose water syrup, which has its roots in the fourth century BC. There is also the popular saffron ice cream, known as bastani sonnati (\"traditional ice cream\"), which is sometimes accompanied with carrot juice. Iran is also famous for its caviar.\n\n\n=== Sports ===\n\nIran is most likely the birthplace of polo, locally known as \u010dowg\u0101n, with its earliest records attributed to the ancient Medes. Freestyle wrestling is traditionally considered the national sport of Iran, and the national wrestlers have been world champions on many occasions. Iran's traditional wrestling, called ko\u0161ti e pahlev\u0101ni (\"heroic wrestling\"), is registered on UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list.\nBeing a mountainous country, Iran is a venue for skiing, snowboarding, hiking, rock climbing, and mountain climbing. It is home to several ski resorts, the most famous being Tochal, Dizin, and Shemshak, all within one to three hours traveling from the capital city Tehran. The resort of Tochal, located in the Alborz mountain rage, is the world's fifth-highest ski resort (3,730 m or 12,238 ft at its highest station).\nIran's National Olympic Committee was founded in 1947. Wrestlers and weightlifters have achieved the country's highest records at the Olympics. In September 1974, Iran became the first country in West Asia to host the Asian Games. The Azadi Sport Complex, which is the largest sport complex in Iran, was originally built for this occasion.\n\nFootball has been regarded as the most popular sport in Iran, with the men's national team having won the Asian Cup on three occasions. The men's national team has maintained its position as Asia's best team, ranking 1st in Asia and 33rd in the world according to the FIFA World Rankings (as of May 2020).Volleyball is the second most popular sport in Iran. Having won the 2011 and 2013 Asian Men's Volleyball Championships, the men's national team is currently the strongest team in Asia, and ranks eighth in the FIVB World Rankings (as of July 2017).\nBasketball is also popular, with the men's national team having won three Asian Championships since 2007.\nIn 2016, Iran made global headlines for international female champions boycotting tournaments in Iran in chess (U.S. Woman Grandmaster Naz\u00ed Paikidze) and in shooting (Indian world champion Heena Sidhu), as they refused to enter a country where they would be forced to wear a hijab.\n\n\n=== Media ===\n\nIran is one of the countries with the worst freedom of the press situation, ranking 164th out of 180 countries on the Press Freedom Index (as of 2018). The Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance is Iran's main government department responsible for the cultural policy, including activities regarding communications and information.Iran's first newspapers were published during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah of the Qajar dynasty in the mid-19th century. Most of the newspapers published in Iran are in Persian, the country's official language. The country's most widely circulated periodicals are based in Tehran, among which are Etemad, Ettela'at, Kayhan, Hamshahri, Resalat, and Shargh. Tehran Times, Iran Daily, and Financial Tribune are among English-language newspapers based in Iran.\nTelevision was introduced in Iran in 1958. Although the 1974 Asian Games were broadcast in color, full color programming began in 1978. Since the 1979 Revolution, Iran's largest media corporation is the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB). Despite the restrictions on non-domestic television, about 65% of the residents of the capital city and about 30 to 40% of the residents outside the capital city access worldwide television channels through satellite dishes, although observers state that the figures are likely to be higher.Iran received access to the Internet in 1993. According to Internet World Stats, as of 2017, around 69.1% of the population of Iran are Internet users. Iran ranks 17th among countries by number of Internet users. According to the statistics provided by the web information company of Alexa, Google Search is Iran's most widely used search engine and Instagram is the most popular online social networking service. Direct access to many worldwide mainstream websites has been blocked in Iran, including Facebook, which has been blocked since 2009 due to the organization of anti-governmental protests on the website. However, as of 2017, Facebook has around 40 million subscribers based in Iran (48.8% of the population) who use virtual private networks and proxy servers to access the website. Some of the officials themselves have verified accounts on the social networking websites that are blocked by the authorities, including Facebook and Twitter. About 90% of Iran's e-commerce takes place on the Iranian online store of Digikala, which has around 750,000 visitors per day and more than 2.3 million subscribers and is the most visited online store in the Middle East.\n\n\n=== Fashion and clothing ===\n\nFashion in Iran is divided into several historical periods. The exact date of the emergence of weaving in Iran is not yet known, but it is likely to coincide with the emergence of civilization. Clothing in Iran is mentioned in Persian mythology. Ferdowsi and many historians have considered Keyumars to be the inventor of the use of animals' skin and hair as clothing. Some historians have also mentioned Hushang as the first inventor of the use of living skins as clothing. Ferdowsi considers Tahmuras to be a kind of textile initiator in Iran. There are historical discoveries in northern Iran from about 6,000 BC that refer to wool weaving at the time. Other discoveries in central Iran dating back to 4200 BC have shown that the animals' skin has not been the only clothing worn on the Iranian Plateau since those years. The clothing of ancient Iran took an advanced form, and the fabric and color of clothing became very important at that time. Depending on the social status, eminence, climate of the region and the season, Persian clothing during the Achaemenian period took various forms. The philosophy used in this clothing, in addition to being functional, also had an aesthetic role.Beauty pageant festivals inside Iran were not held after the 1979 revolution, and the last selection ceremony of the \"beauty queen of Iran\" was held in 1978 in this country. Since then, a high number of Iranian girls participated in the Beauty pageant and Miss Universe outside of Iran. Sahar Biniaz (Miss Universe Canada 2012) and Shermineh Shahrivar (Miss Germany and Miss Europe) are examples of Iranian models outside Iran. Girls of Enghelab Street was a series of protests in 2017\u20132019 against a compulsory hijab in Iran.\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of Iran-related topics\nOutline of Iran\nName of Iran\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nThe e-office of the Supreme Leader of Iran\nThe President of Iran\nIran.ir\nIran. The World Factbook. 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"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"], "summary": "Iran (Persian: \u0627\u06cc\u0631\u0627\u0646\u200e Ir\u0101n [\u0294i\u02d0\u02c8\u027e\u0252\u02d0n] (listen)), also called Persia, and officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered to the northwest by Armenia and Azerbaijan, to the north by the Caspian Sea, to the northeast by Turkmenistan, to the east by Afghanistan, to the southeast by Pakistan, to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, and to the west by Turkey and Iraq. Iran covers an area of 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), with a population of 83 million. It is the second-largest country in the Middle East, and its capital and largest city is Tehran.\nIran is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations, beginning with the formation of the Elamite kingdoms in the fourth millennium BC. It was first unified by the Iranian Medes in the seventh century BC, and reached its territorial height in the sixth century BC, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire, which became one of the largest empires in history and the world's first superpower. The empire fell to Alexander the Great in the fourth century BC and was divided into several Hellenistic states. An Iranian rebellion established the Parthian Empire in the third century BC, which was succeeded in the third century AD by the Sasanian Empire, a major world power for the next four centuries. Arab Muslims conquered the empire in the seventh century AD, which led to the Islamization of Iran. It subsequently becoming a major center of Islamic culture and learning, with its art, literature, philosophy, and architecture spreading across the Muslim world and beyond during the Islamic Golden Age. Over the next two centuries, a series of native Muslim dynasties emerged before the Seljuq Turks and the Mongols conquered the region. In the 15th century, the native Safavids re-established a unified Iranian state and national identity and converted the country to Shia Islam. Under the reign of Nader Shah in the 18th century, Iran once again became a major world power, though by the 19th century a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses. The early 20th century saw the Persian Constitutional Revolution. Efforts to nationalize its fossil fuel supply from Western companies led to an Anglo-American coup in 1953, which resulted in greater autocratic rule under Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and growing Western political influence. He went on to launch a far-reaching series of reforms in 1963. After the Iranian Revolution, the current Islamic Republic was established in 1979 by Ruhollah Khomeini, who became the country's first Supreme Leader.\nThe Government of Iran is an Islamic theocracy which includes elements of a presidential democracy, with the ultimate authority vested in an autocratic \"Supreme Leader\", a position held by Ali Khamenei since Khomeini's death in 1989. The Iranian government is widely considered to be authoritarian, and has attracted widespread criticism for its significant constraints and abuses against human rights and civil liberties, including several violent suppressions of mass protests, unfair elections, and limited rights for women and children.\nIran is a regional and middle power, with a geopolitically strategic location in the Asian continent. It is a founding member of the United Nations, the ECO, the OIC, and the OPEC. It has large reserves of fossil fuels\u2014including the world's second-largest natural gas supply and the fourth-largest proven oil reserves. The country's rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 22 UNESCO World Heritage Sites. 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Toto!", "Video game industry", "Time Inc.", "Church's Chicken", "Sling TV", "Cartoonito ", "Flagship Entertainment", "High-definition television", "Stakes ", "Doxed"], "content": "Cartoon Network (often shortened to CN) is an American cable television channel owned by the Kids, Young Adults and Classics division of Warner Bros. Entertainment, itself a subsidiary of AT&T's WarnerMedia through its Studios and Networks Group division.\nFounded by Betty Cohen, the channel was launched on October 1, 1992, and primarily broadcasts animated television series, mostly children's programming, ranging from action to animated comedy. It currently operates from 6:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. (ET/PT) and is targeted at children. Its overnight daypart block Adult Swim is aimed at teenagers and adults and is treated as a separate entity for promotional purposes and as a separate channel by Nielsen for ratings purposes.As of March 2021, Cartoon Network is available to approximately 94 million paid television households in the United States.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Development ===\nOn August 9, 1986, Ted Turner's Turner Broadcasting System acquired Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer/United Artists from Kirk Kerkorian; due to concerns over the debt load of his companies, on October 18, 1986, Turner was forced to sell MGM back to Kerkorian after approximately only 75 days of ownership. However, Turner kept much of MGM's film and television library made prior to May 1986 (as well as some of the United Artists library) and formed Turner Entertainment Co.On October 8, 1988, its cable channel Turner Network Television was launched and had gained an audience with its extensive film library. At this time, Turner's animation library included the MGM cartoon library, the pre-1948 color Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies shorts, the Harman-Ising Merrie Melodies shorts (except Lady, Play Your Mandolin!), and the Fleischer Studios/Famous Studios Popeye cartoons.\nIn 1991, Turner beat out bidders including MCA Inc. (then-owner of Universal Studios) and Hallmark Cards when it made a deal to purchase the library of animation studio Hanna-Barbera for $320 million. Ted Turner selected Betty Cohen, then-Senior Vice President of TNT, to devise a network that would house these programs. On February 18, 1992, Turner Broadcasting announced its plans to launch Cartoon Network as an outlet for Turner's considerable library of animation.\n\n\n=== 1992\u20132004 ===\n\nOn October 1, 1992, The Cartoon Network launched to the finale of Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture with a backdrop of cartoon explosions, followed by a special event called Droopy's Guide to the Cartoon Network hosted by the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's Tom & Jerry cartoon character Droopy, during which the first cartoon on the network, Rhapsody Rabbit, was shown. Initial programming on the channel consisted exclusively of reruns of Warner Bros. cartoons (the pre-1948 Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies), the 1933\u20131957 Popeye cartoons, MGM cartoons, and Hanna-Barbera cartoons. At first, cable providers in New York City, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., Dallas, and Detroit carried the channel. By the time the network launched, Cartoon Network had an 8,500-hour cartoon library. From its launch until 1995, the network's announcers said the network's name with the word \"The\" added before \"Cartoon Network,\" thus calling the network \"The Cartoon Network.\" By the time that the network debuted, Cartoon Network also operated a programming block (containing its cartoons) that aired on TNT, entitled \"Cartoon Network on TNT.\"\nCartoon Network was not the first cable channel to have relied on cartoons to attract an audience, however, it was the first 24-hour single-genre channel with animation as its main theme. Turner Broadcasting System had defied conventional wisdom before by launching CNN, a channel providing 24-hour news coverage. The concept was previously thought unlikely to attract a sufficient audience to be particularly profitable, however the CNN experiment had been successful and Turner hoped that Cartoon Network would also find success.Initially, the channel would broadcast cartoons 24 hours a day. Most of the short cartoons were aired in half-hour or hour-long packages, usually separated by character or studio \u2013 Down Wit' Droopy D aired old Droopy Dog shorts, The Tom and Jerry Show presented the classic cat-and-mouse team, and Bugs and Daffy Tonight provided classic Looney Tunes shorts. Late Night Black and White showed early black-and-white cartoons (mostly from the Fleischer Studios and Walter Lantz cartoons from the 1930s, as well as black-and-white Merrie Melodies and MGM cartoons), and ToonHeads would show three shorts with a similar theme and provide trivia about the cartoons. There was also an afternoon cartoon block called High Noon Toons, which was hosted by cowboy hand puppets (an example of the simplicity and imagination the network had in its early years). The majority of the classic animation that was shown on Cartoon Network no longer airs on a regular basis, but Tom and Jerry and Looney Tunes continued to air up until 2017.\nA challenge for Cartoon Network was to overcome its low penetration of existing cable systems. When launched on October 1, 1992, the channel was only carried by 233 cable systems. However, it benefited from package deals. New subscribers to sister channels TNT and TBS could also get access to Cartoon Network through such deals. The high ratings of Cartoon Network over the following couple of years led to more cable systems including it. By the end of 1994, Cartoon Network had become \"the fifth most popular cable channel in the United States.\"For the first few years of Cartoon Network's existence, programming meant for the channel would also be simulcast on TBS and/or TNT, both of which were still full-service cable networks that carried a variety of different programming genera, in order to increase the shows' (and Cartoon Network's) exposure; examples include The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest, Cartoon Planet, SWAT Kats: The Radical Squadron, and 2 Stupid Dogs.\nThe network's first exclusive original show was The Moxy Show, an animation anthology series first airing in 1993. The first series produced by Cartoon Network was Space Ghost Coast to Coast in 1994, but the show mostly consisted of \"recycled animation cells\" from the archives of Hanna-Barbera, being an ironic deconstruction of a talk show. It featured live-action guests, mostly consisting of celebrities which were past their prime or counterculture figures. A running gag was that the production cost was dubbed \"minimal\". The series found its audience among young adults who appreciated its \"hip\" perspective.Kevin Sandler considered Space Ghost Coast to Coast instrumental in establishing Cartoon Network's appeal to older audiences. Space Ghost, a 1960s superhero by Hanna-Barbera, was recast as the star of a talk show spoof. This was arguably the first time the network revived a \"classic animated icon\" in an entirely new context for comedic purposes. Grown-ups who had ceased enjoying the original takes on the characters could find amusement in the \"new ironic and self-referential context\" for them. Promotional shorts such as the \"Scooby-Doo Project,\" a parody of The Blair Witch Project, gave similar treatments to the Scooby gang. However, there were less successful efforts at such revivals. A Day in the Life of Ranger Smith and Boo Boo Runs Wild (1999) were short cartoons featuring new takes on Yogi Bear's supporting cast by John Kricfalusi. Their style of humor, sexual content, and break in tone from the source material was rather out of place among the rest of the Cartoon Network shows, and the network rarely found a place for them in its programming.In 1994, Hanna-Barbera's new division Cartoon Network Studios was founded and started production on What a Cartoon! (also known as World Premiere Toons and Cartoon Cartoons). This show debuted in 1995, offering original animated shorts commissioned from Hanna-Barbera and various independent animators. The network promoted the series as an attempt to return to the \"classic days\" of studio animation, offering full animator control, high budgets, and no limited animation. The project was spearheaded by Cartoon Network executives, plus John Kricfalusi and Fred Seibert. Kricfalusi was the creator of The Ren & Stimpy Show and served as an advisor to the network, while Seibert was formerly one of the driving forces behind Nickelodeon's Nicktoons and would go on to produce the similar animation anthology series Oh Yeah! Cartoons and Random! Cartoons.Cartoon Network was able to assess the potential of certain shorts to serve as pilots for spin-off series and signed contracts with their creators to create ongoing series. Dexter's Laboratory was the most popular short series according to a vote held in 1995 and eventually became the first spin-off of What a Cartoon! in 1996. Three more series based on shorts debuted from 1997 to 1999: Johnny Bravo, Cow and Chicken, I Am Weasel (the latter two as segments of the same show; I Am Weasel was later spun off into a separate show), The Powerpuff Girls, Courage the Cowardly Dog, and Mike, Lu & Og. The unrelated series Ed, Edd n Eddy also premiered in 1999, creating a line-up of critically acclaimed shows. Many of these series premiered bearing the \"Cartoon Cartoons\" brand, airing throughout the network's schedule and prominently on Cartoon Cartoon Fridays, which became the marquee night for premieres of new episodes and series beginning on June 11, 1999.\nThese original series were intended to appeal to a wider audience than the average Saturday-morning cartoon. Linda Simensky, vice president of original animation, reminded adults and teenage girls that cartoons could appeal to them as well. Kevin Sandler's article of them claimed that these cartoons were both less \"bawdy\" than their counterparts at Comedy Central and less \"socially responsible\" than their counterparts at Nickelodeon. Sandler pointed to the whimsical rebelliousness, high rate of exaggeration and self-consciousness of the overall output each individual series managed.In 1995, Cartoon Network launched \"Cartoon Network Online\" as an America Online exclusive website. It would later merge with ghostplanet.com as simply \"CartoonNetwork.com\", and featured games, videos, shopping, and Cartoon Orbit (which launched in 2000), as well as promotions for movies, video games, food items, toys, etc. such as Campbell's Soup, Ice Age, the original Spy Kids trilogy, The Cat in the Hat, Juicy Drop Pop, Wonder Ball, Hot Wheels, and more. In addition, CartoonNetwork.com also ran Cartoon Network's first online original series Web Premiere Toons, which mostly featured interactive web cartoons that ran from 1999 to 2002.\nIn 1996, Cartoon Network decided to air preschool programming and air them every Sunday morning, such as hiring Children's Television Workshop, the makers of Sesame Street on PBS Kids, to make a show called Big Bag, a live-action/puppet television program targeted at pre-school viewers, as well as Small World, a children's animated anthology show and variety show, in which showcased featured several segments from animated TV programs aimed at preschoolers from several countries around the world except for Japan, China, and Korea. Big Bag ran until 2001, and Small World ran until 2002.\nIn 1996, Turner Broadcasting System merged with Time Warner (ironically, Time Warner's predecessor Warner Communications help launched rival Nickelodeon, now owned by ViacomCBS, in 1977 as Pinwheel). The merger consolidated ownership of all the Warner Bros. cartoons, allowing the post-July 1948 and the former Sunset-owned black-and-white cartoons (which Warner Bros. had reacquired in the 1960s) releases to be shown on the network. As most of the post-July 1948 cartoons were still contracted to be shown on Nickelodeon and ABC, the network would not air them until September 1999 (from Nickelodeon) and October 2000 (from ABC), however, the majority of the post-July 1948 cartoons that were shown on its now-sibling broadcast network The WB's Kids' WB block began airing on Cartoon Network in January 1997. Newer animated productions by Warner Bros. Animation also started appearing on the network \u2013 mostly reruns of shows that had aired on Kids' WB and some from Fox Kids, along with certain new programs such as Justice League.Cartoon Network's programming would not be available in Canada until 1997 when a Canadian specialty channel called Teletoon and its French-language counterpart launched. Some of its original programs also aired on YTV Canada.\nIn 1997, Cartoon Network launched a new action block entitled Toonami. Its lineup initially consisted of 1980s reruns of Robotech and ThunderCats. However, new shows were introduced and they consisted of action cartoons and anime, such as Sailor Moon, Tenchi Muyo!, Mobile Suit Gundam Wing, and Dragon Ball Z. Toonami was hosted by Moltar from the Space Ghost franchise until 1999, where Toonami was later hosted by its own original character, a muscular teenage robot named TOM. On March 2, 1998, a series of bumpers featuring the instrumental Powerhouse were introduced. These bumpers lasted from 1998 to 2004.One new original series premiered in 2000: Sheep in the Big City. On April 1, 2000, Cartoon Network launched a digital cable and satellite channel known as Boomerang, which was spun off from one of their programming blocks that featured retro animated series and shorts.\nThree new original series premiered in 2001: Time Squad, Samurai Jack, and Grim & Evil. On June 18, 2001, Betty Cohen, who had served as Cartoon Network's president since its founding, left due to creative disagreements with Jamie Kellner, then-head of Turner Broadcasting. On August 22, 2001, Jim Samples was appointed general manager and Executive Vice President of the network, replacing Cohen. Adult Swim debuted on September 2, 2001, with an episode of Home Movies, the block initially aired on Sunday nights, with a repeat telecast on Thursdays. The initial lineup consisted of Harvey Birdman: Attorney at Law, Sealab 2021, Cowboy Bebop, The Brak Show, Aqua Teen Hunger Force, and Space Ghost Coast to Coast.\nIn 2002, Whatever Happened to... Robot Jones? and Codename: Kids Next Door premiered; the former was short-lived, but the latter became a juggernaut for the network in the mid-2000s. The first theatrical film based on a Cartoon Network series, The Powerpuff Girls Movie, was released on July 3, 2002. Although it was a commercial failure at the time of its release, grossing $16.4 million worldwide on a budget of $11 million, it did receive some positive reviews from critics. On October 1 of that year, Cartoon Network celebrated their tenth anniversary, with a montage showcasing the network's various phases over the years.\n2003 saw the debuts of The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy and Evil Con Carne, both spinoffs of Grim & Evil. The network started to drop the \"Cartoon Cartoons\" brand from its original programming and ended the Cartoon Cartoon Fridays block on May 16, 2003. On October 3, 2003, the Cartoon Cartoon Fridays block was rebooted in a live-action format as \"Fridays\", hosted by Tommy Snider and Nzinga Blake, the latter of which was later replaced by Tara Sands in 2005. It aired episodes of Cartoon Network original series and acquired shows alongside movies and specials. Acquired shows started picking up again with Totally Spies! debuting the following year.\n\n\n=== 2004\u20132010 ===\n\nIn 2004, Cartoon Network premiered three new original series: Megas XLR, Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends, and Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi along with the acquired series Code Lyoko. On June 14, 2004, Cartoon Network rebranded, which included an updated version of its original logo (with the checkerboard motif retained and the \"C\" and \"N\" being the centerpiece) and a new slogan, \"This is Cartoon Network!\" The bumpers introduced as part of the rebrand featured 2D cartoon characters from its shows interacting in a CGI city composed of sets from their shows. These bumpers lasted from 2004 to 2007. By now, nearly all of Cartoon Network's classic programming had been relocated to its sister network Boomerang to make way for new programming.\n2005 saw the debuts of five more original series: The Life and Times of Juniper Lee, Camp Lazlo, Robotboy, My Gym Partner's a Monkey, and Ben 10. On August 22, 2005, Cartoon Network launched a block aimed at the preschool demographic known as Tickle-U; shows on the block included Gordon the Garden Gnome, Yoko! Jakamoko! Toto!, Harry and His Bucket Full of Dinosaurs, Little Robots, Peppa Pig, Firehouse Tales, and Gerald McBoing-Boing. The block was largely unsuccessful and was discontinued on January 6, 2006. From 2005 to 2008, most of the network's older Cartoon Cartoons (such as Dexter's Laboratory and The Powerpuff Girls) could be viewed in segments on a half-hour block known as The Cartoon Cartoon Show.In 2005, Cartoon Network signed a deal with AMC Theatres for Summer MovieCamp to feature episodes of Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi, Camp Lazlo, The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy, Codename: Kids Next Door, and Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends in the big screen.After its predecessor, What a Cartoon!, Cartoon Network created an all-new animated short series consisting of overseas shorts, pilots, college shorts, or even shorts created for the show itself. That show was called Sunday Pants; it first aired on the day of October 2, 2005. Sunday Pants varies on different types of animation, from traditional hand-drawn animation to Flash, or even CGI, possibly making it similar to other shows such as Liquid Television on MTV or KaBlam! on Nickelodeon. The show was created by Craig \"Sven\" Gordon and Stuart Hill, and was produced at Spitfire Studios. The show has a similar concept to What a Cartoon!, except that the shorts are 1\u20133 minutes long and the show is squeezed to be 23 minutes (without commercials). There are animated and live-action intervals in-between shorts. The live-action ones are performed by American band The Slacks, while the animated ones are animated by WeFail. The show lasted for less than a month, with its final airing taking place on October 23, 2005. In January 2006, the show was announced to be returning the month after but said return never came to fruition and the series was ultimately cancelled.\nTwo new Cartoon Network original series premiered in 2006: Squirrel Boy and Class of 3000. Three made-for-TV movies debuted this year: Codename: Kids Next Door \u2013 Operation Z.E.R.O., Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends: Good Wilt Hunting, and Re-Animated, the latter of which was the network's first live-action TV movie and a collaboration between live-action and animation.\nSamples resigned from his post on February 9, 2007, following a bomb scare in Boston caused by packages left around the city that were part of an outdoor marketing campaign promoting the Adult Swim series Aqua Teen Hunger Force. On May 2, 2007, Stuart Snyder was named Samples' successor. On September 14, 2007, the network's look was revamped, with bumpers and station IDs themed to The Hives song \"Fall is Just Something That Grown-Ups Invented.\" 2007 saw the debut of Out of Jimmy's Head, a spin-off of the movie Re-Animated, and the first live-action Cartoon Network series. 2007 also saw the debut of the series Chowder. In late 2007, the network began broadcasting programs from Canadian channels such as YTV and Teletoon, including George of the Jungle, 6teen, Storm Hawks, League of Super Evil, Chaotic, Bakugan Battle Brawlers, Stoked, and the Total Drama series. Each October from 2007 to 2009, Cartoon Network also re-ran 40 episodes of the former Fox Kids series Goosebumps.\nCartoon Network announced at its 2008 upfront that it was working on a new project called The Cartoonstitute, which was headed by animators Craig McCracken as executive producer and Rob Renzetti as supervising producer. Both reported to Rob Sorcher, who created the idea. It would have worked similar to What a Cartoon!, by creating at least 150 pieces of animation within 20 months. Cartoonstitute was eventually cancelled, and out of all the shorts, two or three, Regular Show, Secret Mountain Fort Awesome and Uncle Grandpa, were selected, after animator Craig McCracken (creator of The Powerpuff Girls and Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends) left the network after 15 years in 2009. On September 20, 2008, Cartoon Network ended Toonami after its 11-year run. From 2008 to 2010, Cartoon Network aired animated shorts that served as interstitials between programs, called Wedgies, which included Big Baby, The Bremen Avenue Experience, Calling Cat-22, Nacho Bear, and The Talented Mr. Bixby. On July 14, 2008, the network took on a refreshed look created by Tristan Eaton and animated by Crew972. The bumpers of that era had white, faceless characters called Noods, based on the DIY toy, Munny. These characters had many variations that made them look like characters from different CN shows. The standard network logo was changed to be white, adopting different colors based on the occasion in the same style.In June 2009, Cartoon Network introduced a block of live-action reality shows called \"CN Real\", featuring programs such as The Othersiders, Survive This, BrainRush, Destroy Build Destroy, Dude, What Would Happen, and Bobb'e Says. Survive This was a Canadian reality series that was imported from YTV, making it the only Canadian import to be part of the lineup. The network also aired some limited sports programming, including basketball recaps and Slamball games, during commercial breaks. The lineup was universally panned for being live-action shows on a channel dedicated to cartoons. That year, it also started airing live-action feature films from Warner Bros. and New Line Cinema. In 2010, the first series produced by Cartoon Network Studios to be broadcast in high definition was Adventure Time.\n\n\n=== 2010\u20132019 ===\n\nOn May 29, 2010, a new brand identity was introduced, along with new bumpers, a theme, and a tagline, \"CHECK it.\" The branding, designed by Brand New School, consists of the black and white checkerboard which formed the network's first logo (and was carried over in a minimized form to the second logo), as well as various CMYK color variations and various patterns. On December 27, 2010, Adult Swim expanded by one hour, moving its start time from 10:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m. ET. In February 2011, Cartoon Network aired its first sports award show Hall of Game Awards, hosted that year by professional skateboarder Tony Hawk.\nAt its 2011 upfront, Cartoon Network announced 12 new series, including The Problem Solverz (originally planned for Adult Swim, but switched to CN for being \"too cute\"), The Amazing World of Gumball, The Looney Tunes Show, Secret Mountain Fort Awesome, Level Up (a scripted live-action comedy series with a 90-minute precursor film), Tower Prep, Green Lantern, DreamWorks Dragons (a series based on the DreamWorks film, How to Train Your Dragon), Total Drama: Revenge of the Island, the 4th season of Total Drama; ThunderCats, Ninjago: Masters of Spinjitzu, and Ben 10: Omniverse. The network announced it planned to debut a new programming block called DC Nation which would focus on the DC superheroes, the first being the series Green Lantern.After announcing two new live-action shows in Unnatural History and Tower Prep, which were both cancelled after their first seasons, Cartoon Network acquired the game show, Hole in the Wall (originally aired on Fox). By the end of 2011, Hole in the Wall and the final two CN Real shows, Destroy Build Destroy and Dude, What Would Happen? were removed from Cartoon Network's schedule completely. In 2012, Cartoon Network acquired the television rights to The High Fructose Adventures of Annoying Orange, based on the web series, The Annoying Orange and added it to its primetime lineup.On February 2, 2012, Corus Entertainment and Astral Media, owners of Teletoon, announced they would launch a Canadian version of Cartoon Network that also includes a version of the U.S. network's Adult Swim nighttime block. The channel launched on July 4, 2012. The following month, March 2012, Cartoon Network aired its first documentary, Speak Up, an anti-bullying campaign featuring a special appearance by President Barack Obama. On October 1, 2012, Cartoon Network celebrated its 20th anniversary, airing birthday and party-themed reruns of its shows for several days. Earlier in the year on March 30, 2012, the Cartoon Planet block was revived to air the channel's original programming from the late 1990s through mid-2000s. In addition, the channel announced new programming for 2013, including the live-action series Incredible Crew; the animated series Teen Titans Go!, Uncle Grandpa, Steven Universe, I Heart Tuesdays (which never went through production), Mixels, Clarence, Total Drama: All-Stars, Grojband, Beware the Batman, The Tom and Jerry Show, and Legends of Chima; and a new Powerpuff Girls special, the latter of which aired on January 20, 2014.\nOn May 20, 2013, Cartoon Network updated its identity by adding new bumpers, graphics, and sounds. A short animation was created for each show, and these animations were used when featuring the show in Next bumpers. The background used in its promos and bumpers was also changed from black to white. On April 28, 2013, the network aired the CNN half-hour documentary The Bully Effect, which details the story of teenager Alex Libby and his struggle with bullying in high school. The special is based on the 2011 film Bully directed by Lee Hirsch.On March 6, 2014, Stuart Snyder was removed as president and COO of Turner's Animation, Young Adults & Kids Media division after a restructure. On July 16, Christina Miller was named his successor as president and general manager of Cartoon Network, Adult Swim, and Boomerang. At the end of the month, Cartoon Network's 8 pm ET/PT primetime hour was given to its night time block Adult Swim, causing new episodes of the network's programming to change time slots. On October 21, 2014, Cartoon Network, along with CNN and Boomerang, were taken off-air from US-based TV provider, Dish Network, due to contract disagreements. However, the channels were restored a month later.\nOn May 30, 2016, Cartoon Network refreshed its on-air presentation with a new graphics package based on previous rebrands in the CHECK It family. Known as \"Dimensional\", the branding was developed by Bent Design Lab and featured various Cartoon Network characters rendered in 3D CGI, stop-motion, and 2D animation. Branding and marketing agency Troika developed the Dimensional style guide, a set of channel-wide standards.On October 22, 2016, AT&T reached a deal to acquire Time Warner for $108.7 billion. The merger was approved by federal regulators on June 12, 2018, and the merger was completed 2 days later, with Time Warner's name changed to WarnerMedia. To celebrate the network's 25th anniversary, Cartoon Network announced an exhibit called \"Cartoon Network: 25 Years of Drawing on Creativity\" in partnership with the Paley Center, with showings from September 16. 2017 to October 8, 2017, in their New York City location, and moved to their Beverly Hills, California location with showings from October 14 to November 19 of that year.On January 26, 2018, the network announced plans to launch a new cruise ship, in partnership between Turner Broadcasting and Oceanic Group. The ship, Cartoon Network Wave, embarked on its maiden voyage in late 2018. On October 29, 2018, Cartoon Network announced construction of its first amusement hotel in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, which opened on January 10, 2020. The company is working with Palace Entertainment to \"offer fun and unexpected ways to experience the animated worlds of Cartoon Network from the moment of arrival,\" according to current president Christina Miller.On March 4, 2019, AT&T announced a major reorganization of WarnerMedia's Turner Broadcasting division, which involves Cartoon Network, Boomerang, Adult Swim and Turner Classic Movies being transferred to Warner Bros. Entertainment. Although AT&T did not specify any timetable for the changes to take effect, WarnerMedia had begun to remove all Turner references in corporate communications and press releases, referring to that unit's networks as \"divisions of WarnerMedia\".\n\n\n=== 2019\u2013present ===\nOn November 27, 2019, it was announced that Christina Miller would be leaving WarnerMedia at the end of 2019. Michael Ouweleen served as interim president of Cartoon Network, with Miller helping with the transition.On April 7, 2020, it was announced that effective July 1, Tom Ascheim would become President of Warner Bros. Global Kids, Young Adults and Classics, overseeing Cartoon Network, Boomerang, Adult Swim, and Turner Classic Movies.On September 8, 2020, Cartoon Network released a Back to School PSA worldwide titled \"In This Together\" featuring characters from Teen Titans Go! and children from around the world including Emily Feichthaler and Lachlan Feichthaler talking about how school will be this year.On February 5, 2021, Tom Ascheim stated in an interview with Kidscreen that Cartoon Network would expand its offerings to include series aimed at family audiences, girls, and preschoolers. The interview ended with the acquisition of the broadcast rights to Thomas & Friends: All Engines Go!, a reboot of the original Thomas & Friends series.\nThese plans culminated on February 17, when it was announced that WarnerMedia's international preschool brand Cartoonito would come to Cartoon Network in United States as a programming block (in addition to a streaming component on HBO Max). Over 20 series are expected to be featured at its fall 2021 launch.On February 15, 2021, Cartoon Network launched a new imaging campaign, developed by the New York City-based Bullpen.\n\n\n== Programming ==\n\nCartoon Network's current original programming includes such shows as \nThe Amazing World of Gumball, Craig of the Creek, Victor and Valentino, Apple & Onion, and Mao Mao: Heroes of Pure Heart. The network's original programming is produced at Cartoon Network Studios, while other shows have either been co-produced with or acquired from other studios, including the affiliated Warner Bros. Animation. In the past, Cartoon Network has also produced and aired live-action and animated hybrid programming.\nOver the years, Cartoon Network has aired various Looney Tunes and Tom and Jerry shorts in constant rotation, dating back to the network's launch in 1992 until 2017. In its early days, Cartoon Network benefited from having access to a large collection of animated programming, including the libraries of Warner Bros. (Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies), Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (Tom and Jerry), and Hanna-Barbera (The Flintstones, Scooby-Doo, Snorks). Turner's ownership of Hanna-Barbera gave the network access to an established animation studio, something its rivals didn't have. Most of these series were removed by 1999 and moved to Boomerang in 2000.\n\n\n=== Original series ===\n\nMuch of Cartoon Network's original programming originates from the network's in-house studio, Cartoon Network Studios. Beginning as a division of Hanna-Barbera, this studio would produce some of the network's earliest original series, including Dexter's Laboratory, Cow and Chicken, I Am Weasel, Johnny Bravo, and The Powerpuff Girls. Cartoon Cartoons was once the branding for Cartoon Network's original animated television series, but it was seldom used by the network by 2003. The name was eventually discontinued in 2008. Additionally several of the Cartoon Network's original series have been produced by studios other than the network's own in-house studio. Notable examples of this being Ed, Edd n Eddy, Courage the Cowardly Dog, and Codename: Kids Next Door. The name was resurrected by the network in 2021, for a new animated shorts program.\n\n\n=== Programming blocks ===\nBy the early 2000s, Cartoon Network had established programming blocks aimed at different age demographics. The shows broadcast during the early morning had preschoolers called Tickle U as their target audience and mostly had prosocial behavior as a theme. The Toonami programming block, featured later in the day, mostly included anime shows and its target audience was tweens and teenagers. Prime time shows mostly included classic cartoons, featured as part of The Tex Avery Show, The Chuck Jones Show and The Bob Clampett Show. Preschool programming was discontinued by 2007.\n\n\n== Editing of Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies shorts ==\nCartoon Network has, during its history, broadcast most of the Warner Bros. animated shorts originally created between the 1920s and the 1960s, but the network edited out scenes depicting discharge of gunfire, alcohol ingestion, cowboys and Indians gags, tobacco, and politically incorrect humor. The unedited versions were kept from both broadcasting and wide release on the video market. Coal Black and de Sebben Dwarfs (1943), a politically incorrect but critically well-regarded short, was notably omitted entirely, while The Scarlet Pumpernickel (1950) and Feed the Kitty (1952), both well-regarded, had their finales heavily edited due to violence.There was media attention in June 2001 over a network decision concerning further omissions from broadcasting. Cartoon Network formerly scheduled a 49-hour-long marathon annually known as June Bugs, promising to broadcast every Bugs Bunny animated short in chronological order. The network originally intended to include 12 shorts for its 2001 airing of the marathon (one of them part of the Censored Eleven list of Merrie Melodies and Looney Tunes cartoons effectively shelved from distribution) that had become controversial for using ethnic and national stereotypes, albeit broadcasting them past midnight to ensure few children were watching, with introductions concerning their historic value as representatives of another time. The network's corporate parent considered it likely that there would be complaints concerning racial insensitivity. This led to all 12 being omitted in their entirety. Laurie Goldberg, vice-president of public relations, defended the decision, stating, \"We're the leader in animation, but we're also one of the top-rated general entertainment networks. There are certain responsibilities that come with that.\"\n\n\n== Marketing ==\nCartoon Network shows with established fan followings, such as Dexter's Laboratory, allowed the network to pursue licensing agreements with companies interested in selling series-related merchandise. For example, agreements with Kraft Foods led to widespread in-store advertising for Cartoon Network-related products. The network also worked on cross-promotion campaigns with both Kraft and Tower Records. In product development and marketing, the network has benefited from its relation to corporate parent Time Warner, allowing for mutually beneficial relationships with various subsidiary companies.Time Warner Cable, the former cable television subsidiary of the corporate parent (which was spun off from Time Warner in 2009), distributes Cartoon Network as part of its packages. Turner Broadcasting System, the subsidiary overseeing various Time Warner-owned networks, helped cross-promote Cartoon Network shows and at times arranged for swapping certain shows between the networks. For example, Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends, one of CN's original shows, was at times seen at Kids' WB (which was discontinued on May 24, 2008), while Xiaolin Showdown and \u00a1Mucha Lucha!, two of Kids' WB's original shows, were seen at Cartoon Network. In each case, the swap intended to cultivate a shared audience for the two networks. Time Inc., the former subsidiary overseeing the magazines of the corporate parent, ensured favorable coverage of Cartoon Network and advertising space across its publications. Printed advertisements for CN shows could appear in magazines such as Time, Entertainment Weekly and Sports Illustrated Kids until Time Inc. was spun off from Time Warner on June 9, 2014. AOL, a now-former sibling company to Time Warner covering Internet services, helped promote Cartoon Network shows online by offering exclusive content for certain animated series, online sweepstakes and display advertising for CN.Warner Bros. Home Entertainment, the home video subsidiary, distributed VHS tapes, DVDs and Blu-ray Discs featuring Cartoon Network shows. Select Warner Bros. Family Entertainment VHS releases came with bonus cartoons from Cartoon Network. Rhino Entertainment, the former record label subsidiary of the corporate parent (which was spun off from Time Warner in 2004), distributed cassette tapes and CDs with Cartoon Network-related music. These products were also available through the Warner Bros. Studio Store. DC Comics, the comic book subsidiary, published a series featuring the Powerpuff Girls, indicating it could handle other CN-related characters. Warner Bros., the film studio subsidiary, released The Powerpuff Girls Movie in 2002. Kevin Sandler considered it likely that this film would find its way to HBO or Cinemax, two television network subsidiaries which regularly broadcast feature films. Sandler also viewed book tie-ins through Warner Books as likely, since it was the only area of marketing not covered yet by 2001.\n\n\n== Related networks and units ==\n\n\n=== Adult Swim ===\n\nAdult Swim (often stylized as [adult swim] or [as]) is the adult-oriented programming brand of Cartoon Network. The programs featured on Adult Swim are geared toward a mature audience, in contrast to the all-ages, preteen daytime programming of Cartoon Network. As a result, Adult Swim is treated by Nielsen as a separate network in its ratings reports (similar to Nickelodeon's Nick at Nite block) and marketed as such because of its differing target demographics. The network broadcasts both animated and live-action shows (including original programming, syndicated 20th Television shows, and Japanese anime) generally with minimal or no editing for content.\nAdult Swim is usually broadcast from 8:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m. ET/PT in the United States. Its start time was moved up an hour to 8 pm on March 31, 2014, though the 8 pm hour has been given back to Cartoon Network on numerous occasions. Such occasions include the premieres of Adventure Time: Stakes in 2015, the final season of Regular Show in 2016, new episodes from the sixth season of The Amazing World of Gumball in 2018, and the first ten episodes of Steven Universe Future in 2019.\n\n\n=== Toonami ===\n\nToonami (a portmanteau of \"cartoon\" and \"tsunami\", suggesting a \"tidal wave\" of animated cartoons) is a brand used for action-oriented programming blocks and television channels worldwide. The original program block launched on Cartoon Network in the United States on March 17, 1997, and primarily aired both American cartoons and Japanese anime. The block would end its original run on September 20, 2008, before it was later revived on May 26, 2012, as a relaunch of Adult Swim's Saturday night anime block. Toonami's current incarnation is similar to that of the \"Midnight Run\", a special version of the block that originally ran on Saturday nights and was the forerunner for Adult Swim. The block is best known for its branding and aesthetic, including its animated host, a robot named TOM, that was later voiced by Steven Blum.\nThe Toonami brand was also used internationally for dedicated networks in the United Kingdom (replacing CNX), Asia (in December 2012), India (in February 2015), and France (in February 2016).\n\n\n=== Cartoonito ===\n\nCartoonito is an international preschool brand from WarnerMedia that encompasses several programming blocks and TV channels. It originally launched in the UK in 2006, before expanding to the rest of the EMEA region.\nIn February 2021, it was announced that Cartoonito would launch as a programming block in the fall, along with an additional streaming component and a TV morning channel for Cartoon Network and HBO Max.\n\n\n=== Boomerang ===\n\nBoomerang is a brand dedicated to classic and theatrical cartoons aimed towards the Baby Boom generation. It was originally a weekend programming block that aired on Cartoon Network from December 8, 1992, until October 2004. On April 1, 2000, Boomerang received a new look and was spun off into its own cable channel. In 2017, an online Boomerang video-on-demand service was launched, which includes classic series along with new episodes of original series like Scooby-Doo and Guess Who?, New Looney Tunes, and The Tom and Jerry Show.\n\n\n=== Move It Movement ===\nMove It Movement (previously named Get Animated) is a campaign of the channel, encouraging children to get active, more importantly in outdoor areas. The program is designed \"to provide support and encouragement in the ongoing battle against childhood obesity.\" The Get Animated campaign was launched on February 28, 2005.\n\n\n=== Cartoon Network on Demand ===\nCartoon Network on Demand is the network's video on demand service, which launched in 2002, and allows viewers to watch the latest episodes of their original series.\n\n\n=== High definition channels and service ===\nA high definition feed of Cartoon Network is available on many cable and all satellite service providers. The high definition feed was launched on October 15, 2007. Like all WarnerMedia networks, 4:3-sourced content is stretched on the high definition feed to fill the 16:9 aspect ratio. Starting September 26, 2009, all original shows were unstretched on the high definition feed in which were presented in their original 16:9 widescreen aspect ratio of 1.78:1. The network's HD content airs with letterboxing on the standard definition channel, and since May 13, 2013, the high definition feed is downscaled by the provider for the standard definition feed, resulting in all programming appearing in a 16:9 ratio with letterboxing. Unlike the other WarnerMedia networks, standard definition advertising is also stretched into 16:9 mode.\n\n\n=== Cartoon Network Studios ===\n\nCartoon Network Studios is a production studio located in the network's West Coast headquarters of Burbank, California, which serves as the network's first animation studio division to provide original programs for the network. While the studio makes original programs for the network, original Cartoon Network shows like The Moxy Show, Big Bag, Mike, Lu & Og, Ed, Edd n Eddy, Courage the Cowardly Dog, Sheep in the Big City, Codename: Kids Next Door, The Secret Saturdays, and Sunday Pants were all co-produced by the network itself without the studio.\n\n\n=== Williams Street ===\n\nWilliams Street Productions is the adult production studio division that provides original program to the network's late-night program Adult Swim that is located in Atlanta, Georgia, along with the main headquarters of the network.\n\n\n=== Hanna-Barbera Studios Europe ===\n\nHanna-Barbera Studios Europe (formerly known as Cartoon Network Development Studio Europe until 2017 and Cartoon Network Studios Europe until 2021) is the network's European production studio division that is located in London, England, which provides other original programs but from the United Kingdom.\n\n\n=== Cartoon Network Latin America Original Productions ===\nCartoon Network Latin America Original Productions is the network's Latin America production studio division that is located in Latin America.\n\n\n=== Cartoon Network Productions ===\nCartoon Network Productions is the network's distribution arm. It distributes the shows, pilots, and movies through various international Cartoon Network channels since 1994.\n\n\n=== Cartoon Network Games ===\nCartoon Network Games (formerly Cartoon Network Interactive) is the video game developer and publisher of video games based on Cartoon Network shows since 2000.\n\n\n=== Cartoon Network Enterprises ===\nCartoon Network Enterprises is the network's global licensing and merchandising arm established in 2001. It distributes merchandises of various Cartoon Network brands such as The Powerpuff Girls, Ben 10, We Bare Bears, Steven Universe, and more.\n\n\n=== Mobile app ===\nCartoon Network has a mobile app that provides the latest full episodes, a live stream from the East and West coast, and games, as well as the network's schedule.\n\n\n=== Video games ===\n\nIn 2011, Cartoon Network characters were featured in a four-player mascot brawler fighting game similar to Nintendo's Super Smash Bros. video game series called Cartoon Network: Punch Time Explosion for the Nintendo 3DS. The game was later released for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and the Wii as Cartoon Network Punch Time Explosion XL. Several video games based on the cartoon series Ben 10 were released by Cartoon Network as well. The Cartoon Network website also features various browser games incorporating characters from various Cartoon Network franchises. One such game was FusionFall, a massive multiplayer game released on January 14, 2009, and shut down on August 29, 2013.\n\n\n== Online ==\n\nCartoon Network registered its official website, CartoonNetwork.com, on January 9, 1996. It officially launched on July 27, 1998. Sam Register served as the site's Senior Vice President and Creative Director from 1997 to 2001. In its early years, small studios partnered with the network to produce exclusive \"Web Premiere Toons\", short cartoons made specifically for CartoonNetwork.com. More about animation was included in the \"Department of Cartoons\", which featured storyboards, episode guides, backgrounds, sound and video files, model sheets, production notes, and other information about shows on the network. In January 1999, the Department of Cartoons showcased the \"MGM Golden Age Collection\", most of which had not been published or even seen in more than 50 years. Cartoon Network launched Cartoon Orbit, an online gaming network characterized by digital trading cards called \"cToons\", in October 2000. The game officially ended on October 16, 2006.\nIn October 2000, CartoonNetwork.com outdid its rival Nickelodeon's website in terms of unique users, scoring 2.12 million compared to Nick.com's 1.95 million. In July 2007, Nielsen ratings data showed visitors spent an average of 77 minutes on the site, surpassing the previous record of 71 minutes set in 2004, and the site ranked 26th in terms of time spent for all US domains. On May 1, 2019, two Brazilian hackers doxed the official website for about 16 regions, putting inappropriate content. The website was shortly shut down after, and the issue was resolved.\n\n\n== International channels ==\n\nSince the inception of Cartoon Network and Boomerang, Turner has set up international feeds of both networks.\n\n\n== See also ==\nCartoonito\nList of international Cartoon Network channels\nTooncast\nNickelodeon\nNicktoons\nDisney XD\nDisney Channel\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Cartoon_Network_logo_%281992-2010%29.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Cartoon_Network_2010_logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Cartoon_Network_Games_%282016%29_logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Cartoon_Network_extended_logo_2010.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Cartoon_Network_logo_%281992-2010%29.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Cartoon_Network_logo_%282004-2010%29.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Wikipe-tan_face.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg"], "summary": "Cartoon Network (often shortened to CN) is an American cable television channel owned by the Kids, Young Adults and Classics division of Warner Bros. Entertainment, itself a subsidiary of AT&T's WarnerMedia through its Studios and Networks Group division.\nFounded by Betty Cohen, the channel was launched on October 1, 1992, and primarily broadcasts animated television series, mostly children's programming, ranging from action to animated comedy. It currently operates from 6:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. (ET/PT) and is targeted at children. Its overnight daypart block Adult Swim is aimed at teenagers and adults and is treated as a separate entity for promotional purposes and as a separate channel by Nielsen for ratings purposes.As of March 2021, Cartoon Network is available to approximately 94 million paid television households in the United States."}, "Over_the_Garden_Wall": {"links": ["Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends", "Cassette deck", "Dexter's Laboratory", "Bob Actually", "Sym-Bionic Titan", "OK K.O.! 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The series centers on two half-brothers who travel across a mysterious forest to find their way home, encountering a variety of strange and fantastical things on their journey. The show is based on McHale's animated short film Tome of the Unknown, which was produced as part of Cartoon Network Studios' shorts development program. Elijah Wood and Collin Dean voice the protagonists Wirt and Greg, and Melanie Lynskey voices Beatrice, a bluebird. The series' voice cast also includes Christopher Lloyd, Tim Curry, John Cleese and Samuel Ramey. Over the Garden Wall was broadcast throughout the week of November 3 to November 7, 2014.\nThe show was the first miniseries on the network. McHale first envisioned the show in 2004 and pitched it to the network in 2006. After working on other Cartoon Network shows including The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack and Adventure Time, the network expressed interest in McHale pitching a pilot. That pilot became the catalyst for Over the Garden Wall. Production of the show began in March 2014 and was largely done in Burbank, California, but many of the show's storyboard artists worked from other U.S. cities, while the program's animation was outsourced to South Korean studio Digital eMation. The series' environment evokes 19th- and 20th-century Americana, while its digital backgrounds are designed to resemble grisaille paintings.\nThe series was well received by television critics, who praised its atmosphere and characters. In 2015, the series won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program. A one-shot comic book adaptation penned by McHale has been produced, with four further issues commissioned. This was later expanded into an ongoing comic series that ran for 20 issues and continued in a series of graphic novels and comic book miniseries.\n\n\n== Plot ==\nThe series follows two half-brothers, Wirt and Greg (voiced by Elijah Wood and Collin Dean respectively), who become lost in a strange forest called the Unknown. To find their way home, the two must travel across the seemingly supernatural forest with the occasional help of the wandering, mysterious and elderly Woodsman (Christopher Lloyd) and Beatrice (Melanie Lynskey), an irritable bluebird who travels with the boys to find a woman called Adelaide, who can supposedly undo the curse on Beatrice and her family and show the half-brothers the way home.Wirt, the older brother, is a worry-prone teenager who would rather keep to himself than have to make a decision. His passions including playing the clarinet and writing poetry, but he usually keeps these private out of fear of being mocked. On the other hand, Greg, the younger brother, is more na\u00efve and carefree, much to Wirt's chagrin. Greg carries a frog (Jack Jones) that he found; Greg's attempts to give the frog a name are a running gag. Stalking the main cast is the Beast (Samuel Ramey), an ancient creature who leads lost souls astray until they lose their hope and willpower and turn into \"Edelwood trees\". Once they find Adelaide, Wirt discovers that she intends only to enslave the boys; outraged that Beatrice misled them, Wirt takes Greg and abandons her.\n\n\n=== Final chapters ===\nThe penultimate episode reveals that Wirt and Greg are modern children who entered the Unknown after falling into a pond on Halloween. Wirt, attempting to take back an embarrassing poetry and clarinet tape he made for a girl he is infatuated with, had followed her to a ghost story party in a graveyard, where a police officer scared him and Greg into jumping over the cemetery's garden wall. On the other side of the wall, they landed on a train track. To save Greg from being hit by a train, Wirt pulled him into a nearby pond, knocking them both unconscious in the process and sending them to a Limbo-like realm between life and death.\nIn the final episode, Wirt saves Greg from being turned into an Edelwood tree by the Beast. At the end of the episode, Wirt and Greg wake up in a hospital back in their hometown. As the scene ends, Greg's frog, which swallowed a magic bell in the Unknown, begins to glow, suggesting that their experience in the Unknown may have been real. The series ends with a montage of how Wirt and Greg affected the inhabitants of the Unknown.\n\n\n== Production ==\nOver the Garden Wall was first envisioned in 2004 with a scarier and more adventure-based storyline. Before working as a storyboard artist on The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack, artist Patrick McHale pitched the show in 2006, then known under the title Tome of the Unknown. The series would follow two brothers\u2014Walter and Gregory\u2014who, after signing themselves into a Faustian deal with a devil named Old Scratch, journey across the Land of the In-Between to track down the pages of a book of forgotten stories.McHale saw it as \"a possible Halloween special\", but had trouble adapting the premise with a larger story arc. After his work for Flapjack, McHale moved on to co-develop Adventure Time, where he served as creative director, and subsequently as a writer. The network later asked him if he had interest in developing a pilot, which led to him returning to Tome of the Unknown, polishing it and pitching it again to the network. After creating a pilot episode, Tome of the Unknown: Harvest Melody, McHale and the network settled upon the miniseries format for the ensuing series, as McHale felt that it would lead to \"something that felt higher quality than what we could do with a regular series\". McHale abandoned the original idea centered around chapters of a mystical tome and the series' title became Over the Garden Wall.Production for Over the Garden Wall commenced in late 2013. McHale initially envisioned eighteen chapters in the series, but the episode count was brought to ten to accommodate budget and time constraints. Early drafts of episodes from the show's pitch bible included a skinless witch character and a villain who carves dice from the bones of kidnapped children, as well a running plot throughout four episodes in which Wirt and Gregory are transformed into animals (Gregory being a duck and Wirt being \"either a bear or a dog ... Nobody can tell which\").The ten episodes marked the first miniseries on the Cartoon Network. The show features Wood and Dean (reprising their roles from the short), along with Lynskey as the main voice cast. McHale and his crew tried to maintain a balance between frightening imagery and \"episodes that are just light and funny\". For the music, McHale drew inspiration from \"classic American, opera singing\". Nick Cross served as art director and Nate Cash as supervising director; both worked with McHale alongside storyboard artists located in New York and Chicago. This distance proved difficult for McHale, who found it \"particularly daunting considering the idiosyncratic nature of the production\".The series' art was inspired by a variety of sources, including the 1890s McLoughlin Brothers board game Game of Frog Pond, illustrations by Gustave Dor\u00e9 for Cervantes's Don Quixote, old illustrations for the Hans Christian Andersen story \"The Tinderbox\", the Cheshire Cat illustration by John Tenniel from Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, and the \"Dogville Comedies\" short films. McHale referenced chromolithography, vintage Halloween postcards, magic lantern slides, and photographs of New England foliage to create the show's style.\n\n\n== Cast ==\n\n\n=== Main voices ===\n\n\n=== Various voices ===\n\n\n== Episodes ==\n\n\n=== Pilot (2013) ===\n\n\n=== Miniseries ===\n\n\n== Broadcast ==\nMcHale's original short, Tome of the Unknown, was screened at the 2014 Santa Barbara International Film Festival, where McHale earned the Bruce Corwin Award for best animated short film. It also received an honorable mention at the 2013 Ottawa International Animation Festival.At the 2014 San Diego Comic-Con International, a preview of the show was screened along with various panels for other shows on the network. Episode 2 was previewed at the 2014 New York Comic Con, which McHale and the main cast attended. The show made its premiere on November 3, 2014 on Cartoon Network, and ran over five consecutive nights. The entirety of it was published on iTunes preceding its broadcast.The series aired on Cartoon Network in Australia from December 15 to 19, 2014 and on Cartoon Network in the United Kingdom and Ireland from April 6 to 10, 2015.\n\n\n== Music ==\nVarious melodies and songs based on pre-1950s music are heard throughout the series. Elijah Wood, the voice actor for Wirt, has said that \"if this show were a record, it would be played on a phonograph\". Songs from the series include \"Into the Unknown\", its title song, composed by Patrick McHale and sung by Jack Jones; \"A Courting Song\", composed by the Petrojvic Blasting Company and performed by Frank Fairfield; and \"Come Wayward Souls\", sung by Samuel Ramey as the Beast.The majority of the series' songs have been officially uploaded to YouTube. On the DVD release they can be heard, along with visuals and without dialogue, in a special feature known as the Composer's Cut. An extended version of the soundtrack, featuring 32 tracks and totaling around 44 minutes in length, was released in the form of a 180-gram vinyl record by Mondo in August 2016. The extended soundtrack debuted at the San Diego Comic-Con, with a limited 1,000 copies, featuring a cover designed by Sam Wolfe Connelly. The extended vinyl is also available as a webstore exclusive from Mondo.\nIn September 2015, Mondo released an audio cassette tape titled \"For Sara\", based on the cassette tape labelled with the same name seen in the series. The cassette features over twenty minutes of poetry spoken by Elijah Wood (in character as Wirt) and music performed by the Blasting Company. In September 2017, Mondo released the cassette a second time, with the subtitle \"(Back-Up Master)\".\n\n\n== Home media ==\nOver the Garden Wall (with the short film Tome of the Unknown) was released on DVD in Australia on July 8, 2015 by Cartoon Network and Madman Entertainment and by Cartoon Network and Warner Home Video on September 8, 2015, in the United States. The DVD features all ten episodes of the show, commentaries, the original pilot, alternate title cards, and deleted animatics. Other extras on the DVD include a \"Composer's Cut,\" an option wherein a viewer can watch the show with only the visuals and the background music; and the mini-documentary Behind Over the Garden Wall.On April 6, 2016, Madman Entertainment released the miniseries on Blu-ray exclusively in Australia and New Zealand with the same bonus content as the DVD release. On March 2, 2020, Manga Entertainment released it in the UK on Blu-Ray and DVD.\n\n\n== Reception ==\n\n\n=== Critical reception ===\nOver the Garden Wall was critically acclaimed. Preceding its premiere, Patrick Kevin Day of the Los Angeles Times called it \"funny, creepy\" and, from the premise, \"not as simple as it sounds\". In TV Guide and also before the premiere, Megan Walsh-Boyle felt that the show's fictional universe \"sounds like a world worth getting lost in\". Meredith Woerner of io9 called a preview of the show \"amazing\", \"weird, and cute and great\", reflecting \"all the things we love about this oddball animation renaissance we are currently living in\". Conversely, Amid Amidi of Cartoon Brew judged from the same preview that the animation was lacking. While not discounting its storytelling, music, and production design, he felt that production skimped on animation; he was still looking forward to the series.Robert Lloyd of the Los Angeles Times wrote that it was \"a little too folksy and fairy story\" at times, but that its \"contemporary strangeness wins out\", and concluded that \"it is throughout something to behold\". Lloyd later wrote that it evoked \"a kind of artisanal quality\", both in its design and setting, and though the writing felt \"a little too intent on its own folksiness\", it became more enjoyable throughout. In The New York Times, Mike Hale also felt the writing was sometimes weak and the stories \"perilously thin\", but concluded that McHale developed an environment worth visiting.Brian Moylan of The Guardian wrote that the visuals were \"absolutely stunning\", and that the stories contained \"a certain darkness to it that is both mellow and twee at the same time, with a fair amount of anxiety creeping around the edges\". Brian Lowry of Variety wrote that Garden Wall was \"an admirable experiment\", but not one to sustain \"the five-night commitment\", calling it \"slightly mismatched\" while praising a departure from \"the more abrasive characteristic\" of the network's primetime content. Kevin McDonough of the Illinois Daily Journal criticized some of the writing, but summed it up as \"an ambitious cartoon\" for both younger and older audiences. Jason Bree of the website Agents of Geek called the miniseries \"the greatest thing Cartoon Network has ever produced\". Kevin Johnson of The A.V. Club praised the series, giving it a grade of \"A\" and writing that \"with such a perfect blend of mood, atmosphere, story, and characterization, Over the Garden Wall's 10-episode run will leave you wanting more, but like every great fairy tale, it's a story that knows when it's over.\"\n\n\n=== Awards and nominations ===\n\n\n== Comic book adaptation ==\nA one-shot comic book adaptation of the show was announced in October 2014. Produced by KaBoom!, an imprint of Boom! Studios, the comic was released on November 5, 2014. The comic was supervised by McHale and was produced as an oversized special. The comic was illustrated by Jim Campbell, a writer/storyboard artist on the television series. A special variant cover, by McHale, was also released. The success of the standalone comic led to further issues being commissioned in May 2015 and began to be released in August 2015. According to McHale, the comic books would be similar to the one-shot comic, detailing the events that occurred in between certain episodes and would expand on the television miniseries. The success of the series of one-shots led to an ongoing series of comics, serving as both a sequel and prequel to the series, rather than telling adventures that happened between episodes. The stories are told parallel, with half the comic detailing Greg returning to mysterious dreamlands in his sleep. The other half chronicles the Woodsman's daughter, Anna, and how she became lost in the Unknown. After the ongoing series ended in November 2017, the Over the Garden Wall comics continued as a series of miniseries and original graphic novels.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nEdgar, Sean; McHale, Patrick (2017). The Art of Over the Garden Wall. Dark Horse Books. ISBN 978-1506703763.\nWillsey, Kristiana (2016). \"'All That Was Lost Is Revealed': Motifs and Moral Ambiguity in Over the Garden Wall\". Humanities. 5 (3): 51. doi:10.3390/h5030051.\n\n\n== External links ==\nOver the Garden Wall at IMDb\nOver the Garden Wall at the Big Cartoon DataBase\nTome of the Unknown at IMDb", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Animation_disc.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Blank_television_set.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Cartoon_Network.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Mad_scientist.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/82/Over_the_Garden_Wall_%28animated_miniseries%29_poster.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/df/Wirt_and_Greg%2C_the_main_characters_from_the_miniseries_Over_the_Garden_Wall.jpg"], "summary": "Over the Garden Wall is an American animated television miniseries created by Patrick McHale for Cartoon Network. The series centers on two half-brothers who travel across a mysterious forest to find their way home, encountering a variety of strange and fantastical things on their journey. The show is based on McHale's animated short film Tome of the Unknown, which was produced as part of Cartoon Network Studios' shorts development program. Elijah Wood and Collin Dean voice the protagonists Wirt and Greg, and Melanie Lynskey voices Beatrice, a bluebird. The series' voice cast also includes Christopher Lloyd, Tim Curry, John Cleese and Samuel Ramey. Over the Garden Wall was broadcast throughout the week of November 3 to November 7, 2014.\nThe show was the first miniseries on the network. McHale first envisioned the show in 2004 and pitched it to the network in 2006. After working on other Cartoon Network shows including The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack and Adventure Time, the network expressed interest in McHale pitching a pilot. That pilot became the catalyst for Over the Garden Wall. Production of the show began in March 2014 and was largely done in Burbank, California, but many of the show's storyboard artists worked from other U.S. cities, while the program's animation was outsourced to South Korean studio Digital eMation. The series' environment evokes 19th- and 20th-century Americana, while its digital backgrounds are designed to resemble grisaille paintings.\nThe series was well received by television critics, who praised its atmosphere and characters. In 2015, the series won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program. A one-shot comic book adaptation penned by McHale has been produced, with four further issues commissioned. This was later expanded into an ongoing comic series that ran for 20 issues and continued in a series of graphic novels and comic book miniseries."}, "Marvel_Comins": {"links": ["Marvel Illustrated", "Paul Levitz", "The Beatles", "Wolverine ", "U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission", "Cat-Head Comics", "Business manager", "Diamond Comic Distributors Inc.", "List of monsters in Marvel Comics", "Bobbie Chase", "Cold War", "Ziggy Pig and Silly Seal", "X-Men ", "John F. 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In 2009, The Walt Disney Company acquired Marvel Entertainment, Marvel Worldwide's parent company.\nMarvel was started in 1939 by Martin Goodman under a number of corporations and imprints but now known as Timely Comics, and by 1951 had generally become known as Atlas Comics. The Marvel era began in 1961, the year that the company launched The Fantastic Four and other superhero titles created by Stan Lee, Jack Kirby, Steve Ditko and many others. The Marvel brand, which had been used over the years, was solidified as the company's primary brand.\nMarvel counts among its characters such well-known superheroes as Spider-Man, Iron Man, Captain America, the Hulk, Thor, Wolverine, Ant-Man, the Wasp, Black Widow, Captain Marvel, Black Panther, Squirrel Girl, Doctor Strange, the Scarlet Witch, She-Hulk,  the Vision, Psylocke, Tigra, Ghost-Spider,  the Falcon, the Winter Soldier, Ghost Rider, Quake, Blade, Daredevil, Ms. Marvel, the Punisher and Deadpool. Superhero teams exist such as the Avengers, the X-Men, the Fantastic Four and the Guardians of the Galaxy as well as supervillains including Doctor Doom, Magneto, Thanos, Loki, Green Goblin, Kingpin, Diamondback, Red Skull, Ultron, the Mandarin, MODOK, Doctor Octopus, Kang, Dormammu, Venom and Galactus. Most of Marvel's fictional characters operate in a single reality known as the Marvel Universe, with most locations mirroring real-life places; many major characters are based in New York City.  Additionally, Marvel has published several licensed properties from other companies. This includes Star Wars comics twice from 1977 to 1986 and again since 2015.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Timely Publications ===\n \n\nPulp-magazine publisher Martin Goodman created the company later known as Marvel Comics under the name Timely Publications in 1939. Goodman, who had started with a Western pulp in 1933, was expanding into the emerging\u2014and by then already highly popular\u2014new medium of comic books. Launching his new line from his existing company's offices at 330 West 42nd Street, New York City, he officially held the titles of editor, managing editor, and business manager, with Abraham Goodman (Martin's brother) officially listed as publisher.Timely's first publication, Marvel Comics #1 (cover dated Oct. 1939), included the first appearance of Carl Burgos' android superhero the Human Torch, and the first appearances of Bill Everett's anti-hero Namor the Sub-Mariner, among other features. The issue was a great success; it and a second printing the following month sold a combined nearly 900,000 copies. While its contents came from an outside packager, Funnies, Inc., Timely had its own staff in place by the following year. The company's first true editor, writer-artist Joe Simon, teamed with artist Jack Kirby to create one of the first patriotically themed superheroes, Captain America, in Captain America Comics #1 (March 1941). It, too, proved a hit, with sales of nearly one million. Goodman formed Timely Comics, Inc., beginning with comics cover-dated April 1941 or Spring 1941.While no other Timely character would achieve the success of these three characters, some notable heroes\u2014many of which continue to appear in modern-day retcon appearances and flashbacks\u2014include the Whizzer, Miss America, the Destroyer, the original Vision, and the Angel. Timely also published one of humor cartoonist Basil Wolverton's best-known features, \"Powerhouse Pepper\", as well as a line of children's funny-animal comics featuring characters like Super Rabbit and the duo Ziggy Pig and Silly Seal.\nGoodman hired his wife's 16-year-old cousin, Stanley Lieber, as a general office assistant in 1939. When editor Simon left the company in late 1941, Goodman made Lieber\u2014by then writing pseudonymously as \"Stan Lee\"\u2014interim editor of the comics line, a position Lee kept for decades except for three years during his military service in World War II. Lee wrote extensively for Timely, contributing to a number of different titles.\nGoodman's business strategy involved having his various magazines and comic books published by a number of corporations all operating out of the same office and with the same staff. One of these shell companies through which Timely Comics was published was named Marvel Comics by at least Marvel Mystery Comics #55 (May 1944). As well, some comics' covers, such as All Surprise Comics #12 (Winter 1946\u201347), were labeled \"A Marvel Magazine\" many years before Goodman would formally adopt the name in 1961.\n\n\n=== Atlas Comics ===\n\nThe post-war American comic market saw superheroes falling out of fashion. Goodman's comic book line dropped them for the most part and expanded into a wider variety of genres than even Timely had published, featuring horror, Westerns, humor, funny animal, men's adventure-drama, giant monster, crime, and war comics, and later adding jungle books, romance titles, espionage, and even medieval adventure, Bible stories and sports.\nGoodman began using the globe logo of the Atlas News Company, the newsstand-distribution company he owned, on comics cover-dated November 1951 even though another company, Kable News, continued to distribute his comics through the August 1952 issues. This globe branding united a line put out by the same publisher, staff and freelancers through 59 shell companies, from Animirth Comics to Zenith Publications.Atlas, rather than innovate, took a proven route of following popular trends in television and movies\u2014Westerns and war dramas prevailing for a time, drive-in movie monsters another time\u2014and even other comic books, particularly the EC horror line. Atlas also published a plethora of children's and teen humor titles, including Dan DeCarlo's Homer the Happy Ghost (similar to Casper the Friendly Ghost) and Homer Hooper (\u00e0 la Archie Andrews). Atlas unsuccessfully attempted to revive superheroes from late 1953 to mid-1954, with the Human Torch (art by Syd Shores and Dick Ayers, variously), the Sub-Mariner (drawn and most stories written by Bill Everett), and Captain America (writer Stan Lee, artist John Romita Sr.). Atlas did not achieve any breakout hits and, according to Stan Lee, Atlas survived chiefly because it produced work quickly, cheaply, and at a passable quality.\n\n\n=== Marvel Comics ===\nThe first modern comic books under the Marvel Comics brand were the science-fiction anthology Journey into Mystery #69 and the teen-humor title Patsy Walker #95 (both cover dated June 1961), which each displayed an \"MC\" box on its cover. Then, in the wake of DC Comics' success in reviving superheroes in the late 1950s and early 1960s, particularly with the Flash, Green Lantern, Batman, Superman, Wonder Woman, Green Arrow and other members of the team the Justice League of America, Marvel followed suit.In 1961, writer-editor Stan Lee revolutionized superhero comics by introducing superheroes designed to appeal to older readers than the predominantly child audiences of the medium, thus ushering what Marvel later called the Marvel Age of Comics. Modern Marvel's first superhero team, the titular stars of The Fantastic Four #1 (Nov. 1961), broke convention with other comic book archetypes of the time by squabbling, holding grudges both deep and petty, and eschewing anonymity or secret identities in favor of celebrity status. Subsequently, Marvel comics developed a reputation for focusing on characterization and adult issues to a greater extent than most superhero comics before them, a quality which the new generation of older readers appreciated. This applied to The Amazing Spider-Man title in particular, which turned out to be Marvel's most successful book. Its young hero suffered from self-doubt and mundane problems like any other teenager, something with which many readers could identify.Stan Lee and freelance artist and eventual co-plotter Jack Kirby's Fantastic Four originated in a Cold War culture that led their creators to revise the superhero conventions of previous eras to better reflect the psychological spirit of their age. Eschewing such comic book tropes as secret identities and even costumes at first, having a monster as one of the heroes, and having its characters bicker and complain in what was later called a \"superheroes in the real world\" approach, the series represented a change that proved to be a great success.Marvel often presented flawed superheroes, freaks, and misfits\u2014unlike the perfect, handsome, athletic heroes found in previous traditional comic books. Some Marvel heroes looked like villains and monsters such as the Hulk and the Thing. This naturalistic approach even extended into topical politics. Comics historian Mike Benton also noted:\n\nIn the world of [rival DC Comics'] Superman comic books, communism did not exist. Superman rarely crossed national borders or involved himself in political disputes. From 1962 to 1965, there were more communists [in Marvel Comics] than on the subscription list of Pravda. Communist agents attack Ant-Man in his laboratory, red henchmen jump the Fantastic Four on the moon, and Viet Cong guerrillas take potshots at Iron Man.\nAll these elements struck a chord with the older readers, including college-aged adults. In 1965, Spider-Man and the Hulk were both featured in Esquire magazine's list of 28 college campus heroes, alongside John F. Kennedy and Bob Dylan. In 2009, writer Geoff Boucher reflected that,\n\nSuperman and DC Comics instantly seemed like boring old Pat Boone; Marvel felt like The Beatles and the British Invasion. It was Kirby's artwork with its tension and psychedelia that made it perfect for the times\u2014or was it Lee's bravado and melodrama, which was somehow insecure and brash at the same time?\n\nIn addition to Spider-Man and the Fantastic Four, Marvel began publishing further superhero titles featuring such heroes and antiheroes as the Hulk, Thor, Ant-Man, Iron Man, the X-Men, Daredevil, the Inhumans, Black Panther, Doctor Strange, Captain Marvel and the Silver Surfer, and such memorable antagonists as Doctor Doom, Magneto, Galactus, Loki, the Green Goblin, and Doctor Octopus, all existing in a shared reality known as the Marvel Universe, with locations that mirror real-life cities such as New York, Los Angeles and Chicago.\nMarvel even lampooned itself and other comics companies in a parody comic, Not Brand Echh (a play on Marvel's dubbing of other companies as \"Brand Echh\", \u00e0 la the then-common phrase \"Brand X\").\n\n\n=== Cadence Industries ownership ===\nIn 1968, while selling 50 million comic books a year, company founder Goodman revised the constraining distribution arrangement with Independent News he had reached under duress during the Atlas years, allowing him now to release as many titles as demand warranted. Late that year, he sold Marvel Comics and its parent company, Magazine Management, to the Perfect Film and Chemical Corporation, though he remained as publisher. In 1969, Goodman finally ended his distribution deal with Independent by signing with Curtis Circulation Company.In 1971, the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare approached Marvel Comics editor-in-chief Stan Lee to do a comic book story about drug abuse. Lee agreed and wrote a three-part Spider-Man story portraying drug use as dangerous and unglamorous. However, the industry's self-censorship board, the Comics Code Authority, refused to approve the story because of the presence of narcotics, deeming the context of the story irrelevant. Lee, with Goodman's approval, published the story regardless in The Amazing Spider-Man #96\u201398 (May\u2013July 1971), without the Comics Code seal. The market reacted well to the storyline, and the CCA subsequently revised the Code the same year.Goodman retired as publisher in 1972 and installed his son, Chip, as publisher. Shortly thereafter, Lee succeeded him as publisher and also became Marvel's president for a brief time. During his time as president, he appointed his associate editor, prolific writer Roy Thomas, as editor-in-chief. Thomas added \"Stan Lee Presents\" to the opening page of each comic book.\n\nA series of new editors-in-chief oversaw the company during another slow time for the industry. Once again, Marvel attempted to diversify, and with the updating of the Comics Code published titles themed to horror (The Tomb of Dracula), martial arts (Shang-Chi: Master of Kung Fu), sword-and-sorcery (Conan the Barbarian in 1970, Red Sonja), satire (Howard the Duck) and science fiction (2001: A Space Odyssey, \"Killraven\" in Amazing Adventures, Battlestar Galactica, Star Trek, and, late in the decade, the long-running Star Wars series). Some of these were published in larger-format black and white magazines, under its Curtis Magazines imprint.\nMarvel was able to capitalize on its successful superhero comics of the previous decade by acquiring a new newsstand distributor and greatly expanding its comics line. Marvel pulled ahead of rival DC Comics in 1972, during a time when the price and format of the standard newsstand comic were in flux. Goodman increased the price and size of Marvel's November 1971 cover-dated comics from 15 cents for 36 pages total to 25 cents for 52 pages. DC followed suit, but Marvel the following month dropped its comics to 20 cents for 36 pages, offering a lower-priced product with a higher distributor discount.In 1973, Perfect Film and Chemical renamed itself as Cadence Industries and renamed Magazine Management as Marvel Comics Group. Goodman, now disconnected from Marvel, set up a new company called Seaboard Periodicals in 1974, reviving Marvel's old Atlas name for a new Atlas Comics line, but this lasted only a year and a half.\nIn the mid-1970s a decline of the newsstand distribution network affected Marvel. Cult hits such as Howard the Duck fell victim to the distribution problems, with some titles reporting low sales when in fact the first specialty comic book stores resold them at a later date. But by the end of the decade, Marvel's fortunes were reviving, thanks to the rise of direct market distribution\u2014selling through those same comics-specialty stores instead of newsstands.\nMarvel ventured into audio in 1975 with a radio series and a record, both had Stan Lee as narrator. The radio series was Fantastic Four. The record was Spider-Man: Rock Reflections of a Superhero concept album for music fans.\n\nMarvel held its own comic book convention, Marvelcon '75, in spring 1975, and promised a Marvelcon '76. At the 1975 event, Stan Lee used a Fantastic Four panel discussion to announce that Jack Kirby, the artist co-creator of most of Marvel's signature characters, was returning to Marvel after having left in 1970 to work for rival DC Comics. In October 1976, Marvel, which already licensed reprints in different countries, including the UK, created a superhero specifically for the British market. Captain Britain debuted exclusively in the UK, and later appeared in American comics. During this time, Marvel and the Iowa-based Register and Tribune Syndicate launched a number of syndicated comic strips \u2014 The Amazing Spider-Man, Howard the Duck, Conan the Barbarian, and The Incredible Hulk. None of the strips lasted past 1982, except for The Amazing Spider-Man, which is still being published.\nIn 1978, Jim Shooter became Marvel's editor-in-chief. Although a controversial personality, Shooter cured many of the procedural ills at Marvel, including repeatedly missed deadlines.  During Shooter's nine-year tenure as editor-in-chief, Chris Claremont and John Byrne's run on the Uncanny X-Men and Frank Miller's run on Daredevil became critical and commercial successes. Shooter brought Marvel into the rapidly evolving direct market, institutionalized creator royalties, starting with the Epic Comics imprint for creator-owned material in 1982; introduced company-wide crossover story arcs with Contest of Champions and Secret Wars; and in 1986 launched the ultimately unsuccessful New Universe line to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the Marvel Comics imprint. Star Comics, a children-oriented line differing from the regular Marvel titles, was briefly successful during this period.\n\n\n=== Marvel Entertainment Group ownership ===\nIn 1986, Marvel's parent, Marvel Entertainment Group, was sold to New World Entertainment, which within three years sold it to MacAndrews and Forbes, owned by Revlon executive Ronald Perelman in 1989. In 1991 Perelman took MEG public. Following the rapid rise of this stock, Perelman issued a series of junk bonds that he used to acquire other entertainment companies, secured by MEG stock.\n\nMarvel earned a great deal of money with their 1980s children's comics imprint Star Comics and they earned a great deal more money and worldwide success during the comic book boom of the early 1990s, launching the successful 2099 line of comics set in the future (Spider-Man 2099, etc.) and the creatively daring though commercially unsuccessful Razorline imprint of superhero comics created by novelist and filmmaker Clive Barker. In 1990, Marvel began selling Marvel Universe Cards with trading card maker SkyBox International. These were collectible trading cards that featured the characters and events of the Marvel Universe. The 1990s saw the rise of variant covers, cover enhancements, swimsuit issues, and company-wide crossovers that affected the overall continuity of the Marvel Universe.\n\nMarvel suffered a blow in early 1992, when seven of its most prized artists \u2014 Todd McFarlane (known for his work on Spider-Man), Jim Lee (X-Men), Rob Liefeld (X-Force), Marc Silvestri (Wolverine), Erik Larsen (The Amazing Spider-Man), Jim Valentino (Guardians of the Galaxy), and Whilce Portacio (Uncanny X-Men) \u2014 left to form Image Comics in a deal brokered by Malibu Comics' owner Scott Mitchell Rosenberg. Three years later, on November 3, 1994, Rosenberg sold Malibu to Marvel. In purchasing Malibu, Marvel now owned leading standard for computer coloring of comic books that had been developed by Rosenberg, and also integrated the Ultraverse line of comics and the Genesis Universe into Marvel's multiverse.In late 1994, Marvel acquired the comic book distributor Heroes World Distribution to use as its own exclusive distributor. As the industry's other major publishers made exclusive distribution deals with other companies, the ripple effect resulted in the survival of only one other major distributor in North America, Diamond Comic Distributors Inc. Then, by the middle of the decade, the industry had slumped, and in December 1996 MEG filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. In early 1997, when Marvel's Heroes World endeavor failed, Diamond also forged an exclusive deal with Marvel\u2014giving the company its own section of its comics catalog Previews.In 1996, Marvel had some of its titles participate in \"Heroes Reborn\", a crossover that allowed Marvel to relaunch some of its flagship characters such as the Avengers and the Fantastic Four, and outsource them to the studios of two of the former Marvel artists turned Image Comics founders, Jim Lee and Rob Liefeld. The relaunched titles, which saw the characters transported to a parallel universe with a history distinct from the mainstream Marvel Universe, were a solid success amidst a generally struggling industry, but Marvel discontinued the experiment after a one-year run and returned the characters to the Marvel Universe proper.\n\n\n=== Marvel Enterprises ===\nIn 1997, Toy Biz bought Marvel Entertainment Group to end the bankruptcy, forming a new corporation, Marvel Enterprises. With his business partner Avi Arad, publisher Bill Jemas, and editor-in-chief Bob Harras, Toy Biz co-owner Isaac Perlmutter helped stabilize the comics line.In 1998, the company launched the imprint Marvel Knights, taking place just outside Marvel continuity with better production quality. The imprint was helmed by soon-to-become editor-in-chief Joe Quesada; it featured tough, gritty stories showcasing such characters as the Daredevil, the Inhumans, and Black Panther.With the new millennium, Marvel Comics emerged from bankruptcy and again began diversifying its offerings. In 2001, Marvel withdrew from the Comics Code Authority and established its own Marvel Rating System for comics. The first title from this era to not have the code was X-Force #119 (October 2001). Marvel also created new imprints, such as MAX (an explicit-content line) and Marvel Adventures (developed for child audiences). The company also created an alternate universe imprint, Ultimate Marvel, that allowed the company to reboot its major titles by revising and updating its characters to introduce to a new generation.Some of the company's properties were adapted into successful film franchises, such as the Men in Black movie series (which was based on a Malibu book), starting in 1997, the Blade movie series, starting in 1998, the X-Men movie series, starting in 2000, and the highest grossing series, Spider-Man, beginning in 2002.Marvel's Conan the Barbarian title was canceled in 1993 after 275 issues, while the Savage Sword of Conan magazine had lasted 235 issues. Marvel published additional titles including miniseries until 2000 for a total of 650 issues. Conan was picked up by Dark Horse Comics three years later.In a cross-promotion, the November 1, 2006, episode of the CBS soap opera The Guiding Light, titled \"She's a Marvel\", featured the character Harley Davidson Cooper (played by Beth Ehlers) as a superheroine named the Guiding Light. The character's story continued in an eight-page backup feature, \"A New Light\", that appeared in several Marvel titles published November 1 and 8. Also that year, Marvel created a wiki on its Web site.In late 2007 the company launched Marvel Digital Comics Unlimited, a digital archive of over 2,500 back issues available for viewing, for a monthly or annual subscription fee. At the December 2007 the New York Anime Fest, the company announcement that Del Rey Manga would published two original English language Marvel manga books featuring the X-Men and Wolverine to hit the stands in spring 2009.In 2009 Marvel Comics closed its Open Submissions Policy, in which the company had accepted unsolicited samples from aspiring comic book artists, saying the time-consuming review process had produced no suitably professional work. The same year, the company commemorated its 70th anniversary, dating to its inception as Timely Comics, by issuing the one-shot Marvel Mystery Comics 70th Anniversary Special #1 and a variety of other special issues.\n\n\n=== Disney conglomerate unit (2009\u2013present) ===\n\nOn August 31, 2009, The Walt Disney Company announced it would acquire Marvel Comics' parent corporation, Marvel Entertainment, for a cash and stock deal worth approximately $4 billion, which if necessary would be adjusted at closing, giving Marvel shareholders $30 and 0.745 Disney shares for each share of Marvel they owned.  As of 2008, Marvel and its major, longtime competitor DC Comics shared over 80% of the American comic-book market.As of September 2010, Marvel switched its bookstore distribution company from Diamond Book Distributors to Hachette Distribution Services. Marvel moved its office to the Sports Illustrated Building in October 2010.Marvel relaunched the CrossGen imprint, owned by Disney Publishing Worldwide, in March 2011. Marvel and Disney Publishing began jointly publishing Disney/Pixar Presents magazine that May.Marvel discontinued its Marvel Adventures imprint in March 2012, and replaced them with a line of two titles connected to the Marvel Universe TV block. Also in March, Marvel announced its Marvel ReEvolution initiative that included Infinite Comics, a line of digital comics, Marvel AR, a software application that provides an augmented reality experience to readers and Marvel NOW!, a relaunch of most of the company's major titles with different creative teams. Marvel NOW! also saw the debut of new flagship titles including Uncanny Avengers and All-New X-Men.In April 2013, Marvel and other Disney conglomerate components began announcing joint projects. With ABC, a Once Upon a Time graphic novel was announced for publication in September. With Disney, Marvel announced in October 2013 that in January 2014 it would release its first title under their joint \"Disney Kingdoms\" imprint \"Seekers of the Weird\", a five-issue miniseries. On January 3, 2014, fellow Disney subsidiary Lucasfilm announced that as of 2015, Star Wars comics would once again be published by Marvel.Following the events of the company-wide crossover \"Secret Wars\" in 2015, a relaunched Marvel universe began in September 2015, called the All-New, All-Different Marvel.Marvel Legacy was the company's Fall 2017 relaunch branding, which began that September. Books released as part of that initiative featured lenticular variant covers that required comic book stores to double their regular issue order to be able to order the variants. The owner of two Comix Experience stores complained about requiring retailers purchase an excess of copies featuring the regular cover that they would not be able to sell in order to acquire the more sought-after variant. Marvel responded to these complaints by rescinding these ordering requirements on newer series, but maintained it on more long-running titles like Invincible Iron Man. As a result, MyComicShop.com and at least 70 other comic book stores boycotted these variant covers. Despite the release of Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, Logan, Thor: Ragnarok and Spider-Man: Homecoming in theaters, none of those characters' titles featured in the top 10 sales and the Guardians of the Galaxy comic book series was cancelled. Conan Properties International announced on January 12, 2018 that Conan would return to Marvel in early 2019.On March 1, 2019, Serial Box, a digital book platform, announced a partnership with Marvel, in which they would publish new and original stories tied to a number of Marvel's popular franchises.In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, from March to May 2020, Marvel and its distributor Diamond Comic Distributors stopped producing and releasing new comic books.On March 25, 2021, Marvel Comics announced that they planned to shift their direct market distribution for monthly comics and graphic novels from Diamond Comic Distributors to Penguin Random House. The change was scheduled to start on October 1, 2021, in a multi-year partnership. The arrangement would still allow stores the option to order comics from Diamond, but Diamond would be acting as a wholesaler rather than distributor.\n\n\n== Officers ==\nMichael Z. Hobson, executive vice president; Marvel Comics Group vice-president (1986)\nStan Lee, Chairman and Publisher (1986)\nJoseph Calamari, executive vice president (1986)\nJim Shooter, vice president and Editor-in-Chief (1986)\n\n\n=== Publishers ===\nAbraham Goodman, 1939\nMartin Goodman, 1939\u20131972\nCharles \"Chip\" Goodman 1972\nStan Lee, 1972 \u2013 October 1996\nShirrel Rhoades, October 1996 \u2013 October 1998\nWinston Fowlkes, February 1998 \u2013 November 1999\nBill Jemas, February 2000 \u2013 2003\nDan Buckley, 2003\u2013\u2014January 2017\nJohn Nee, January 2018\u2014present\n\n\n=== Editors-in-chief ===\nMarvel's chief editor originally held the title of \"editor\". This head editor's title later became \"editor-in-chief\". Joe Simon was the company's first true chief-editor, with publisher Martin Goodman, who had served as titular editor only and outsourced editorial operations.\nIn 1994 Marvel briefly abolished the position of editor-in-chief, replacing Tom DeFalco with five group editors-in-chief. As Carl Potts described the 1990s editorial arrangement:\n\nIn the early '90s, Marvel had so many titles that there were three Executive Editors, each overseeing approximately 1/3 of the line. Bob Budiansky was the third Executive Editor [following the previously appointed Mark Gruenwald and Potts]. We all answered to Editor-in-Chief Tom DeFalco and Publisher Mike Hobson. All three Executive Editors decided not to add our names to the already crowded credits on the Marvel titles. Therefore it wasn't easy for readers to tell which titles were produced by which Executive Editor \u2026 In late '94, Marvel reorganized into a number of different publishing divisions, each with its own Editor-in-Chief.\nMarvel reinstated the overall editor-in-chief position in 1995 with Bob Harras.\n\n\n=== Executive Editors ===\nOriginally called associate editor when Marvel's chief editor just carried the title of editor, the title of the next highest editorial position became executive editor under the chief editor title of editor-in-chief.  The title of associate editor later was revived under the editor-in-chief as an editorial position in charge of few titles under the direction of an editor and without an assistant editor.\n\nAssociate EditorJim Shooter, January 5, 1976 \u2013 January 2, 1978\nExecutive Editor\n\n\n== Ownership ==\nMartin Goodman (1939\u20131968)Parent corporationMagazine Management Co. (1968\u20131973)\nCadence Industries (1973\u20131986)\nMarvel Entertainment Group (1986\u20131998)\nMarvel Enterprises\nMarvel Enterprises, Inc. (1998\u20132005)\nMarvel Entertainment, Inc (2005\u20132009)\nMarvel Entertainment, LLC (2009\u2013present, a wholly owned subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company)\n\n\n== Offices ==\nLocated in New York City, Marvel has had successive headquarters:\n\nin the McGraw-Hill Building, where it originated as Timely Comics in 1939\nin suite 1401 of the Empire State Building\nat 635 Madison Avenue (the actual location, though the comic books' indicia listed the parent publishing-company's address of 625 Madison Ave.)\n575 Madison Avenue;\n387 Park Avenue South\n10 East 40th Street\n417 Fifth Avenue\na 60,000-square-foot (5,600 m2) space in the Sports Illustrated Building at 135 W. 50th Street (October 2010\u2014 present)\n\n\n== Productions ==\n\n\n=== TV ===\n Animated \n\n\n== Market share ==\nIn 2017, Marvel held a 38.30% share of the comics market, compared to its competitor DC Comics' 33.93%. By comparison, the companies respectively held 33.50% and 30.33% shares in 2013, and 40.81% and 29.94% shares in 2008.\n\n\n== Marvel characters in other media ==\nMarvel characters and stories have been adapted to many other media. Some of these adaptations were produced by Marvel Comics and its sister company, Marvel Studios, while others were produced by companies licensing Marvel material.\n\n\n=== Games ===\nIn June 1993, Marvel issued its collectable caps for milk caps game under the Hero Caps brand. In 2014, the Marvel Disk Wars: The Avengers Japanese TV series was launched together with a collectible game called Bachicombat, a game similar to the milk caps game, by Bandai.\n\n\n==== Collectible card games ====\nThe RPG industry brought the development of the collectible card game (CCG) in the early 1990s which there were soon Marvel characters were featured in CCG of their own starting in 1995 with Fleer's OverPower (1995\u20131999). Later collectible card game were:\n\nMarvel Superstars (2010\u2013?) Upper Deck Company\nReCharge Collectible Card Game (2001\u2013? ) Marvel\nVs. System (2004\u20132009, 2014\u2013) Upper Deck Company\nX-Men Trading Card Game (2000\u2013?) Wizards of the Coast\nMarvel Champions: The Card Game (2019\u2014present) Fantasy Flight Games, a Living Card Game\n\n\n=== Miniatures ===\nMarvel Crisis Protocol (Fall 2019\u2014) Atomic Mass Games\nHeroClix, WizKids\n\n\n==== Role-playing ====\n\nTSR published the pen-and-paper role-playing game Marvel Super Heroes in 1984.  TSR then released in 1998 the Marvel Super Heroes Adventure Game which used a different system, the card-based SAGA system, than their first game. In 2003 Marvel Publishing published its own role-playing game, the Marvel Universe Roleplaying Game, that used a diceless stone pool system. In August 2011 Margaret Weis Productions announced it was developing a tabletop role-playing game based on the Marvel universe, set for release in February 2012 using its house Cortex Plus RPG system.\n\n\n==== Video games ====\n\nVideo games based on Marvel characters go back to 1984 and the Atari game, Spider-Man. Since then several dozen video games have been released and all have been produces by outside licensees. In 2014, Disney Infinity 2.0: Marvel Super Heroes was released that brought Marvel characters to the existing Disney sandbox video game.\n\n\n=== Films ===\n\nAs of the start of September 2015, films based on Marvel's properties represent the highest-grossing U.S. franchise, having grossed over $7.7 billion  as part of a worldwide gross of over $18 billion. As of May 2019 the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) has grossed over $22 billion.\n\n\n=== Live shows ===\nThe Marvel Experience (2014\u2013)\nMarvel Universe Live! (2014\u2013) live arena show\nSpider-Man Live! (2002\u20132003)\nSpider-Man: Turn Off the Dark (2011\u20132014) a Broadway musical\n\n\n=== Prose novels ===\n\nMarvel first licensed two prose novels to Bantam Books, who printed The Avengers Battle the Earth Wrecker by Otto Binder (1967) and Captain America: The Great Gold Steal by Ted White (1968). Various publishers took up the licenses from 1978 to 2002. Also, with the various licensed films being released beginning in 1997, various publishers put out movie novelizations. In 2003, following publication of the prose young adult novel Mary Jane, starring Mary Jane Watson from the Spider-Man mythos, Marvel announced the formation of the publishing imprint Marvel Press. However, Marvel moved back to licensing with Pocket Books from 2005 to 2008.  With few books issued under the imprint, Marvel and Disney Books Group relaunched Marvel Press in 2011 with the Marvel Origin Storybooks line.\n\n\n=== Television programs ===\n\nMany television series, both live-action and animated, have based their productions on Marvel Comics characters. These include series for popular characters such as Spider-Man, Iron Man, the Hulk, the Avengers, the X-Men, Fantastic Four, the Guardians of the Galaxy, Daredevil, Jessica Jones, Luke Cage, Iron Fist, the Punisher, the Defenders, S.H.I.E.L.D., Agent Carter, Deadpool, Legion, and others. Additionally, a handful of television movies, usually also pilots, based on Marvel Comics characters have been made.\n\n\n=== Theme parks ===\nMarvel has licensed its characters for theme parks and attractions, including Marvel Super Hero Island at Universal Orlando's Islands of Adventure in Orlando, Florida, which includes rides based on their iconic characters and costumed performers, as well as The Amazing Adventures of Spider-Man ride cloned from Islands of Adventure to Universal Studios Japan.Years after Disney purchased Marvel in late 2009, Walt Disney Parks and Resorts plans on creating original Marvel attractions at their theme parks, with Hong Kong Disneyland becoming the first Disney theme park to feature a Marvel attraction. Due to the licensing agreement with Universal Studios, signed prior to Disney's purchase of Marvel, Walt Disney World and Tokyo Disney Resort are barred from having Marvel characters in their parks. However, this only includes characters that Universal is currently using, other characters in their \"families\" (X-Men, Avengers, Fantastic Four, etc.), and the villains associated with said characters. This clause has allowed Walt Disney World to have meet and greets, merchandise, attractions and more with other Marvel characters not associated with the characters at Islands of Adventures, such as Star-Lord and Gamora from Guardians of the Galaxy.\n\n\n== Imprints ==\nMarvel Comics\nMarvel Press, joint imprint with Disney Books Group\nIcon Comics (creator owned)\nInfinite Comics\nTimely Comics\nMAX\n\n\n=== Disney Kingdoms ===\nMarvel Worldwide with Disney announced in October 2013 that in January 2014 it would release its first comic book title under their joint Disney Kingdoms imprint Seekers of the Weird, a five-issue miniseries inspired by a never built Disneyland attraction Museum of the Weird. Marvel's Disney Kingdoms imprint has since released comic adaptations of Big Thunder Mountain Railroad, Walt Disney's Enchanted Tiki Room, The Haunted Mansion, two series on Figment based on Journey Into Imagination.\n\n\n=== Defunct ===\n\n\n== See more ==\nList of comics characters which originated in other media\nList of magazines released by Marvel Comics in the 1970s\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n Media related to Marvel Comics at Wikimedia CommonsOfficial website \nVassallo, Michael J. (2005). \"A Timely Talk with Allen Bellman\". Comicartville.com. p. 2. Archived from the original on January 17, 2010..\nComplete Marvel Reading Order from Travis Starnes", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/6.21.10BrubakerGageFractionBendisByLuigiNovi1.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Flag_of_New_York_City.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Industry5.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Magic_Kingdom_castle.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Marvel_Logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Wikipetan-manga.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4c/Avengers4.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/83/Fantastic_Four_Vol_1_01_Cover.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d7/Howard_The_Duck_-8.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9f/MarvelComics1.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e0/Marvel_Comics_1990_logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/08/Secretwars1.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/82/Spiderman1cover.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "Marvel Comics is the brand name and primary imprint of Marvel Worldwide Inc., formerly Marvel Publishing, Inc. and Marvel Comics Group, a publisher of American comic books and related media.  In 2009, The Walt Disney Company acquired Marvel Entertainment, Marvel Worldwide's parent company.\nMarvel was started in 1939 by Martin Goodman under a number of corporations and imprints but now known as Timely Comics, and by 1951 had generally become known as Atlas Comics. The Marvel era began in 1961, the year that the company launched The Fantastic Four and other superhero titles created by Stan Lee, Jack Kirby, Steve Ditko and many others. The Marvel brand, which had been used over the years, was solidified as the company's primary brand.\nMarvel counts among its characters such well-known superheroes as Spider-Man, Iron Man, Captain America, the Hulk, Thor, Wolverine, Ant-Man, the Wasp, Black Widow, Captain Marvel, Black Panther, Squirrel Girl, Doctor Strange, the Scarlet Witch, She-Hulk,  the Vision, Psylocke, Tigra, Ghost-Spider,  the Falcon, the Winter Soldier, Ghost Rider, Quake, Blade, Daredevil, Ms. Marvel, the Punisher and Deadpool. Superhero teams exist such as the Avengers, the X-Men, the Fantastic Four and the Guardians of the Galaxy as well as supervillains including Doctor Doom, Magneto, Thanos, Loki, Green Goblin, Kingpin, Diamondback, Red Skull, Ultron, the Mandarin, MODOK, Doctor Octopus, Kang, Dormammu, Venom and Galactus. Most of Marvel's fictional characters operate in a single reality known as the Marvel Universe, with most locations mirroring real-life places; many major characters are based in New York City.  Additionally, Marvel has published several licensed properties from other companies. This includes Star Wars comics twice from 1977 to 1986 and again since 2015."}, "Madison_Avenue_": {"links": ["Washington Square Park", "Carnegie Hill, Manhattan", "Vesey Street", "one thirty-twond Street ", "Cortlandt Street ", "Taras Shevchenko Place", "Stuart Weitzman", "Varick Street", "Roosevelt Street", "Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower", "Herm\u00e8s", "New York City Department of Transportation", "West Side Highway", "Zuccotti Park", "one twelveth Street ", "Lenox Avenue", "VIAF ", "Broad Street ", "Claremont Avenue", "Bowery", "North Moore Street", "Thompson Street ", "Church Street and Trinity Place", "Xsixty-four ", "Cartier ", "Center Drive ", "Lincoln Square, Manhattan", "American Association of Advertising Agencies", "Chrystie Street", "Liberty Street ", "Tom Ford", "Pleasant Avenue", "Bee-Line Bus System", "Hotel Seville ", "M ", "Centre Street ", "twenty-threerd Street ", "fourteenth Street ", "BxMeight ", "Wall Street", "Tompkins Square Park", "Herald Square", "fifty-threerd Street ", "Chambers Street ", "Upper Manhattan", "Irving Place", "Cooper Square", "Manhattan", "BxMfour ", "United States", "B. Altman and Company Building", "SIMtwenty-two ", "Sullivan Street", "SIMthirty-threeC ", "Chatham Square", "Diana ", "Union Square, Manhattan", "Third Avenue ", "Harlem", "SIMthirty-one ", "St. Nicholas Historic District", "ISBN ", "one forty-twond Street ", "Beaver Street ", "Prada", "Astor Row", "Mopeds", "C\u00e9line", "fourth Street ", "StrawberryFrog", "Second Avenue ", "Lanvin ", "SIMfourC ", "Colony Club", "Marketfield Street", "Oliver Peoples", "one thirty-threerd Street ", "Commissioners' Plan of eighteen eleven", "Carolina Herrera ", "Business cluster", "Avenue B ", "West Broadway", "Times Square", "Centre Market Place", "James Madison", "Washington Mews", "ArcGIS", "BxMnine ", "Church of the Incarnation, Episcopal ", "MacDougal Street", "Vandam Street", "Madison Square and Madison Square Park", "Morgan Library & Museum", "Duke University", "Rolex", "five fifty Madison Avenue", "Harlem River Drive", "Alexander McQueen", "Dyer Avenue", "National Historic Landmark", "West Street", "Doyers Street", "Jackson Square Park", "Weehawken Street", "Mthree ", "two seventy-five Madison Avenue", "SIMtwenty-six ", "ninety-fiveth Street ", "Park Avenue Viaduct", "Park Avenue", "Avenue A ", "Park Row ", "forty-five East 66th Street", "Jimmy Choo", "Madison Avenue Bridge", "One-way traffic", "Stanford White", "Petrosino Square", "Bogardus Place", "Sixth Avenue", "Squadron A Armory", "Duarte Square", "Maiden Lane ", "Lexington Avenue", "Bus lane", "Verdi Square", "Greenwich Street", "BxMsix ", "Allen Street", "Mad Men", "one sixteenth Street ", "South Street ", "Houston Street", "Xthirty-seven ", "Audubon Avenue", "Division Street ", "one tenth Street ", "fifty-seventh Street ", "Hanover Square ", "Wayback Machine", "seventy-fourth Street ", "Washington Heights, Manhattan", "Dey Street", "Park Avenue Tunnel ", "Grand Army Plaza ", "Samuel Ruggles", "New York Life Building", "Flatiron District", "Bond Street ", "Gay Street ", "BxMten ", "fifty-onest Street ", "Gucci", "Lower Manhattan", "Christian Louboutin", "BMtwo ", "QMtwenty-one ", "Nassau Street ", "St. John's Park", "NYCDOT", "Xsixty-three ", "William Safire", "York Avenue and Sutton Place", "Fifth Avenue/fifty-threerd Street ", "seventy-twond Street ", "P. T. Barnum", "Proenza Schouler", "Emmet Building", "one twenty-fiveth Street ", "Sylvan Place", "Bridge Street ", "Eighth Avenue ", "Stuyvesant Square", "President of the United States", "Duke Ellington Circle", "List of eponymous streets in New York City", "Gertrude Rhinelander Waldo House", "BMfour ", "forty-seventh Street ", "SIMsix ", "Grand Street ", "Anne Fontaine", "Charles Street ", "BxMeighteen ", "Mulberry Street ", "SIMtwenty-five ", "Calvin Klein", "Duffy Square", "eighty-fiveth Street ", "Dolce & Gabbana", "Henry Street ", "Barneys New York", "Broome Street", "Beekman Place", "Burberry", "East Harlem", "BxMthree ", "Organic, Inc.", "Edward Koch", "Vanderbilt Avenue", "Worth Street", "one forty-fiveth Street ", "Borough ", "Baxter Street", "Eldridge Street", "Advertising", "Google Maps", "Park Avenue main line", "Theatre Alley", "Xthirty-eight ", "New York City Subway", "Hudson Park and Boulevard", "Coach, Inc.", "Victoria's Secret", "Cabrini Boulevard", "Fort Washington Avenue", "ninety-threerd Street ", "Thirteenth Avenue ", "Mone ", "eightth Street and St. Mark's Place", "The Encyclopedia of New York City", "Columbus Circle", "City of New York", "Hudson Street ", "BMfive ", "East Broadway ", "East Drive ", "Google", "Ninth Avenue ", "Madison Square", "Lower East Side", "Roberto Cavalli", "Madison Square Garden ", "Dyckman Street", "Christopher Street", "Transportation Alternatives", "SIMthirty ", "University Place ", "fiftyth Street ", "eighty-nineth Street ", "Madison Square Garden", "Taxicab", "Mott Street", "seventy-nineth Street ", "Yale University Press", "Xsixty-eight ", "twelve sixty-one Madison Avenue", "Bus lanes in New York City", "Midtown Manhattan", "La Perla ", "Pershing Square, Manhattan", "Bank Street ", "45 East sixty-sixth Street", "New York City", "Beach Street ", "Rivington Street", "Broadway ", "Albany Street ", "Lower West Side, Manhattan", "Jones Street", "Mulry Square", "St. Patrick's Cathedral ", "Xtwenty-seven ", "Hester Street ", "Villard Houses", "Giorgio Armani", "Look Building", "Waverly Place", "Madison Square Park Conservancy", "Forsyth Street", "All Saints Church ", "Lafayette Street", "Morningside Drive ", "BMthree ", "New York State", "fifty-twond Street ", "First Avenue ", "Vera Wang", "Coenties Slip", "ISNI ", "Exchange Place ", "Stone Street ", "one fifty-fiveth Street ", "Qthirty-two ", "ninety-sixth Street ", "The New York Times", "one twentyth Street ", "forty-twond Street ", "National Park Service", "Great Jones Street", "TBWA Worldwide", "Avenue C ", "six\u00bd Avenue", "one twenty-twond Street ", "Avenue D ", "American Movie Classics", "Upper West Side", "Elizabeth Street ", "Shubert Alley", "E ", "Stuyvesant Street", "Mfour ", "Spring Street ", "Patchin Place", "New York City designated landmark", "BxMseven ", "Pearl Street ", "Brooks Brothers", "Financial District, Manhattan", "thirty-fourth Street ", "Appellate Division Courthouse of New York State", "State Street ", "Astor Place", "Madison Street ", "four hundred Madison Avenue", "Madison Square Park", "Washington Street ", "Whitehall Street", "Foley Square", "Essex Street", "SIMeightX ", "Sherman Square", "St. Nicholas Avenue", "BxMeleven ", "Eleventh Avenue ", "New York City Mayor", "Rockefeller Plaza", "twenty-sixth Street ", "Orchard Street", "Daniel F. Tiemann", "East Village, Manhattan", "fifty-nineth Street ", "one eighty-onest Street ", "George Abbott Way", "Cherry Street ", "Xtwenty-eight ", "Ralph Lauren", "BxMfourC ", "Greenwich Avenue", "Gramercy Park", "Canal Street ", "Manhattan address algorithm", "fifty-fiveth Street ", "Kenneth T. Jackson", "Stanton Street", "Fifth Avenue", "Metonymy", "fifty-fourth Street ", "Upper East Side", "Chlo\u00e9", "William Street ", "eighty-sixth Street ", "Riverside Drive ", "Fuller Building", "Bleecker Street", "National Register of Historic Places", "West Drive ", "Plaza Lafayette", "SIMeight ", "DDB Worldwide", "MTA Regional Bus Operations", "Tenth Avenue ", "thirteen twenty-one Madison Avenue", "Madison Avenue ", "sixty-sixth Street ", "Mtwo ", "Government of New York City", "Davidoff", "Frederick Douglass Circle", "Ludlow Street ", "Delancey Street", "one thirty-fiveth Street ", "Madison Belmont Building", "List of numbered streets in Manhattan", "Fulton Street ", "one eighty-seventh Street ", "Seventh Avenue ", "Emporio Armani", "Joseph Raphael De Lamar House", "BMone "], "content": "Madison Avenue is a north-south avenue in the borough of Manhattan in New York City, United States, that carries northbound one-way traffic. It runs from Madison Square (at 23rd Street) to meet the southbound Harlem River Drive at 142nd Street. In doing so, it passes through Midtown, the Upper East Side (including Carnegie Hill), East Harlem, and Harlem. It is named after and arises from Madison Square, which is itself named after James Madison, the fourth President of the United States.\nMadison Avenue was not part of the original Manhattan street grid established in the Commissioners' Plan of 1811, and was carved between Park Avenue (formerly Fourth) and Fifth Avenue in 1836, due to the effort of lawyer and real estate developer Samuel B. Ruggles, who had previously purchased and developed New York's Gramercy Park in 1831, and convinced the authorities to create Lexington Avenue and Irving Place between Fourth Avenue (now Park Avenue South) and Third Avenue in order to service it.\nThe street's name has been metonymous with the American advertising industry since the 1920s. Thus, the term \"Madison Avenue\" refers specifically to the agencies and methodology of advertising. \"Madison Avenue techniques\" refers, according to William Safire, to the \"gimmicky, slick use of the communications media to play on emotions.\"\n\n\n== Route ==\nMadison Avenue carries one-way traffic uptown (northbound) from East 23rd Street to East 135th Street, with the changeover from two-way traffic taking place on January 14, 1966, at which time Fifth Avenue was changed to one-way downtown (southbound). Between East 135th Street and East 142nd Street, Madison Avenue carries southbound traffic only and runs parallel to the Harlem River Drive.\nThere are numerous structures designated as New York City Landmarks (NYCL), National Historic Landmarks (NHL), and National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) on Madison Avenue. From south to north (in increasing address order), they include:\nMetropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower (NYCL, NHL, NRHP)\nAppellate Division Courthouse of New York State (NYCL, NRHP)\nNew York Life Building (NYCL, NHL, NRHP)\nHotel Seville (NYCL)\nEmmet Building (NYCL)\nColony Club (NYCL, NRHP)\nMadison Belmont Building (NYCL)\nB. Altman and Company Building (NYCL)\nChurch of the Incarnation, Episcopal (NYCL, NRHP)\nMorgan Library & Museum (NYCL, NHL, NRHP)\nJoseph Raphael De Lamar House (NYCL, NRHP)\n275 Madison Avenue (NYCL)\n400 Madison Avenue (NYCL)\nSt. Patrick's Cathedral (NYCL, NHL, NRHP)\nVillard Houses (NYCL, NRHP)\nLook Building (NYCL)\n550 Madison Avenue (NYCL)\nFuller Building (NYCL)\n45 East 66th Street (NYCL)\nGertrude Rhinelander Waldo House (NYCL, NRHP)\n1261 Madison Avenue (NYCL)\n1321 Madison Avenue (NYCL)\nSquadron A Armory (NYCL, NRHP)\nAll Saints Church (NYCL)\n\n\n== Role in advertising industry ==\nThe term \"Madison Avenue\" is often used metonymically to stand for the American advertising industry. Madison Avenue became identified with advertising after that sector's explosive growth in this area in the 1920s.According to \"The Emergence of Advertising in America\", by the year 1861, there were twenty advertising agencies in New York City; and the New York City Association of Advertising Agencies was founded in 1911, predating the establishment of the American Association of Advertising Agencies by several years.Among various depictions in popular culture, the portion of the advertising industry which centers on Madison Avenue serves as a backdrop for the AMC television drama Mad Men, which focuses on industry activities during the 1960s.In recent decades, many agencies have left Madison Avenue, with some moving further downtown and others moving west. The continued presence of large agencies in the city made New York the third-largest job market per capita in the U.S. in 2016, according to a study by marketing recruitment firm MarketPro. Today, several agencies are still located in the old business cluster on Madison Avenue, including StrawberryFrog, TBWA Worldwide, Organic, Inc., and DDB Worldwide. However, the term is still used to describe the agency business as a whole and large, New York\u2013based agencies in particular.\n\n\n== Madison Square Park and Madison Square Garden ==\n\nMadison Square Park is a 6.2-acre (2.5-hectare) public park which runs along Madison Avenue from East 26th Street to East 23rd Street. It is bordered on the west by Fifth Avenue and Broadway as they cross. The park was named for James Madison, fourth President of the United States.Madison Square Garden took its name from the location of the first building of that name, located on the northeast corner of Madison Avenue at 26th Street, across from the Park. The first Garden was a former railroad terminal for the Park Avenue main line, which was converted into an open-air circus venue by P. T. Barnum in 1871 and was renamed \"Madison Square Garden\" in 1879. (The New York Life Insurance Building now occupies that entire city block.) The original Garden was demolished in 1889 and replaced by a new indoor arena designed by Stanford White that opened the following year. The second Garden had a bronze statue of the Roman goddess Diana on the tower of the sports arena. When it moved to a new building at 50th Street and Eighth Avenue in 1925 it kept its old name. Madison Square Garden is now located at Eighth Avenue between 31st and 33rd Street; however, it still retains the name.\n\n\n== Economy ==\nRetail brands with locations on Madison Avenue include: Burberry, Manrico Cashmere, Brooks Brothers, Alexander McQueen, Herm\u00e8s, Tom Ford, C\u00e9line, Proenza Schouler, Lanvin, Valentino, Stuart Weitzman, Damiani, Emporio Armani, Prada, Chlo\u00e9, Roberto Cavalli, Davidoff, Dolce & Gabbana, Gucci, Calvin Klein, Cartier, Christian Louboutin, La Perla, Jimmy Choo, Jacadi, Mulberry, Victoria's Secret, Barneys New York, Coach, Rolex, Giorgio Armani, Oliver Peoples, Vera Wang, Anne Fontaine, Baccarat, Carolina Herrera, Ralph Lauren and others.\n\n\n== Transportation ==\n\n\n=== Buses and bus lane ===\nMadison Avenue is served by the M1, M2, M3, M4 and Q32 local New York City Transit buses; the BM1, BM2, BM3, BM4, BM5, BxM3, BxM4, BxM6, BxM7, BxM8, BxM9, BxM10, BxM11, BxM18, QM21, SIM4C, SIM6, SIM8, SIM8X, SIM22, SIM25, SIM26, SIM30, SIM31, SIM33C, X27, X28, X37, X38, X63, X64 and X68 express New York City Transit buses; and the BxM4C express Bee Line bus. These buses use a double exclusive bus lane between 42nd and 59th Streets, which comprise the only exclusive bus lane along the avenue.Although no New York City Subway stations are named after Madison Avenue, the Fifth Avenue/53rd Street station on the E and \u200bM trains has an entrance on Madison Avenue.Pursuant to Section 4-12(m) of the New York City Traffic Rules, driving a vehicle other than a bus in the bus lane on Madison Avenue to turn right during the restricted hours specified by sign between 42nd Street and 59th Street is prohibited, then permitted at 60th Street, but a taxicab carrying a passenger may use the bus lane to turn right at 46th Street. Bikes are excluded from this prohibition.\n\n\n=== Overturned midtown bike ban ===\nIn July 1987, then-New York City Mayor Edward Koch proposed banning bicycling on Fifth, Park and Madison Avenues during weekdays, but many bicyclists protested and had the ban overturned. When the trial was started on Monday, August 24, 1987 for 90 days to ban bicyclists from these three avenues from 31st Street to 59th Street between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. on weekdays, mopeds would not be banned.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n Media related to Madison Avenue at Wikimedia Commons", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Flag_of_New_York_City.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Harlem_River_Drive_Shield_free.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Madison_Ave_NYC_looking_nor.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Madison_Avenue.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/New_York_appeals_court_building_on_Madison_Avenue.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Sound-icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "Madison Avenue is a north-south avenue in the borough of Manhattan in New York City, United States, that carries northbound one-way traffic. It runs from Madison Square (at 23rd Street) to meet the southbound Harlem River Drive at 142nd Street. In doing so, it passes through Midtown, the Upper East Side (including Carnegie Hill), East Harlem, and Harlem. It is named after and arises from Madison Square, which is itself named after James Madison, the fourth President of the United States.\nMadison Avenue was not part of the original Manhattan street grid established in the Commissioners' Plan of 1811, and was carved between Park Avenue (formerly Fourth) and Fifth Avenue in 1836, due to the effort of lawyer and real estate developer Samuel B. Ruggles, who had previously purchased and developed New York's Gramercy Park in 1831, and convinced the authorities to create Lexington Avenue and Irving Place between Fourth Avenue (now Park Avenue South) and Third Avenue in order to service it.\nThe street's name has been metonymous with the American advertising industry since the 1920s. Thus, the term \"Madison Avenue\" refers specifically to the agencies and methodology of advertising. \"Madison Avenue techniques\" refers, according to William Safire, to the \"gimmicky, slick use of the communications media to play on emotions.\"\n\n"}, "Duke_Ellington_Circle": {"links": ["", "Bow Bridge ", "Studio Sessions New York & Chicago, nineteen sixty-five, 1966 & 1971", "one tenth Street ", "one thirty-twond Street ", "Swinging Suites by Edward E. and Edward G.", "one tenth Street", "Romeo and Juliet ", "Center Drive ", "A Drum Is a Woman", "Lincoln Square, Manhattan", "Exchange Place ", "Manhattan Community Board nine", "Eleventh Avenue ", "Mount Morris Park Historic District", "Studio Sessions New York & Chicago, 1965, 1966 & nineteen seventy-one", "Sylvia's Restaurant of Harlem", "one sixteenth Street ", "Fort Washington Avenue", "ninety-sixth Street ", "The Tempest ", "Cortlandt Street ", "List of arches and bridges in Central Park", "Vanderbilt Avenue", "Avenue A ", 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The traffic circle is named for the jazz musician Duke Ellington.\n\n\n== Plaza ==\nFormerly named \"Frawley Circle\", the traffic circle was renamed \"Duke Ellington Circle\" in 1995.  In 1997, the Duke Ellington Memorial by sculptor Robert Graham was erected in the middle of the shallow amphitheater composing the circle. Though the circle diverts the flow of 110th Street, Fifth Avenue maintains a direct route through the intersection.\nA new main location for the Museum for African Art designed by Robert A.M. Stern Architects is scheduled to open at the circle in 2011 and will be the first addition to New York City's Museum Mile in decades.\n\n\n== Neighborhoods ==\nDuke Ellington Circle connects the New York City neighborhoods of Harlem with East Harlem.  Harlem, which since the 1920s has been as a major African-American residential, cultural, and business center is to the north and west of the intersection, while East Harlem is located to the east. The nearest area of Central Park to the circle is the Harlem Meer.\n\n\n== Transportation ==\nThe M1, M2, M3 and M4 New York City Bus routes serve the vicinity of the circle.  In addition, the 2 and \u200b3 trains of the New York City Subway stop nearby at 110th Street and Lenox Avenue, while the 6 and <6>\u200b trains stop at 110th Street and Lexington Avenue.\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Bethesda_Fountain_angel_sunny_winter_day.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Jacqueline_Kennedy_Reservoire.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Marathon_thunder_Ellington_Circle_jeh.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/New_York_City-Manhattan-Central_Park_%28Gentry%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Pfeil_links.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Pfeil_oben.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Pfeil_rechts.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Pfeil_unten.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Southwest_corner_of_Central_Park%2C_looking_east%2C_NYC.jpg"], "summary": "Duke Ellington Circle is a traffic circle located at the northeast corner of Central Park at the intersection of Fifth Avenue and 110th Street in Harlem, Manhattan, New York City. The traffic circle is named for the jazz musician Duke Ellington."}, "Theosophy": {"links": ["Paradise", "Mental plane", "Walter Evans-Wentz", "The Voice of the Silence", "Astral plane", "Theosophical Society", "Baptism of Jesus", "Stonehenge", "Western esotericism", "Religious studies", "Gautama Buddha", "Mahatma Gandhi", "Absolute ", "George Arundale", "Abstract art", "Christian mysticism", "Antoine Faivre", "Universal Co-Freemasonry", "Liberal Catholic Church", "New York City", "Palmerston North", "List of new religious movements", "Rosicrucianism", "Akashic records", "Gary Lachman", "Maya ", "Massimo Introvigne", "World War II", "Franz Mesmer", "Astral body", "Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn", "Hilma af Klint", "Abstract expressionism", "Theosophy and literature", "Talbot Mundy", "The Mahatma Letters to A.P. Sinnett", "Hinduism and Theosophy", "W. B. 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Hanegraaff", "Chennai", "Hinduism", "Alfred Russel Wallace", "Common chimpanzee", "Helena Blavatsky", "Theosophical Society Adyar", "Thomas Edison", "Neo-Theosophy", "Alice Bailey", "Evolutionary theory", "Bertram Keightley", "Women's Coronation Procession", "Piet Mondrian", "Ariosophy", "Marion Meade", "Christianity and Theosophy"], "content": "Theosophy is a religion established in the United States during the late 19th century. It was founded primarily by the Russian immigrant Helena Blavatsky and draws its teachings predominantly from Blavatsky's writings. Categorized by scholars of religion as both a new religious movement and as part of the occultist stream of Western esotericism, it draws upon both older European philosophies such as Neoplatonism and Asian religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism.\nAs presented by Blavatsky, Theosophy teaches that there is an ancient and secretive brotherhood of spiritual adepts known as the Masters, who\u2014although found across the world\u2014are centered in Tibet. These Masters are alleged by Blavatsky to have cultivated great wisdom and supernatural powers, and Theosophists believe that it was they who initiated the modern Theosophical movement through disseminating their teachings via Blavatsky. They believe that these Masters are attempting to revive knowledge of an ancient religion once found across the world and which will again come to eclipse the existing world religions. Theosophical groups nevertheless do not refer to their system as a \"religion\". Theosophy preaches the existence of a single, divine Absolute. It promotes an emanationist cosmology in which the universe is perceived as outward reflections from this Absolute. Theosophy teaches that the purpose of human life is spiritual emancipation and claims that the human soul undergoes reincarnation upon bodily death according to a process of karma. It promotes values of universal brotherhood and social improvement, although it does not stipulate particular ethical codes.\nTheosophy was established in New York City in 1875 with the founding of the Theosophical Society by Blavatsky and Americans Henry Olcott and William Quan Judge. In the early 1880s, Blavatsky and Olcott relocated to India, where they established the Society's headquarters at Adyar, Tamil Nadu. Blavatsky described her ideas in two books, Isis Unveiled and The Secret Doctrine. She sought to produce purportedly supernatural phenomena to support her claims regarding the Masters, although was repeatedly accused of fraudulently doing so. Following Blavatsky's death in 1891, there was a schism in the Society, with Judge leading the Theosophical Society in America to split from the international organization.  Under Judge's successor Katherine Tingley, a Theosophical community named Lomaland was established in San Diego. The Adyar-based Society was later taken over by Annie Besant, under whom it grew to its largest extent during the late 1920s, before going into decline. The Theosophical movement still exists, although in much smaller form than in its heyday.\nTheosophy played a significant role in bringing knowledge of South Asian religions to Western countries, as well as in encouraging cultural pride in various South Asian nations. A variety of prominent artists and writers have also been influenced by Theosophical teachings. Theosophy has an international following, and during the 20th century had tens of thousands of adherents. Theosophical ideas have also exerted an influence on a wide range of other esoteric movements and philosophies, among them Anthroposophy, the Church Universal and Triumphant, and the New Age.\n\n\n== Definition ==\nTheosophy's founder, the Russian Helena Blavatsky, insisted that it was not a religion, although she did refer to it as the modern transmission of the \"once universal religion\" that she claimed had existed deep into the human past. That Theosophy should not be labeled a religion is a claim that has been maintained by Theosophical organizations, who instead regard it as a system that embraces what they see as the \"essential truth\" underlying religion, philosophy, and science. As a result, Theosophical groups allow their members to hold other religious allegiances, resulting in Theosophists who also identify as Christians, Buddhists, or Hindus.Scholars of religion who have studied Theosophy have characterized it as a religion. In his history of the Theosophical movement, Bruce F. Campbell noted that Theosophy promoted \"a religious world-view\" using \"explicitly religious terms\" and that its central tenets are not unequivocal fact, but rather rely on belief. Olav Hammer and Mikael Rothstein termed it \"one of the modern world's most important religious traditions\". Various scholars have pointed to its eclectic nature; Joscelyn Godwin described it as a \"universally eclectic religious movement\", while scholar J. Jeffrey Franklin characterized Theosophy as a \"hybrid religion\" for its syncretic combination of elements from various other sources. More specifically, Theosophy has been categorized as a new religious movement.Scholars have also classified Theosophy as a form of Western esotericism. Campbell for instance referred to it as \"an esoteric religious tradition\", while the historian Joy Dixon called it an \"esoteric religion\". More specifically, it is considered a form of occultism. Along with other groups like the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, the Theosophical Society has been seen as part of an \"occult revival\" that took place in Western countries during the late 19th century. The historian of religion Wouter Hanegraaff noted that Theosophy helped to establish the \"essential foundations for much of twentieth-century esotericism\".\nAlthough Theosophy draws upon Indian religious beliefs, the sociologist of religion Christopher Partridge observed that \"Theosophy is fundamentally Western. That is to say, Theosophy is not Eastern thought in the West, but Western thought with an Eastern flavour.\"\n\n\n=== Etymology ===\n\nAt a meeting of the Miracle Club in New York City on 7 September 1875, Blavatsky, Olcott, and Judge agreed to establish an organisation, with Charles Sotheran suggesting that they call it the Theosophical Society. Prior to adopting the name \"Theosophical\", they had debated various potential names, among them the Egyptological Society, the Hermetic Society, and the Rosicrucian Society. The term was not new, but had been previously used in various contexts by the Philaletheians and the Christian mystic Jakob B\u00f6hme.\nEtymologically, the term came from the Greek theos (\"god(s)\") and sophia (\"wisdom\"), thus meaning \"god-wisdom\", \"divine wisdom\", or \"wisdom of God\". The term theosophia appeared (in both Greek and Latin) in the works of early church fathers, as a synonym for theology. In her book The Key to Theosophy, Blavatsky claimed that the term \"Theosophy\" had been coined by \"the Alexandrian philosophers\", especially Ammonius Saccas.Blavatsky's Theosophy is not the only movement to use the term \"theosophy\" and this has resulted in scholarly attempts to differentiate the different currents. Godwin drew a division by referring to Blavatskian Theosophy with a capital letter and older, Boehmian theosophy with a lower-case letter. Alternately, the scholar of esotericism Wouter J. Hanegraaff distinguished the Blavatskian movement from its older namesake by terming it \"modern Theosophy\".\nFollowers of Blavatsky's movement are known as Theosophists, while adherents of the older tradition are termed theosophers. Causing some confusion, a few Theosophists \u2014 such as C. C. Massey \u2014 were also theosophers.\nIn the early years of Blavatsky's movement, some critics referred to it as \"Neo-Theosophy\" to differentiate it from the older Christian theosophy movement. The term \"Neo-Theosophy\" would later be adopted within the modern Theosophical movement itself, where it was used\u2014largely pejoratively\u2014to describe the teachings promoted by Annie Besant and Charles Webster Leadbeater by those who opposed their innovations.According to the scholar of religion James A. Santucci, discerning what the term \"Theosophy\" meant to the early Theosophists is \"not as obvious as one might think\". As used by Olcott, the term \"Theosophy\" appeared to be applied to an approach that emphasized experimentation as a means of learning about the \"Unseen Universe\"; conversely, Blavatsky used the term in reference to gnosis regarding said information.\n\n\n== Beliefs and teachings ==\nAlthough the writings of prominent Theosophists lay out a set of teachings, the Theosophical Society itself states that it has no official beliefs with which all members must agree. It therefore has doctrine but does not present this as dogma. The Society stated that the only tenet to which all members should subscribe was a commitment \"to form a nucleus of the Universal Brotherhood of Humanity without distinction of race, creed, sex, caste or color\". This means that there were members of the Theosophical Society who were skeptical about many, or even all, of the Theosophical doctrines, while remaining sympathetic to its basic aim of universal brotherhood.As noted by Santucci, Theosophy is \"derived primarily from the writings\" of Blavatsky, however revisions and innovations have also been produced by subsequent Theosophists like Annie Besant and Charles Leadbeater. Blavatsky claimed that these Theosophical doctrines were not her own invention, but had been received from a brotherhood of secretive spiritual adepts whom she referred to as the \"Masters\" or \"Mahatmas\".\n\n\n=== The Masters ===\n\nCentral to Theosophical belief is the idea that a group of spiritual adepts known as the Masters not only exist but were responsible for the production of early Theosophical texts. For most Theosophists, these Masters are deemed to be the real founders of the modern Theosophical movement. In Theosophical literature, these Masters are also referred to as the Mahatmas, Adepts, Masters of Wisdom, Masters of Compassion, and Elder Brothers. They are perceived to be a fraternity of human men who are highly evolved, both in terms of having an advanced moral development and intellectual attainment. They are claimed to have achieved extra-long life spans, and to have gained supernatural powers, including clairvoyance and the ability to instantly project their soul out of their body to any other location. These are powers that they have allegedly attained through many years of training. According to Blavatsky, by the late 19th century their chief residence was in the Himalayan kingdom of Tibet. She also claimed that these Masters were the source of many of her published writings.The Masters are believed to preserve the world's ancient spiritual knowledge, and to represent a Great White Brotherhood or White Lodge which watches over humanity and guides its evolution.\nAmong those whom the early Theosophists claimed as Masters were Biblical figures like Abraham, Moses, Solomon, and Jesus, Asian religious figures like Gautama Buddha, Confucius, and Laozi, and modern individuals like Jakob Bohme, Alessandro Cagliostro, and Franz Mesmer. However, the most prominent Masters to appear in Theosophical literature are Koot Hoomi (sometimes spelled Kuthumi) and Morya, with whom Blavatsky claimed to be in contact. According to Theosophical belief, the Masters approach those deemed worthy to embark on an apprenticeship or chelaship. The apprentice would then undergo several years of probation, during which they must live a life of physical purity, remaining chaste, abstinent, and indifferent to physical luxury. Blavatsky encouraged the production of images of the Masters. The most important portraits of the Masters to be produced were created in 1884 by Hermann Schmiechen. According to scholar of religion Massimo Introvigne, Schmiechen's images of Morya and Koot Humi gained \"semi-canonical status\" in the Theosophical community, being regarded as sacred objects rather than simply decorative images.Campbell noted that for non-Theosophists, the claims regarding the existence of the Masters are among the weakest made by the movement. Such claims are open to examination and potential refutation, with challenges to the existence of the Masters therefore undermining Theosophical beliefs.\nThe idea of a brotherhood of secret adepts had a long pedigree stretching back several centuries before the foundation of Theosophy; such ideas can be found in the work of the Rosicrucians, and was popularized in the fictional literature of Edward Bulwer-Lytton. The idea of having messages conveyed to a medium through spiritually advanced entities had also been popularized at the time of Theosophy's foundation through the Spiritualist movement.\n\n\n=== The ancient wisdom religion ===\nAccording to Blavatsky's teachings, many of the world's religions have their origins in a universal ancient religion, a \"secret doctrine\" that was known to Plato and early Hindu sages and which continues to underpin the center of every religion.\nShe promoted the idea that ancient societies exhibited a unity of science and religion that humanity has since lost, with their achievements and knowledge being far in excess of what modern scholars believe about them. Blavatsky also taught that a secret brotherhood has conserved this ancient wisdom religion throughout the centuries, and that members of this fraternity hold the key to understanding miracles, the afterlife, and psychic phenomena, and that moreover, these adepts themselves have paranormal powers.She stated that this ancient religion would be revived and spread throughout humanity in the future, replacing dominant world religions like Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism.\nTheosophy tended to emphasize the importance of ancient texts over the popular ritual and custom found within various religious traditions.\nThe Theosophical depiction of Buddhism and Hinduism, however, drew criticism both from practitioners of orthodox Buddhist and Hindu traditions, as well as from Western scholars of these traditions, such as Max M\u00fcller, who believed that Theosophists like Blavatsky were misrepresenting the Asian traditions.\n\n\n=== Theology and cosmology ===\n\nTheosophy promotes an emanationist cosmology, promoting the belief that the universe is an outward reflection from the Absolute.\nTheosophy presents the idea that the world as humans perceive it is illusory, or maya, an idea that it draws from Asian religions. Accordingly, Blavatsky taught that a life limited by the perception of this illusory world was ignorant and deluded.\n\nAccording to Blavatsky's teaching, every solar system in the universe is the expression of what is termed a \"Logos\" or \"Solar Deity\". Ranked below this Solar Deity are seven ministers or planetary spirits, with each of these celestial beings being in control of evolution on a particular planet.\nIn The Secret Doctrine, Blavatsky stated that each planet had a sevenfold constitution, known as the \"Planetary Chains\"; these consist not only of a physical globe but also of two astral bodies, two mental bodies, and two spiritual bodies, all overlapping in the same space. According to Blavatsky, evolution occurs on descending and ascending arcs, from the first spiritual globe on to the first mental globe, then from the first astral globe to the first physical globe, and then on from there.\nShe claimed that there were different levels of evolution, from mineral on to vegetable, animal, human, and then to superhuman or spiritual. Different levels of evolution occur in a successive order on each planet; thus when mineral evolution ends on the first planet and it proceeds on to vegetable evolution, then mineral evolution begins on the second planet.Theosophy teaches that human evolution is tied in with this planetary and wider cosmic evolution.\nIn The Secret Doctrine, Blavatsky advocated the idea of seven \"Root Races\", each of which was divided into seven Sub-Races.\nIn Blavatsky's cosmogony, the first Root Race were created from pure spirit, and lived on a continent known as the \"Imperishable Sacred Land\". The second Root Race, known as the Hyperboreans, were also formed from pure spirit, and lived on a land near to the North Pole, which then had a mild climate. The third lived on the continent of Lemuria, which Blavatsky alleged survives today as Australia and Rapa Nui. Blavatsky alleged that during the fourth Round of the Earth, higher beings descended to the planet, with the beginnings of human physical bodies developing, and the sexes separating. At this point, the fourth Root Race appeared, living on the continent of Atlantis; they had physical bodies but also psychic powers and advanced technology. She claimed that some Atlanteans were giants, and built such ancient monuments as Stonehenge in southern England, and that they also mated with \"she-animals\", resulting in the creation of gorillas and chimpanzees. The Atlanteans were decadent and abused their power and knowledge, so Atlantis sunk into the sea, although various Atlanteans escaped, and created new societies in Egypt and the Americas.The fifth Root Race to emerge was the Aryans, and was found across the world at the time she was writing. She believed that the fifth Race would come to be replaced by the sixth, which would be heralded by the arrival of Maitreya, a figure from Mahayana Buddhist mythology. She further believed that humanity would eventually develop into the final, seventh Root Race. At this, she stated that humanity will have reached the end of its evolutionary cycle and life will withdraw from the Earth.\nLachman suggested that by reading Blavatsky's cosmogonical claims as a literal account of history, \"we may be doing it a disservice.\" He instead suggested that it could be read as Blavatsky's attempt to formulate \"a new myth for the modern age, or as a huge, fantastic science fiction story\".\n\n\n==== Maitreya and messianism ====\nBlavatsky taught that Lord Maitreya\u2014a figure she borrowed from Buddhist mythology\u2014would come to Earth as a messianic figure. Her ideas on this were expanded upon by Besant and Leadbeater. They claimed that Maitreya had previously incarnated onto the Earth as Krishna, a figure from Hindu mythology. They also claimed that he had entered Jesus of Nazareth at the time of the latter's baptism, and that henceforth Maitreya would be known as \"the Christ\". Besant and Leadbeater claimed that Maitreya would again come to Earth by manifesting through an Indian boy named Jiddu Krishnamurti, whom Leadbeater had encountered playing on a beach at Adyar in 1909. The introduction of the Krishnamurti belief into Theosophy has been identified as a millenarian element.\n\n\n=== Personal development and reincarnation ===\n\nAccording to Theosophy, the purpose of human life is the spiritual emancipation of the soul. The human individual is described as an \"Ego\" or \"Monad\" and believed to have emanated from the Solar Deity, to whom it will also eventually return. The human being is presented as composed of seven parts, while operating on three separate planes of being. As presented by Sinnett and often repeated in Theosophical literature, these seven parts are the Body (Rupa), Vitality (Prana-Jiva), the Astral Body (Linga Sarira), the Animal Soul (Kama-Rupa), the Human Soul (Manas), the Spiritual Soul (Buddhi), and the Spirit (Atma). According to Theosophical teaching, it is the latter three of these components that are immortal, while the other aspects perish following bodily death. Theosophy teaches that the Spiritual Soul and the Spirit do not reside within the human body alongside the other components, but that they are connected to it through the Human Soul.In The Voice of the Silence, Blavatsky taught that within each individual human there is an eternal, divine facet, which she referred to as \"the Master\", the \"uncreate\", the \"inner God\", and the \"higher self\". She promoted the idea that uniting with this \"higher self\" results in wisdom. In that same book, she compared the progress of the human soul to a transition through three halls; the first was that of ignorance, which is the state of the soul before it understands the need to unite with its higher self. The second is the Hall of Learning, in which the individual becomes aware of other facets of human life but is distracted by an interest in psychic powers. The third is the Hall of Wisdom, in which union with the higher self is made; this is then followed by the Vale of Bliss. At this point the human soul can merge into the One.\n\n\n==== Reincarnation and karma ====\nThroughout her writings, Blavatsky made a variety of statements about rebirth and the afterlife, and there is a discrepancy between her earlier and later teachings on the subject. Between the 1870s and circa 1882, Blavatsky taught a doctrine called \"metempsychosis\".\nIn Isis Unveiled, Blavatsky stated that on bodily death, the human soul progresses through more spiritual planes. Two years later, she introduced the idea of reincarnation into Theosophical doctrine, using it to replace her metempsychosis doctrine. In The Secret Doctrine, she stated that the spirit was immortal and would repeatedly incarnate into a new, mortal soul and body on Earth.\nAccording to Theosophical teaching, human spirits will always be reborn into human bodies, and not into those of any other life forms. Blavatsky stated that spirits would not be reborn until some time after bodily death, and never during the lifetime of the deceased's relatives.Blavatsky taught that on the death of the body, the astral body survives for a time in a state called kama-loka, which she compared to limbo, before also dying. According to this belief, the human then moves into its mental body in a realm called devachan, which she compared to Heaven or paradise. Blavatsky taught that the soul remained in devachan for 1000 to 1500 years, although the Theosophist Charles Webster Leadbeater claimed that it was only 200.Theosophy espouses the existence of karma as a system which regulates the cycle of reincarnation, ensuring that an individual's actions in one life affect the circumstances of their next one. This belief therefore seeks to explain why misery and suffering exist in the world, attributing any misfortune that someone suffers as punishment for misdeeds that they perpetrated in a prior life. In Blavatsky's words, karma and reincarnation were \"inextricably interwoven\". However, she did not believe that karma had always been the system that governed reincarnation; she believed that it came into being when humans developed egos, and that one day will also no longer be required.Besant and Leadbeater claimed to be able to investigate people's past lives through reading the akashic record, an etheric store of all the knowledge of the universe. They, for instance, claimed to have attained knowledge of their own past lives as monkey-like creatures residing on the moon, where they served as pets to the \"Moon-man\" (a prior incarnation of the Master Morya), his wife (Koot Humi), and their child (the Lord Maitreya). When they were attacked by \"savages\" and animals \"resembling furry lizards and crocodiles\", Besant sacrificed herself to save Morya, and for that act made the karmic evolutionary leap to becoming a human in her next incarnation.\n\n\n=== Morality and ethics ===\n\nTheosophy does not express any formal ethical teaching, a situation that generated ambiguity. However, it has expressed and promoted certain values, such as brotherhood and social improvement.\nDuring its early years, the Theosophical Society promoted a puritanical attitude toward sexuality, for instance by encouraging chastity even within marriage.By 1911, the Theosophical Society was involved in projects connected to a range of progressive political causes. In England, there were strong links between Theosophy and first-wave feminism. Based on a statistical analysis, Dixon noted that prominent English feminists of the period were several hundred times more likely to join the Theosophical Society than was the average member of the country's population. Theosophical contingents took part in feminist marches of the period; for instance, a Theosophical group operating under the banner of Universal Co-Freemasonry marched as part of the Women's Coronation Procession in 1911.\n\n\n=== Ritual ===\nThe Theosophical Society did not prescribe any specific rituals for adherents to practice. However, ritualized practices have been established by various Theosophical groups; one such group is the Liberal Catholic Church. Another is the meetings of the United Lodge of Theosophy, which has been characterized as having a \"quasi-sacred and quasi-liturgical\" character. \n\n\n== Historical development ==\n\nThe Theosophical Society was largely the creation of two individuals: Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott.\nEstablished Christianity in the United States was experiencing challenges in the second half of the nineteenth century, a result of rapid urbanization and industrialization, high rates of immigration, and the growing understanding of evolutionary theory which challenged traditional Christian accounts of history. Various new religious communities were established in different parts of the country, among them the Free Religious Association, New Thought, Christian Science, and Spiritualism. Theosophy would inherit the idea \u2014 then popular in the United States \u2014 that emphasized the idea of free will and the inevitability of progress, including on a spiritual level. It was also influenced by a growing knowledge about Asian religions in the United States.Prior to her arrival in the United States, Blavatsky had experience with esoteric currents like Spiritualism.\nIt was through Spiritualism that Blavatsky and Olcott met.In 1884, Olcott established the first Scottish lodge, in Edinburgh.In 1980, Campbell noted that Theosophical books were selling at record levels.In the United States, Judge had been devoting himself to the promotion of Theosophy with little success.\n\n\n=== Post-Blavatsky ===\nDuring her lifetime, Blavatsky had suggested to many different persons that they would be her successor. Three of the most prominent candidates \u2014 Olcott, Judge, and Besant \u2014 all met in London shortly after her death to discuss the situation. Judge claimed that he too was in contact with the Masters, and that they had provided him with a message instructing him to co-delegate the Society's Esoteric Section with Besant. Olcott, however, suspected that the notes from the Masters which Judge was producing were forged, exacerbating tensions between them. Besant attempted to act as a bridge between the two men, while Judge informed her that the Masters had revealed to him a plot that Olcott was orchestrating to kill her. In 1893, Besant came down on Olcott's side in the argument and backed the internal proceedings that Olcott raised against Judge. A two-stage enquiry took place, which concluded that because the Society took no official stance on whether the Masters existed or not, Judge could not be considered guilty of forgery and would be allowed to retain his position. The details of this trial were leaked to the journalist F. Edmund Garrett, who used them as the basis of his critical book, Isis Very Much Unveiled. Judge then announced that the Masters had informed him that he should take sole control of the Esoteric Section, deposing Besant; she rejected his claims. Amid calls from Olcott that Judge should stand down, in April 1895 the American section voted to secede from the main Society. Judge remained its leader, but died within a year.\n\nOlcott then sent Besant to the United States to gain support for the Adyar-based Society. In this she was successful, gaining thousands of new members and establishing many new branches.\nBesant had developed a friendship with the Theosophist Charles Webster Leadbeater, and together they co-wrote a number of books. Leadbeater was controversial, and concerns were raised when he was found to have instructed two boys in masturbation. The American Section of the Theosophical Society raised internal charges against him, although Besant came to his defense . In a move probably designed to limit negative publicity for the Society, they accepted his resignation rather than expelling him.On Olcott's death in 1907, he had nominated Besant to be his successor, and she was then elected to the position with a large majority in June. In her first years as the head of the Society, Besant oversaw a dramatic growth in its membership, raising it by 50%, to 23,000. She also oversaw an expansion of the Adyar property, from 27 to 253 acres. Besant was involved in various activist causes, promoting women's rights in India through the Women's Indian Association and helping to establish both the Central Hindu College and a Hindu girls' school. Besant also began a campaign for Indian Home Rule, founding a group called the Home Rule League. She established the New India newspaper, and after continuing to promote Indian independence in the paper's pages during the First World War she was interned for several months. This helped to boost her status within the independence movement, and at the age of 70 she was appointed President of the Indian National Congress, a largely honorary position.In December 1908, Leadbeater was readmitted to the Society; this generated a wave of resignations, with the Sydney branch seceding to form the Independent Theosophical Society. Leadbeater traveled to Adyar, where he met a young boy living there, Jiddu Krishnamurti, and pronounced him to be the next incarnation of a figure called the World Teacher. He subsequently took control of the boy's instruction for two years. With Besant, Leadbeater established a group known as the Order of the Star in the East to promote the idea of Krishnamurti as World Teacher. \nLeadbeater also wanted more ritual within Theosophy, and to achieve this he and J. I. Wedgwood became bishops in the Old Catholic Church. They then split from that to form their own Liberal Catholic Church, which was independent from the Theosophical Society (Adyar) while retaining an affiliation with it. The Church drew most of its membership from the Society and heavily relied upon its resources. However, in 1919 the Church was marred by police investigations into allegations that six of its priests had engaged in acts of pedophilia and Wedgewood \u2014 who was implicated in the allegations \u2014 resigned from the organization.\n\nIn retaliation, a \"Back to Blavatsky\" movement emerged within the Society. Its members pejoratively referred to Besant and her followers as practitioners of \"Neo-Theosophy\", objecting to the Liberal Catholic Church's allegiance to the Pope, and to the prominence that they were according to Besant and Leadbeater's publications. The main benefactor of the disquiet within the Back to Blavatsky movement was a rival group called the United Lodge of Theosophists. One of the most prominent figures to switch allegiance was B. P. Wadia.\nThe United Lodge of Theosophists had been established in Los Angeles in 1909, when it had split from Judge's Theosophical Society in America, seeking to minimize formal organization. It focused on publishing new editions of Blavatsky and Judge's writings, as well as other books, which were usually released anonymously so as to prevent any personality cults developing within the Theosophical movement.The Adyar Society membership later peaked at 40,000 in the late 1920s.\nThe Order of the Star had 30,000 members at its height.\nKrishnamurti himself repudiated these claims, insisting that he was not the World Teacher, and then resigned from the Society; the effect on the society was dramatic, as it lost a third of its membership over the coming few years. Besant died in 1933, when the Society was taken over by George Arundale, who led it until 1945; the group's activities were greatly curtailed by World War II.Judge left no clear successor as leader of the Theosophical Society in America, but the position was taken by Katherine Tingley, who claimed that she remained in mediumistic contact with Judge's spirit. Tingley launched an international campaign to promote her Theosophical group, sending delegations to Europe, Egypt, and India. In the latter country they clashed with the Adyar-based Theosophical Society, and were unsuccessful in gaining converts. Her leadership would be challenged by Ernest T. Hargrove in 1898, and when he failed he split to form his own rival group. In 1897, Tingley had established a Theosophical community, Lomaland, at Point Loma in San Diego, California. Various Theosophical writers and artists congregated there, while horticultural development was also emphasized.\nIn 1919, the community helped establish a Theosophical University.\nLongstanding financial problems coupled with an aging population resulted in the Society selling Lomaland in 1942. Meanwhile, Tingley's death in 1929 had resulted in the Theosophical Society in America being taken over by Gottfried de Purucker, who promoted rapprochement with other Theosophical groups in what came to be known as the Fraternisation movement.\n\n\n== Demographics ==\n\nDuring its first century, Theosophy established itself as an international movement.\nCampbell believed that from its foundation until 1980, Theosophy had gained tens of thousands of adherents. He noted that in that latter year, there were circa 35,000 members of the Adyar-based Theosophical Society (9000 of whom were in India), c.5,500 members of the Theosophical Society in America, c.1500 members of the Theosophical Society International (Pasadena), and about 1200 members of the United Lodge of Theosophy. Membership of the Theosophical Society reached its highest peak in 1928, when it had 45,000 members. The HPB Lodge in Auckland, New Zealand was one of the world's largest, with over 500 members in 1949.Theosophical groups consist largely of individuals as opposed to family groups. Campbell noted that these members were alienated in ways from conventional social roles and practices.As noted by Dixon, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Theosophical Society \"appealed above all to an elite, educated, middle- and upper-middle-class constituency\". It was, in her words, \"a religion for the 'thinking classes'.\" Campbell stated that Theosophy attracted \"unconventional, liberal-minded Westerners\", and according to Dixon they were among those \"who constituted themselves as the humanitarian conscience of the middle classes, a dissident minority who worked in a variety of parallel organizations to critique the dominant bourgeois values and culture.\"Campbell also noted that Theosophy appealed to educated Asians, and particularly Indians, because it identified Asia as being central to a universal ancient religion and allowed Asians to retain traditional religious beliefs and practices within a modern framework.\n\n\n== Reception and legacy ==\nHammer and Rothstein believed that the formation and early history of the Theosophical Society was one of the \"pivotal chapters of religious history in the West.\" The Theosophical Society had significant effects on religion, politics, culture, and society.\nIn the Western world, it was a major force for the introduction of Asian religious ideas. \nIn 1980, Campbell described it as \"probably the most important non-traditional or occult group in the last century\", while in 2012 Santucci noted that it had had \"a profound impact on the contemporary religious landscape\".\n\nIn approaching Asian religion with respect and treating its religious beliefs seriously, Blavatsky and Olcott influenced South Asian society. In India, it played an important role in the Indian independence movement and in the Buddhist revival. The Indian independence leader Mahatma Gandhi developed much of his interest in Hindu culture after being given a copy of the Bhagavad Gita by two Theosophists. Alongside her support for Indian home rule, Besant had also supported home rule for Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. Campbell suggested that Theosophy could be seen as a \"grandfather\" movement to this 20th century growth in Asian spirituality.\nGiven the spread of such ideas in the West, some critics have perceived Theosophy's role as being largely obsolete.\n\n\n=== Influence on the arts and culture ===\nMany important figures, in particular within the humanities and the arts, were involved in the Theosophical movement and influenced by its teachings. Prominent scientists who had belonged to the Theosophical Society included the inventor Thomas Edison, the biologist Alfred Russel Wallace, and the chemist William Crookes.Theosophy also exerted an influence on the arts.\nTheosophy was also an influence over a number of early pioneers of abstract art. Hilma af Klint's development of abstraction was directly tied to her work with the Theosophical Society, with the aim of presenting and preserving spiritual concepts visually. The Russian abstract expressionist Wassily Kandinsky was also very interested in Theosophy and Theosophical ideas about colour. The Dutch abstract artist Piet Mondrian was also influenced by Theosophical symbolism.Theosophical ideas were also an influence on the Irish literary movement of the late 19th and early 20th century, with writers like Charles Johnston, George Russell, John Eglinton, Charles Weeks, and William Butler Yeats having an interest in the movement.\nThe American adventure fiction writer Talbot Mundy included Theosophical themes in many of his works. He had abandoned his previous allegiance to Christian Science to join the Theosophical faction led by Tingley, joining the Society in 1923 and settling at the Point Loma community.\n\n\n=== Influence on other religious and esoteric groups ===\n\nThe founders of many later new religious movements had been involved in Theosophy.\nMany esoteric groups \u2014 such as Alice Bailey's Arcane School and Rudolf Steiner's Anthroposophy \u2014 are \"directly dependent\" on Theosophy. \nAlthough he had split from Theosophy when renouncing Leadbeater's claim that he was the World Teacher, Krishnamurti continued to exhibit Theosophical influences in his later teachings. In 1923 a former Theosophist, the Anglo-American Alice Bailey, established the Arcane School, which also rested on claims regarding contact with the Ascended Masters.Another former Theosophist, the Austrian Rudolf Steiner, split from the Theosophical Society over the claims about Krishnamurti and then established his own Anthroposophical Society in 1913, which promoted Anthroposophy, a philosophy influenced by Theosophical ideas. Despite his departure from the Theosophists, Rudolf Steiner nevertheless maintained a keen interest in Theosophy for the rest of his life.As Theosophy entered the V\u00f6lkisch movement of late 19th century Austria and Germany, it syncretized to form an eclectic occult movement known as Ariosophy. The most prominent Ariosophist, the Austrian Guido von List, was influenced by Theosophical ideas in creating his own occult system.In the United States during the 1930s, the I AM group was established by Guy Ballard and Edna Ballard; the group adopted the idea of the Ascended Masters from Theosophy.\nThe idea of the Masters\u2014and a belief in Morya and Kuthumi\u2014have also been adopted into the belief system of the Church Universal and Triumphant. The Canadian mystic Manly P. Hall also cited Blavatsky's writings as a key influence on his ideas. Theosophical ideas, including on the evolution of the Earth, influenced the teachings of British conspiracist David Icke.Hammer and Rothstein stated that Theosophy came to heavily influence \"popular religiosity\" and by the late twentieth and twenty-first centuries was \"permeating just about every nook and cranny of contemporary \"folk\" religious culture\" in Western countries. It was a major influence on the New Age milieu of the latter twentieth century. It played an important role in promoting belief in reincarnation among Westerners.\n\n\n=== Scholarly research ===\n\nA considerable amount of literature has been produced on the subject of Theosophy and the Theosophical Society. Most early publications on Theosophy fell into two camps: either apologetic and highly defensive, or highly antagonistic and aggressive towards the movement. As of 2001, the scholar of religion Olav Hammer could still note that books presenting the Theosophical doctrines were mostly apologetic in nature. Examples of such works include William Q. Judge's 1893 book Ocean of Theosophy and Robert Ellwood's 1986 book Theosophy. He noted that most of these works treated Theosophical doctrine as if it were a fixed entity and provided little or no discussion of how they have changed over the decades. Many articles on the historical development of the movement have also appeared in the journal Theosophical History.Many early scholars of religion dismissed Theosophy as being not worthy of study; Mircea Eliade for instance described Theosophy as a \"detestable 'spiritual' hybridism\". The academic study of the Theosophical current developed at the intersection of two scholarly sub-fields: the study of new religious movements, which emerged in the 1970s, and the study of Western esotericism. For example, Blavatsky Unveiled Volume 1 by theosophical scholar Moon Laramie provides a modern translation and dispassionate analysis of the first seven chapters of Isis Unveiled.\nA significant proportion of the scholarship on Theosophy constitutes biographies of its leading members and discussions of events in the Society's history. In contrast to the significant amount of research focused on the first two generations of Theosophists, little has been produced on later figures. Hammer also lamented that while scholarship on Theosophy was developing, it had not focused on the reformulation of Theosophy by Leadbeater and Besant or with the developing ideas of post-Theosophical writers such as Steiner or Bailey. Hammer and Rothstein suggested that the \"dearth of scholarly literature\" on Theosophy was because \"powerful individuals and institutions\" in Europe and North America regarded the religion as \"ludicrous\", thus discouraging scholars from devoting their time to researching it.\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of new religious movements\nHelena Blavatsky\nTheosophical Society\nHinduism and Theosophy\nNeo-Theosophy\nTheosophy and literature\nTheosophy and visual arts\n\"What Is Theosophy?\"\nTheosophical Society Adyar, Chennai, India\nTheosophical Society in America\nAgni Yoga\nNicholas Roerich\nHelena Roerich\nBenjamin Creme\n\n\n== Sources ==\n\n\n=== Footnotes ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n\n\n=== Further reading ===\n\n\n== External links ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Akademie_und_Tempel.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Annie-Besant-J-Krishnamurti-Ernest-Wood.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Blavatsky_and_Olcott.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Draig.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Emb_logo.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Koothoomi.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Librer%C3%ADa_Sociedad_Teos%C3%B3fica_en_Buenos_Aires.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Montagem_Sistema_Solar.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Moryaportrait.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/P_religion_world.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Palmerston_North_Theosophical_Hall_MRD.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/The_Theosophical_Society_%286708436163%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/TheosophicalSocietyBudapest.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Theosophical_Society.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Theosophy_Hall_E72_jeh.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "Theosophy is a religion established in the United States during the late 19th century. It was founded primarily by the Russian immigrant Helena Blavatsky and draws its teachings predominantly from Blavatsky's writings. Categorized by scholars of religion as both a new religious movement and as part of the occultist stream of Western esotericism, it draws upon both older European philosophies such as Neoplatonism and Asian religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism.\nAs presented by Blavatsky, Theosophy teaches that there is an ancient and secretive brotherhood of spiritual adepts known as the Masters, who\u2014although found across the world\u2014are centered in Tibet. These Masters are alleged by Blavatsky to have cultivated great wisdom and supernatural powers, and Theosophists believe that it was they who initiated the modern Theosophical movement through disseminating their teachings via Blavatsky. They believe that these Masters are attempting to revive knowledge of an ancient religion once found across the world and which will again come to eclipse the existing world religions. Theosophical groups nevertheless do not refer to their system as a \"religion\". Theosophy preaches the existence of a single, divine Absolute. It promotes an emanationist cosmology in which the universe is perceived as outward reflections from this Absolute. Theosophy teaches that the purpose of human life is spiritual emancipation and claims that the human soul undergoes reincarnation upon bodily death according to a process of karma. It promotes values of universal brotherhood and social improvement, although it does not stipulate particular ethical codes.\nTheosophy was established in New York City in 1875 with the founding of the Theosophical Society by Blavatsky and Americans Henry Olcott and William Quan Judge. In the early 1880s, Blavatsky and Olcott relocated to India, where they established the Society's headquarters at Adyar, Tamil Nadu. Blavatsky described her ideas in two books, Isis Unveiled and The Secret Doctrine. She sought to produce purportedly supernatural phenomena to support her claims regarding the Masters, although was repeatedly accused of fraudulently doing so. Following Blavatsky's death in 1891, there was a schism in the Society, with Judge leading the Theosophical Society in America to split from the international organization.  Under Judge's successor Katherine Tingley, a Theosophical community named Lomaland was established in San Diego. The Adyar-based Society was later taken over by Annie Besant, under whom it grew to its largest extent during the late 1920s, before going into decline. The Theosophical movement still exists, although in much smaller form than in its heyday.\nTheosophy played a significant role in bringing knowledge of South Asian religions to Western countries, as well as in encouraging cultural pride in various South Asian nations. A variety of prominent artists and writers have also been influenced by Theosophical teachings. Theosophy has an international following, and during the 20th century had tens of thousands of adherents. Theosophical ideas have also exerted an influence on a wide range of other esoteric movements and philosophies, among them Anthroposophy, the Church Universal and Triumphant, and the New Age."}, "Pedophilia": {"links": ["Dementia", "Metropolitan Police Service", "Testosterone", "Medicine, Science and the Law", "Toddler", "Lateralization of brain function", "Jerry Sandusky", "Scopophilia", "Polymorphous perversity", "Genital modification and mutilation", "Omorashi", "Bibcode ", "Child prostitution", "DSM-IV-TR", "Incest", "Child sexual abuse in Egypt", "Sexual orientation", "ICD-eleven", "FMRI", "Victim blaming", "Muscle worship", "Obscene phone call", "List of pedophile advocacy organizations", "White matter", "Cochrane Collaboration", "American Psychological Association", "Psychoticism", "Forensic psychiatry", "Prison rape", "Money marriage", "The Independent", "Crush fetish", "Sexual masochism disorder", "Cognitive restructuring", "Kansas v. 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Although girls typically begin the process of puberty at age 10 or 11, and boys at age 11 or 12, criteria for pedophilia extend the cut-off point for prepubescence to age 13. A person must be at least 16 years old, and at least five years older than the prepubescent child, for the attraction to be diagnosed as pedophilia.Pedophilia is termed pedophilic disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), and the manual defines it as a paraphilia involving intense and recurrent sexual urges towards and fantasies about prepubescent children that have either been acted upon or which cause the person with the attraction distress or interpersonal difficulty. The International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) defines it as a \"sustained, focused, and intense pattern of sexual arousal\u2014as manifested by persistent sexual thoughts, fantasies, urges, or behaviours\u2014involving pre-pubertal children.\"In popular usage, the word pedophilia is often applied to any sexual interest in children or the act of child sexual abuse. This use conflates the sexual attraction to prepubescent children with the act of child sexual abuse and fails to distinguish between attraction to prepubescent and pubescent or post-pubescent minors. Researchers recommend that these imprecise uses be avoided, because although some people who commit child sexual abuse are pedophiles, child sexual abuse offenders are not pedophiles unless they have a primary or exclusive sexual interest in prepubescent children, and some pedophiles do not molest children.Pedophilia was first formally recognized and named in the late 19th century. A significant amount of research in the area has taken place since the 1980s. Although mostly documented in men, there are also women who exhibit the disorder, and researchers assume available estimates underrepresent the true number of female pedophiles. No cure for pedophilia has been developed, but there are therapies that can reduce the incidence of a person committing child sexual abuse. The exact causes of pedophilia have not been conclusively established. Some studies of pedophilia in child sex offenders have correlated it with various neurological abnormalities and psychological pathologies. In the United States, following Kansas v. Hendricks in 1997, sex offenders who are diagnosed with certain mental disorders, particularly pedophilia, can be subject to indefinite involuntary commitment.\n\n\n== Definitions ==\nThe word pedophilia comes from the Greek \u03c0\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2, \u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03cc\u03c2 (pa\u00ees, paid\u00f3s), meaning \"child\", and \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03af\u03b1 (phil\u00eda), \"friendly love\" or \"friendship\". Pedophilia is used for individuals with a primary or exclusive sexual interest in prepubescent children aged 13 or younger. Infantophilia is a sub-type of pedophilia; it is used to refer to a sexual preference for children under the age of 5 (especially infants and toddlers). This is sometimes referred to as nepiophilia (from the Greek: \u03bd\u03ae\u03c0\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 (n\u00e9pios) meaning \"infant\" or \"child,\" which in turn derives from \"ne-\" and \"epos\" meaning \"not speaking\"), though this term is rarely used in academic sources. Hebephilia is defined as individuals with a primary or exclusive sexual interest in 11- to 14-year-old pubescents. The DSM-5 does not list hebephilia among the diagnoses; while evidence suggests that hebephilia is separate from pedophilia, the ICD-10 includes early pubertal age (an aspect of hebephilia) in its pedophilia definition, covering the physical development overlap between the two philias. In addition to hebephilia, some clinicians have proposed other categories that are somewhat or completely distinguished from pedophilia; these include pedohebephilia (a combination of pedophilia and hebephilia) and ephebophilia (though ephebophilia is not considered pathological).\n\n\n== Signs and symptoms ==\n\n\n=== Development ===\nPedophilia emerges before or during puberty, and is stable over time. It is self-discovered, not chosen. For these reasons, pedophilia has been described as a disorder of sexual preference, phenomenologically similar to a heterosexual or homosexual orientation. These observations, however, do not exclude pedophilia from being classified as a mental disorder as pedophilic acts cause harm, and mental health professionals can sometimes help pedophiles to refrain from harming children.In response to misinterpretations that the American Psychiatric Association considers pedophilia a sexual orientation because of wording in its printed DSM-5 manual, which distinguishes between paraphilia and what it calls \"paraphilic disorder\", subsequently forming a division of \"pedophilia\" and \"pedophilic disorder\", the association commented: \"'[S]exual orientation' is not a term used in the diagnostic criteria for pedophilic disorder and its use in the DSM-5 text discussion is an error and should read 'sexual interest.'\" They added, \"In fact, APA considers pedophilic disorder a 'paraphilia,' not a 'sexual orientation.' This error will be corrected in the electronic version of DSM-5 and the next printing of the manual.\" They said they strongly support efforts to criminally prosecute those who sexually abuse and exploit children and adolescents, and \"also support continued efforts to develop treatments for those with pedophilic disorder with the goal of preventing future acts of abuse.\"\n\n\n=== Comorbidity and personality traits ===\nStudies of pedophilia in child sex offenders often report that it co-occurs with other psychopathologies, such as low self-esteem, depression, anxiety, and personality problems. It is not clear whether these are features of the disorder itself, artifacts of sampling bias, or consequences of being identified as a sex offender. One review of the literature concluded that research on personality correlates and psychopathology in pedophiles is rarely methodologically correct, in part owing to confusion between pedophiles and child sex offenders, as well as the difficulty of obtaining a representative, community sample of pedophiles. Seto (2004) points out that pedophiles who are available from a clinical setting are likely there because of distress over their sexual preference or pressure from others. This increases the likelihood that they will show psychological problems. Similarly, pedophiles recruited from a correctional setting have been convicted of a crime, making it more likely that they will show anti-social characteristics.Impaired self-concept and interpersonal functioning were reported in a sample of child sex offenders who met the diagnostic criteria for pedophilia by Cohen et al. (2002), which the authors suggested could contribute to motivation for pedophilic acts. The pedophilic offenders in the study had elevated psychopathy and cognitive distortions compared to healthy community controls. This was interpreted as underlying their failure to inhibit their criminal behavior. Studies in 2009 and 2012 found that non-pedophilic child sex offenders exhibited psychopathy, but pedophiles did not.Wilson and Cox (1983) studied the characteristics of a group of pedophile club members. The most marked differences between pedophiles and controls were on the introversion scale, with pedophiles showing elevated shyness, sensitivity and depression. The pedophiles scored higher on neuroticism and psychoticism, but not enough to be considered pathological as a group. The authors caution that \"there is a difficulty in untangling cause and effect. We cannot tell whether paedophiles gravitate towards children because, being highly introverted, they find the company of children less threatening than that of adults, or whether the social withdrawal implied by their introversion is a result of the isolation engendered by their preference i.e., awareness of the social [dis]approbation and hostility that it evokes\" (p. 324). In a non-clinical survey, 46% of pedophiles reported that they had seriously considered suicide for reasons related to their sexual interest, 32% planned to carry it out, and 13% had already attempted it.A review of qualitative research studies published between 1982 and 2001 concluded that child sexual abusers use cognitive distortions to meet personal needs, justifying abuse by making excuses, redefining their actions as love and mutuality, and exploiting the power imbalance inherent in all adult\u2013child relationships. Other cognitive distortions include the idea of \"children as sexual beings\", uncontrollability of sexual behavior, and \"sexual entitlement-bias\".\n\n\n=== Child pornography ===\nConsumption of child pornography is a more reliable indicator of pedophilia than molesting a child, although some non-pedophiles also view child pornography. Child pornography may be used for a variety of purposes, ranging from private sexual gratification or trading with other collectors, to preparing children for sexual abuse as part of the child grooming process.Pedophilic viewers of child pornography are often obsessive about collecting, organizing, categorizing, and labeling their child pornography collection according to age, gender, sex act and fantasy. According to FBI agent Ken Lanning, \"collecting\" pornography does not mean that they merely view pornography, but that they save it, and \"it comes to define, fuel, and validate their most cherished sexual fantasies\". Lanning states that the collection is the single best indicator of what the offender wants to do, but not necessarily of what has been or will be done. Researchers Taylor and Quayle reported that pedophilic collectors of child pornography are often involved in anonymous internet communities dedicated to extending their collections.\n\n\n== Causes ==\nAlthough what causes pedophilia is not yet known, researchers began reporting a series of findings linking pedophilia with brain structure and function, beginning in 2002. Testing individuals from a variety of referral sources inside and outside the criminal justice system as well as controls, these studies found associations between pedophilia and lower IQs, poorer scores on memory tests, greater rates of non-right-handedness, greater rates of school grade failure over and above the IQ differences, lesser physical height, greater probability of having suffered childhood head injuries resulting in unconsciousness, and several differences in MRI-detected brain structures.Such studies suggest that there are one or more neurological characteristics present at birth that cause or increase the likelihood of being pedophilic. Some studies have found that pedophiles are less cognitively impaired than non-pedophilic child molesters. A 2011 study reported that pedophilic child molesters had deficits in response inhibition, but no deficits in memory or cognitive flexibility. Evidence of familial transmittability \"suggests, but does not prove that genetic factors are responsible\" for the development of pedophilia. A 2015 study indicated that pedophilic offenders have a normal IQ.Another study, using structural MRI, indicated that male pedophiles have a lower volume of white matter than a control group. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has indicated that child molesters diagnosed with pedophilia have reduced activation of the hypothalamus as compared with non-pedophilic persons when viewing sexually arousing pictures of adults. A 2008 functional neuroimaging study notes that central processing of sexual stimuli in heterosexual \"paedophile forensic inpatients\" may be altered by a disturbance in the prefrontal networks, which \"may be associated with stimulus-controlled behaviours, such as sexual compulsive behaviours\". The findings may also suggest \"a dysfunction at the cognitive stage of sexual arousal processing\".Blanchard, Cantor, and Robichaud (2006) reviewed the research that attempted to identify hormonal aspects of pedophiles. They concluded that there is some evidence that pedophilic men have less testosterone than controls, but that the research is of poor quality and that it is difficult to draw any firm conclusion from it.\nWhile not causes of pedophilia themselves, childhood abuse by adults or comorbid psychiatric illnesses\u2014such as personality disorders and substance abuse\u2014are risk factors for acting on pedophilic urges. Blanchard, Cantor, and Robichaud addressed comorbid psychiatric illnesses that, \"The theoretical implications are not so clear. Do particular genes or noxious factors in the prenatal environment predispose a male to develop both affective disorders and pedophilia, or do the frustration, danger, and isolation engendered by unacceptable sexual desires\u2014or their occasional furtive satisfaction\u2014lead to anxiety and despair?\" They indicated that, because they previously found mothers of pedophiles to be more likely to have undergone psychiatric treatment, the genetic possibility is more likely.A study analyzing the sexual fantasies of 200 heterosexual men by using the Wilson Sex Fantasy Questionnaire exam determined that males with a pronounced degree of paraphilic interest (including pedophilia) had a greater number of older brothers, a high 2D:4D digit ratio (which would indicate low prenatal androgen exposure), and an elevated probability of being left-handed, suggesting that disturbed hemispheric brain lateralization may play a role in deviant attractions.\n\n\n== Diagnosis ==\n\n\n=== DSM and ICD-11 ===\nThe Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th edition (DSM-5) has a significantly larger diagnostic features section for pedophilia than the previous DSM version, the DSM-IV-TR, and states, \"The diagnostic criteria for pedophilic disorder are intended to apply both to individuals who freely disclose this paraphilia and to individuals who deny any sexual attraction to prepubertal children (generally age 13 years or younger), despite substantial objective evidence to the contrary.\" Like the DSM-IV-TR, the manual outlines specific criteria for use in the diagnosis of this disorder. These include the presence of sexually arousing fantasies, behaviors or urges that involve some kind of sexual activity with a prepubescent child (with the diagnostic criteria for the disorder extending the cut-off point for prepubescence to age 13) for six months or more, or that the subject has acted on these urges or suffers from distress as a result of having these feelings. The criteria also indicate that the subject should be 16 or older and that the child or children they fantasize about are at least five years younger than them, though ongoing sexual relationships between a 12- to 13-year-old and a late adolescent are advised to be excluded. A diagnosis is further specified by the sex of the children the person is attracted to, if the impulses or acts are limited to incest, and if the attraction is \"exclusive\" or \"nonexclusive\".The ICD-10 defines pedophilia as \"a sexual preference for children, boys or girls or both, usually of prepubertal or early pubertal age\". Like the DSM, this system's criteria require that the person be at least 16 years of age or older before being diagnosed as a pedophile. The person must also have a persistent or predominant sexual preference for prepubescent children at least five years younger than them. The ICD-11 defines pedophilic disorder as a \"sustained, focused, and intense pattern of sexual arousal\u2014as manifested by persistent sexual thoughts, fantasies, urges, or behaviours\u2014involving pre-pubertal children.\" It also states that for a diagnosis of pedophilic disorder, \"the individual must have acted on these thoughts, fantasies or urges or be markedly distressed by them. This diagnosis does not apply to sexual behaviours among pre- or post-pubertal children with peers who are close in age.\"Several terms have been used to distinguish \"true pedophiles\" from non-pedophilic and non-exclusive offenders, or to distinguish among types of offenders on a continuum according to strength and exclusivity of pedophilic interest, and motivation for the offense (see child sexual offender types). Exclusive pedophiles are sometimes referred to as true pedophiles. They are sexually attracted to prepubescent children, and only prepubescent children. Showing no erotic interest in adults, they can only become sexually aroused while fantasizing about or being in the presence of prepubescent children, or both. Non-exclusive offenders\u2014or \"non-exclusive pedophiles\"\u2014may at times be referred to as non-pedophilic offenders, but the two terms are not always synonymous. Non-exclusive offenders are sexually attracted to both children and adults, and can be sexually aroused by both, though a sexual preference for one over the other in this case may also exist. If the attraction is a sexual preference for prepubescent children, such offenders are considered pedophiles in the same vein as exclusive offenders.Neither the DSM nor the ICD-11 diagnostic criteria require actual sexual activity with a prepubescent youth. The diagnosis can therefore be made based on the presence of fantasies or sexual urges even if they have never been acted upon. On the other hand, a person who acts upon these urges yet experiences no distress about their fantasies or urges can also qualify for the diagnosis. Acting on sexual urges is not limited to overt sex acts for purposes of this diagnosis, and can sometimes include indecent exposure, voyeuristic or frotteuristic behaviors, or masturbating to child pornography. Often, these behaviors need to be considered in-context with an element of clinical judgment before a diagnosis is made. Likewise, when the patient is in late adolescence, the age difference is not specified in hard numbers and instead requires careful consideration of the situation.Ego-dystonic sexual orientation (F66.1) includes people who acknowledge that they have a sexual preference for prepubertal children, but wish to change it due to the associated psychological or behavioral problems (or both).\n\n\n=== Debate regarding criteria ===\nThere was discussion on the DSM-IV-TR being overinclusive and underinclusive. Its criterion A concerns sexual fantasies or sexual urges regarding prepubescent children, and its criterion B concerns acting on those urges or the urges causing marked distress or interpersonal difficulty. Several researchers discussed whether or not a \"contented pedophile\"\u2014an individual who fantasizes about having sex with a child and masturbates to these fantasies, but does not commit child sexual abuse, and who does not feel subjectively distressed afterward\u2014met the DSM-IV-TR criteria for pedophilia since this person did not meet criterion B. Criticism also concerned someone who met criterion B, but did not meet criterion A. A large-scale survey about usage of different classification systems showed that the DSM classification is only rarely used. As an explanation, it was suggested that the underinclusiveness, as well as a lack of validity, reliability and clarity might have led to the rejection of the DSM classification.Ray Blanchard, an American-Canadian sexologist known for his research studies on pedophilia, addressed (in his literature review for the DSM-5) the objections to the overinclusiveness and under underinclusiveness of the DSM-IV-TR, and proposed a general solution applicable to all paraphilias. This meant namely a distinction between paraphilia and paraphilic disorder. The latter term is proposed to identify the diagnosable mental disorder which meets Criterion A and B, whereas an individual who does not meet Criterion B can be ascertained but not diagnosed as having a paraphilia. Blanchard and a number of his colleagues also proposed that hebephilia become a diagnosable mental disorder under the DSM-5 to resolve the physical development overlap between pedophilia and hebephilia by combining the categories under pedophilic disorder, but with specifiers on which age range (or both) is the primary interest. The proposal for hebephilia was rejected by the American Psychiatric Association, but the distinction between paraphilia and paraphilic disorder was implemented.The American Psychiatric Association stated that \"[i]n the case of pedophilic disorder, the notable detail is what wasn't revised in the new manual. Although proposals were discussed throughout the DSM-5 development process, diagnostic criteria ultimately remained the same as in DSM-IV TR\" and that \"[o]nly the disorder name will be changed from pedophilia to pedophilic disorder to maintain consistency with the chapter\u2019s other listings.\" If hebephilia had been accepted as a DSM-5 diagnosable disorder, it would have been similar to the ICD-10 definition of pedophilia that already includes early pubescents, and would have raised the minimum age required for a person to be able to be diagnosed with pedophilia from 16 years to 18 years (with the individual needing to be at least 5 years older than the minor).O'Donohue, however, suggests that the diagnostic criteria for pedophilia be simplified to the attraction to children alone if ascertained by self-report, laboratory findings, or past behavior. He states that any sexual attraction to children is pathological and that distress is irrelevant, noting \"this sexual attraction has the potential to cause significant harm to others and is also not in the best interests of the individual.\" Also arguing for behavioral criteria in defining pedophilia, Howard E. Barbaree and Michael C. Seto disagreed with the American Psychiatric Association's approach in 1997 and instead recommended the use of actions as the sole criterion for the diagnosis of pedophilia, as a means of taxonomic simplification.\n\n\n== Treatment ==\n\n\n=== General ===\nThere is no evidence that pedophilia can be cured. Instead, most therapies focus on helping the pedophile refrain from acting on their desires. Some therapies do attempt to cure pedophilia, but there are no studies showing that they result in a long-term change in sexual preference. Michael Seto suggests that attempts to cure pedophilia in adulthood are unlikely to succeed because its development is influenced by prenatal factors. Pedophilia appears to be difficult to alter but pedophiles can be helped to control their behavior, and future research could develop a method of prevention.There are several common limitations to studies of treatment effectiveness. Most categorize their participants by behavior rather than erotic age preference, which makes it difficult to know the specific treatment outcome for pedophiles. Many do not select their treatment and control groups randomly. Offenders who refuse or quit treatment are at higher risk of offending, so excluding them from the treated group, while not excluding those who would have refused or quit from the control group, can bias the treated group in favor of those with lower recidivism. The effectiveness of treatment for non-offending pedophiles has not been studied.\n\n\n=== Cognitive behavioral therapy ===\nCognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) aims to reduce attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that may increase the likelihood of sexual offenses against children. Its content varies widely between therapists, but a typical program might involve training in self-control, social competence and empathy, and use cognitive restructuring to change views on sex with children. The most common form of this therapy is relapse prevention, where the patient is taught to identify and respond to potentially risky situations based on principles used for treating addictions.The evidence for cognitive behavioral therapy is mixed. A 2012 Cochrane Review of randomized trials found that CBT had no effect on risk of reoffending for contact sex offenders. Meta-analyses in 2002 and 2005, which included both randomized and non-randomized studies, concluded that CBT reduced recidivism. There is debate over whether non-randomized studies should be considered informative. More research is needed.\n\n\n=== Behavioral interventions ===\nBehavioral treatments target sexual arousal to children, using satiation and aversion techniques to suppress sexual arousal to children and covert sensitization (or masturbatory reconditioning) to increase sexual arousal to adults. Behavioral treatments appear to have an effect on sexual arousal patterns during phallometric testing, but it is not known whether the effect represents changes in sexual interests or changes in the ability to control genital arousal during testing, nor whether the effect persists in the long term. For sex offenders with mental disabilities, applied behavior analysis has been used.\n\n\n=== Sex drive reduction ===\nPharmacological interventions are used to lower the sex drive in general, which can ease the management of pedophilic feelings, but does not change sexual preference. Antiandrogens work by interfering with the activity of testosterone. Cyproterone acetate (Androcur) and medroxyprogesterone acetate (Depo-Provera) are the most commonly used. The efficacy of antiantrogens has some support, but few high-quality studies exist. Cyproterone acetate has the strongest evidence for reducing sexual arousal, while findings on medroxyprogesterone acetate have been mixed.Gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogues such as leuprorelin (Lupron), which last longer and have fewer side-effects, are also used to reduce libido, as are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. The evidence for these alternatives is more limited and mostly based on open trials and case studies. All of these treatments, commonly referred to as \"chemical castration\", are often used in conjunction with cognitive behavioral therapy. According to the Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers, when treating child molesters, \"anti-androgen treatment should be coupled with appropriate monitoring and counseling within a comprehensive treatment plan.\" These drugs may have side-effects, such as weight gain, breast development, liver damage and osteoporosis.Historically, surgical castration was used to lower sex drive by reducing testosterone. The emergence of pharmacological methods of adjusting testosterone has made it largely obsolete, because they are similarly effective and less invasive. It is still occasionally performed in Germany, the Czech Republic, Switzerland, and a few U.S. states. Non-randomized studies have reported that surgical castration reduces recidivism in contact sex offenders. The Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers opposes surgical castration and the Council of Europe works to bring the practice to an end in Eastern European countries where it is still applied through the courts.\n\n\n== Epidemiology ==\n\n\n=== Pedophilia and child molestation ===\nThe prevalence of pedophilia in the general population is not known, but is estimated to be lower than 5% among adult men. Less is known about the prevalence of pedophilia in women, but there are case reports of women with strong sexual fantasies and urges towards children. Most sexual offenders against children are male. Females may account for 0.4% to 4% of convicted sexual offenders, and one study estimates a 10 to 1 ratio of male-to-female child molesters. The true number of female child molesters may be underrepresented by available estimates, for reasons including a \"societal tendency to dismiss the negative impact of sexual relationships between young boys and adult women, as well as women's greater access to very young children who cannot report their abuse\", among other explanations.The term pedophile is commonly used by the public to describe all child sexual abuse offenders. This usage is considered problematic by researchers, because many child molesters do not have a strong sexual interest in prepubescent children, and are consequently not pedophiles. There are motives for child sexual abuse that are unrelated to pedophilia, such as stress, marital problems, the unavailability of an adult partner, general anti-social tendencies, high sex drive or alcohol use. As child sexual abuse is not automatically an indicator that its perpetrator is a pedophile, offenders can be separated into two types: pedophilic and non-pedophilic (or preferential and situational). Estimates for the rate of pedophilia in detected child molesters generally range between 25% and 50%. A 2006 study found that 35% of its sample of child molesters were pedophilic. Pedophilia appears to be less common in incest offenders, especially fathers and step-fathers. According to a U.S. study on 2429 adult male sex offenders who were categorized as \"pedophiles\", only 7% identified themselves as exclusive; indicating that many or most child sexual abusers may fall into the non-exclusive category.Some pedophiles do not molest children. Little is known about this population because most studies of pedophilia use criminal or clinical samples, which may not be representative of pedophiles in general. Researcher Michael Seto suggests that pedophiles who commit child sexual abuse do so because of other anti-social traits in addition to their sexual attraction. He states that pedophiles who are \"reflective, sensitive to the feelings of others, averse to risk, abstain from alcohol or drug use, and endorse attitudes and beliefs supportive of norms and the laws\" may be unlikely to abuse children. A 2015 study indicates that pedophiles who molested children are neurologically distinct from non-offending pedophiles. The pedophilic molesters had neurological deficits suggestive of disruptions in inhibitory regions of the brain, while non-offending pedophiles had no such deficits.According to Abel, Mittleman, and Becker (1985) and Ward et al. (1995), there are generally large distinctions between the characteristics of pedophilic and non-pedophilic molesters. They state that non-pedophilic offenders tend to offend at times of stress; have a later onset of offending; and have fewer, often familial, victims, while pedophilic offenders often start offending at an early age; often have a larger number of victims who are frequently extrafamilial; are more inwardly driven to offend; and have values or beliefs that strongly support an offense lifestyle. One study found that pedophilic molesters had a median of 1.3 victims for those with girl victims and 4.4 for those with boy victims. Child molesters, pedophilic or not, employ a variety of methods to gain sexual access to children. Some groom their victims into compliance with attention and gifts, while others use threats, alcohol or drugs, or physical force.\n\n\n== History ==\nPedophilia is believed to have occurred in humans throughout history, but was not formally named, defined or studied until the late 19th century. The term paedophilia erotica was coined in an 1886 article by the Viennese psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing but does not enter the author's Psychopathia Sexualis until the 10th German edition. A number of authors anticipated Krafft-Ebing's diagnostic gesture. In Psychopathia Sexualis, the term appears in a section titled \"Violation of Individuals Under the Age of Fourteen\", which focuses on the forensic psychiatry aspect of child sexual offenders in general. Krafft-Ebing describes several typologies of offender, dividing them into psychopathological and non-psychopathological origins, and hypothesizes several apparent causal factors that may lead to the sexual abuse of children.Krafft-Ebing mentioned paedophilia erotica in a typology of \"psycho-sexual perversion\". He wrote that he had only encountered it four times in his career and gave brief descriptions of each case, listing three common traits:\n\nThe individual is tainted [by heredity] (heredit\u00e4r belastete)\nThe subject's primary attraction is to children, rather than adults.\nThe acts committed by the subject are typically not intercourse, but rather involve inappropriate touching or manipulating the child into performing an act on the subject.He mentions several cases of pedophilia among adult women (provided by another physician), and also considered the abuse of boys by homosexual men to be extremely rare. Further clarifying this point, he indicated that cases of adult men who have some medical or neurological disorder and abuse a male child are not true pedophilia and that, in his observation, victims of such men tended to be older and pubescent. He also lists pseudopaedophilia as a related condition wherein \"individuals who have lost libido for the adult through masturbation and subsequently turn to children for the gratification of their sexual appetite\" and claimed this is much more common.Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud briefly wrote about the topic in his 1905 book Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality in a section titled The Sexually immature and Animals as Sexual objects. He wrote that exclusive pedophilia was rare and only occasionally were prepubescent children exclusive objects. He wrote that they usually were the subject of desire when a weak person \"makes use of such substitutes\" or when an uncontrollable instinct which will not allow delay seeks immediate gratification and cannot find a more appropriate object.In 1908, Swiss neuroanatomist and psychiatrist Auguste Forel wrote of the phenomenon, proposing that it be referred to it as \"Pederosis\", the \"Sexual Appetite for Children\". Similar to Krafft-Ebing's work, Forel made the distinction between incidental sexual abuse by persons with dementia and other organic brain conditions, and the truly preferential and sometimes exclusive sexual desire for children. However, he disagreed with Krafft-Ebing in that he felt the condition of the latter was largely ingrained and unchangeable.The term pedophilia became the generally accepted term for the condition and saw widespread adoption in the early 20th century, appearing in many popular medical dictionaries such as the 5th Edition of Stedman's in 1918. In 1952, it was included in the first edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. This edition and the subsequent DSM-II listed the disorder as one subtype of the classification \"Sexual Deviation\", but no diagnostic criteria were provided. The DSM-III, published in 1980, contained a full description of the disorder and provided a set of guidelines for diagnosis. The revision in 1987, the DSM-III-R, kept the description largely the same, but updated and expanded the diagnostic criteria.\n\n\n== Law and forensic psychology ==\n\n\n=== Definitions ===\nPedophilia is not a legal term, and having a sexual attraction to children is not illegal. In law enforcement circles, the term pedophile is sometimes used informally to refer to any person who commits one or more sexually-based crimes that relate to legally underage victims. These crimes may include child sexual abuse, statutory rape, offenses involving child pornography, child grooming, stalking, and indecent exposure. One unit of the United Kingdom's Child Abuse Investigation Command is known as the \"Paedophile Unit\" and specializes in online investigations and enforcement work. Some forensic science texts, such as Holmes (2008), use the term to refer to offenders who target child victims, even when such children are not the primary sexual interest of the offender. FBI agent Kenneth Lanning, however, makes a point of distinguishing between pedophiles and child molesters.\n\n\n=== Civil and legal commitment ===\nIn the United States, following Kansas v. Hendricks, sex offenders who have certain mental disorders, including pedophilia, can be subject to indefinite civil commitment under various state laws (generically called SVP laws) and the federal Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006. Similar legislation exists in Canada.In Kansas v. Hendricks, the US Supreme Court upheld as constitutional a Kansas law, the Sexually Violent Predator Act, under which Hendricks, a pedophile, was found to have a \"mental abnormality\" defined as a \"congenital or acquired condition affecting the emotional or volitional capacity which predisposes the person to commit sexually violent offenses to the degree that such person is a menace to the health and safety of others\", which allowed the State to confine Hendricks indefinitely irrespective of whether the State provided any treatment to him. In United States v. Comstock, this type of indefinite confinement was upheld for someone previously convicted on child pornography charges; this time a federal law was involved\u2014the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act. The Walsh Act does not require a conviction on a sex offense charge, but only that the person be a federal prisoner, and one who \"has engaged or attempted to engage in sexually violent conduct or child molestation and who is sexually dangerous to others\", and who \"would have serious difficulty in refraining from sexually violent conduct or child molestation if released\".In the US, offenders with pedophilia are more likely to be recommended for civil commitment than non-pedophilic offenders. About half of committed offenders have a diagnosis of pedophilia. Psychiatrist Michael First writes that, since not all people with a paraphilia have difficulty controlling their behavior, the evaluating clinician must present additional evidence of volitional impairment instead of recommending commitment based on pedophilia alone.\n\n\n== Society and culture ==\n\n\n=== General ===\nPedophilia is one of the most stigmatized mental disorders. One study reported high levels of anger, fear and social rejection towards pedophiles who have not committed a crime. The authors suggested such attitudes could negatively impact child sexual abuse prevention by reducing pedophiles' mental stability and discouraging them from seeking help. According to sociologists Melanie-Angela Neuilly and Kristen Zgoba, social concern over pedophilia intensified greatly in the 1990s, coinciding with several sensational sex crimes (but a general decline in child sexual abuse rates). They found that the word pedophile appeared only rarely in The New York Times and Le Monde before 1996, with zero mentions in 1991.Social attitudes towards child sexual abuse are extremely negative, with some surveys ranking it as morally worse than murder. Early research showed that there was a great deal of misunderstanding and unrealistic perceptions in the general public about child sexual abuse and pedophiles. However, a 2004 study concluded that the public was well-informed on some aspects of these subjects.\n\n\n=== Misuse of medical terminology ===\nThe words pedophile and pedophilia are commonly used informally to describe an adult's sexual interest in pubescent or post-pubescent teenagers. The terms hebephilia or ephebophilia may be more accurate in these cases.Another common usage of pedophilia is to refer to the act of sexual abuse itself, rather than the medical meaning, which is a preference for prepubescents on the part of the older individual (see above for an explanation of the distinction). There are also situations where the terms are misused to refer to relationships where the younger person is an adult of legal age, but is either considered too young in comparison to their older partner, or the older partner occupies a position of authority over them. Researchers state that the above uses of the term pedophilia are imprecise or suggest that they are best avoided. The Mayo Clinic states that pedophilia \"is not a criminal or legal term\".\n\n\n=== Pedophile advocacy groups ===\n\nFrom the late 1950s to early 1990s, several pedophile membership organizations advocated age of consent reform to lower or abolish age of consent laws, as well as for the acceptance of pedophilia as a sexual orientation rather than a psychological disorder, and for the legalization of child pornography. The efforts of pedophile advocacy groups did not gain mainstream acceptance, and today those few groups that have not dissolved have only minimal membership and have ceased their activities other than through a few websites. In contrast to these organizations, members of the support group Virtuous Pedophiles believe that child sexual abuse is wrong and seek to raise awareness that some pedophiles do not offend; this is generally not considered pedophile advocacy, as the Virtuous Pedophiles organization does not approve of the legalization of child pornography and does not support age of consent reform.\n\n\n=== Anti-pedophile activism ===\n\nAnti-pedophile activism encompasses opposition against pedophiles, against pedophile advocacy groups, and against other phenomena that are seen as related to pedophilia, such as child pornography and child sexual abuse. Much of the direct action classified as anti-pedophile involves demonstrations against sex offenders, against pedophiles advocating for the legalization of sexual activity between adults and children, and against Internet users who solicit sex from minors.High-profile media attention to pedophilia has led to incidents of moral panic, particularly following reports of pedophilia associated with Satanic ritual abuse and day care sex abuse. Instances of vigilantism have also been reported in response to public attention on convicted or suspected child sex offenders. In 2000, following a media campaign of \"naming and shaming\" suspected pedophiles in the UK, hundreds of residents took to the streets in protest against suspected pedophiles, eventually escalating to violent conduct requiring police intervention.\n\n\n== See also ==\nAge disparity in sexual relationships\nChild sexuality\nTrafficking of children\nCircles of Support and Accountability\nGerontophilia\nList of paraphilias\nPrevention Project Dunkelfeld\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nGladwell, Malcolm. \"In Plain View.\" (\"Jerry Sandusky and the Mind of a Pedophile\") The New Yorker. September 24, 2012.\nPhilby, Charlotte. \"Female sexual abuse: The untold story of society's last taboo.\" The Independent. Saturday August 8, 2009.\nBleyer, Jennifer. \"How Can We Stop Pedophiles? Stop treating them like monsters.\" Slate. Monday September 24, 2012.\nFong, Diana. Editor: Nancy Isenson. \"'If I'm attracted to children, I must be a monster'.\" Die Welt. May 29, 2013.\n\n\n== External links ==\nUnderstanding MRI research on pedophilia\nPedophilia: Myths, Realities and Treatments ( Page will play audio when loaded)Indictment from Operation Delego (PDF) (Archive)\nVirtuous Pedophiles, online support for non-offending pedophiles working to remain offence-free.\nHelpWantedPrevention.org, an online self-help course from Johns Hopkins University for managing attraction to children", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "Pedophilia (alternatively spelt paedophilia) is a psychiatric disorder in which an adult or older adolescent experiences a primary or exclusive sexual attraction to prepubescent children. Although girls typically begin the process of puberty at age 10 or 11, and boys at age 11 or 12, criteria for pedophilia extend the cut-off point for prepubescence to age 13. A person must be at least 16 years old, and at least five years older than the prepubescent child, for the attraction to be diagnosed as pedophilia.Pedophilia is termed pedophilic disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), and the manual defines it as a paraphilia involving intense and recurrent sexual urges towards and fantasies about prepubescent children that have either been acted upon or which cause the person with the attraction distress or interpersonal difficulty. The International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) defines it as a \"sustained, focused, and intense pattern of sexual arousal\u2014as manifested by persistent sexual thoughts, fantasies, urges, or behaviours\u2014involving pre-pubertal children.\"In popular usage, the word pedophilia is often applied to any sexual interest in children or the act of child sexual abuse. This use conflates the sexual attraction to prepubescent children with the act of child sexual abuse and fails to distinguish between attraction to prepubescent and pubescent or post-pubescent minors. Researchers recommend that these imprecise uses be avoided, because although some people who commit child sexual abuse are pedophiles, child sexual abuse offenders are not pedophiles unless they have a primary or exclusive sexual interest in prepubescent children, and some pedophiles do not molest children.Pedophilia was first formally recognized and named in the late 19th century. A significant amount of research in the area has taken place since the 1980s. Although mostly documented in men, there are also women who exhibit the disorder, and researchers assume available estimates underrepresent the true number of female pedophiles. No cure for pedophilia has been developed, but there are therapies that can reduce the incidence of a person committing child sexual abuse. The exact causes of pedophilia have not been conclusively established. Some studies of pedophilia in child sex offenders have correlated it with various neurological abnormalities and psychological pathologies. In the United States, following Kansas v. Hendricks in 1997, sex offenders who are diagnosed with certain mental disorders, particularly pedophilia, can be subject to indefinite involuntary commitment."}, "Paraphilic_infantilism": {"links": ["Sexual masochism disorder", "Transvestic fetishism", "Acrotomophilia", "Emetophilia", "Obsessive compulsive disorder", "Sexology", "Phoenix New Times", "Mechanophilia", "Dominance and submission", "Fantasy", "Doi ", "SAGE Publications", "Agalmatophilia", "Formicophilia", "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders", "Hybristophilia", "Closeted", "Psychosexual development", "Lovemap", "Zoosadism", "Flatulence fetishism", "Lust murder", "Ageplay", "Olfactophilia", "Case study", "Mount Prospect, Illinois", "Prometheus Books", "Apotemnophilia", "Cross-dressing", "ISBN ", "Other specified paraphilic disorder", "Archives of Sexual Behavior", "Pyrophilia", "Criminology", "New York City", "Letter to the editor", "Chicagoland", "Chronophilia", "Crib ", "Oxford University Press", "Defecation", "Child sexual abuse", "Sexual fetishism", "Gerontophilia", "Salirophilia", "Coprophagia", "Germany", "Sadomasochism", "Sexual intercourse", "Leg fetishism", "Zoophilia", "Erotic hypnosis", "Urination", "Dendrophilia ", "Erotic lactation", "Microphilia", "Transvestism", "Chremastistophilia", "Sigmund Freud", "Somnophilia", "John Money", "Courtship disorder", "StwoCID ", "Paraphernalia", "San Francisco", "Muscle worship", "Obscene phone call", "Alternative lifestyle", "Baby bottle", "Human sexual activity", "Crush fetish", "Heterosexuality", "Kleptolagnia", "Klismaphilia", "Partialism", "Tamakeri", "Odaxelagnia", "Ray Blanchard", "Role-playing", "Nose fetishism", "Scopophilia", "Sexual fetish", "United States", "Coprophilia", "ISSN ", "Pedophilia", "Abasiophilia", "Necrophilia", "Plushophilia", "Urolagnia", "Voyeurism", "List of paraphilias", "Prevalence", "Incidence ", "Psychology", "Perversion", "Imprinting ", "Wilhelm Stekel", "Delayed puberty", "BDSM", "James Cantor", "Pearson Education", "Exhibitionism", "The Village Voice", "Object sexuality", "PMID ", "Olfaction", "Spin ", "Diaper fetishism", "Foot fetishism", "Macrophilia", "Vorarephilia", "The British Journal of Psychiatry", "Stress management", "Autassassinophilia", "Algolagnia", "Diaper", "England", "Urophagia", "Troilism", "Ejaculation", "Lactation", "Gloria Brame", "Omorashi", "Etiology", "Frotteurism", "Erotic target location error", "Psychiatry", "Orgasm", "Pinaforing", "Regression ", "Narratophilia", "Hair fetishism", "Polymorphous perversity", "Sexual sadism disorder", "Western culture", "Visual perception", "Australia", "Random House", "Continuum International Publishing Group", "William O'Donohue", "Erotic asphyxiation", "Greenwood Publishing Group", "Dacryphilia", "Infantophilia", "Biastophilia", "John Wiley & Sons", "Infant", "Paraphilia", "Smoking fetishism", "Masturbation", "Kurt Freund", "Yahoo! Groups"], "content": "Paraphilic infantilism, also known as autonepiophilia, psychosexual infantilism and adult baby syndrome, is a sexual fetish that involves role-playing a regression to an infant-like state. Behaviors may include drinking from a bottle or wearing diapers (diaper fetishism). Individuals may engage in gentle and nurturing experiences (an adult who engages only in infantile play is known as an adult baby) or be attracted to masochistic, coercive, punishing or humiliating experiences. Diaper fetishism involves \"diaper lovers\" wearing diapers for sexual or erotic reasons but may not involve infant-like behavior. Individuals who experience both of these things are referred to as adult baby/diaper lovers (AB/DL). When wearing diapers, infantilists may urinate and/or defecate in them.There is no recognized etiology for infantilism and there is little research done on the subject. It has been linked to masochism and a variety of other paraphilias. Although it is commonly confused with pedophilia, the two conditions are distinct and infantilists do not seek children as sexual partners. A variety of causes have been proposed, including altered lovemaps, imprinting gone wrong and errors in erotic targets, though there is no consensus. A variety of organizations exist to discuss infantilism or meet with other practitioners throughout the world.\n\n\n== Characteristics and behaviors ==\nThe infantilist community is described by one practitioner as made up of two main types - adult babies (adults who role play infants) and sissy babies (men who tend to wear typically feminine clothing, and use female pronouns). There are also individuals who wear diapers but do not act as infants, either diaper lovers who eroticize diaper wearing, or sadomasochists who use diapers as a way of enforcing dominance and submission. Though the categories are discrete, in practice the behaviors found in each group often overlap.  Adult babies roleplaying as a baby or young child for erotic stimulation is considered the signature expression of paraphilic infantilism.  This may involve the use of adult-sized diapers and baby clothes or toys and furniture such as a crib to lend reality to the infantilist fantasy, crawling on the floor, and some individuals may urinate or defecate in their diapers.  If a partner is willing, adult babies may engage in parent-baby roleplay including being bathed, powdered and changed into diapers by one's partner, before being put to bed with a baby bottle.  Some may also simulate lactation with a willing partner. Thereafter the adult baby may be comforted  by their partner in the role of the parent and their diapers might be changed if wet or dirty.  For some infantilists, the ritual might instead involve being scolded, spanked or chastised for having wet or dirtied their diapers.  In this latter instance the mode of arousal is masochistic.  Others may desire only gentle or nurturing treatment, based on the desire to be cared for or to \"surrender the responsibilities of adult life\".  Some infantilists may involve masturbation and ejaculation while others may choose not to engage in sex since it is not babylike.  The erotic pleasure derived from either of these forms of infantilism may replace the need for sexual intercourse in reaching orgasm.In one study of AB/DL website participants, 93% of the sample was male (excluding transgender individuals). 58% of the men and 34% of the women were heterosexual. Males on average first became interested in AB/DL at age 11, and started practicing it at 13, compared to 12 and 16 for females, respectively. The most frequent activities were wearing diapers, wetting, and using other baby items. 87% of the men and 91% of the women reported that their AB/DL had not caused any significant problems or distress.\n\n\n== Prevalence ==\nMeaningful information on the incidence or prevalence of any of the paraphilias are lacking due to the often clandestine nature of such practices. Similarly, it has been observed that infantilism is a closeted activity and it is not well documented in the medical literature. One study reported that 9% of Yahoo groups devoted to \"fetishes\" dealt with paraphilic infantilism, which was high in relation to other fetishes. If exceptional behaviors do not cause functional impairment, personal distress or distress to others, or have legal implications they can escape the purview of psychiatric awareness and knowledge. Additionally, infantilists may not consider themselves as suffering from a medical condition and may not want to change their behavior, a common occurrence among individuals with paraphilias. Individuals with paraphilic infantilism may seek therapy only for other issues, or be encouraged or coerced to seek treatment if discovered by others. Given these issues the potential of anonymous internet surveys for data collection on infantilist communities has been noted.One study members of the ABDL online community, however, noted that males became interested in paraphilic infantilism earlier than females, at age 11 rather than 12, and also began to act on their interests earlier, at 13 rather than 16. The same study found that while most males interested in paraphilic infantilism were primarily straight (58%), most females were primarily bisexual (43%). 34% of women were primarily straight. Although both men and women varied in terms of education, only 66% of men and 39% of women earned more than $25,000 a year.\n\n\n== Relation to other conditions ==\nInfantilism is a diffuse phenomenon and different authorities have taken varied approaches to the question of its medical and sexological classification.\n\n\n=== Definitions ===\nThe conventional definition of infantilism means the persistence of childlike traits in adults and medically the failure to attain sexual maturity, and \"sexual infantilism\" is also used medically as a synonym for delayed puberty.  The term \"psychosexual infantilism\" was used in Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development to refer to individuals who had not matured through its hypothetical stages into heterosexuality.  Psychologist Wilhelm Stekel used \"psychosexual infantilism\" as a category similar to paraphilia, including paraphilic infantilism and other paraphilias and sexual orientations.\n\n\n=== Masochism ===\n\nThe Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) states that along with other behaviors, sexual masochists \"...may have a desire to be treated as a helpless infant and clothed in diapers ('infantilism')\" and this association is repeated by others. Masochism appears to be particularly important for female infantilists.Psychologists D. Richard Laws and William O'Donohue state that \"Although infantilism is classified as a sexual masochism in the DSM-IV and DSM-IV-TR, it is questionable whether the criteria for sexual masochism are always met.  For example, if the infantile role playing does not involve feelings of humiliation and suffering, then the diagnosis of sexual masochism would not be appropriate and a diagnosis of infantilism as a paraphilia [not otherwise specified] is warranted.\"  Sexologist John Money, in his book Lovemaps describes paraphilic infantilism as a possible \"...adjunctive to masochistic discipline and humiliation.\"  Sexologist William B. Arndt considers paraphilic infantilism to combine forms of fetishism, transvestism and masochism.  Wilhelm Stekel considered sado-masochistic practices to be variant behavior arising from psychosexual infantilism.A potential connection between paraphilic infantilism and sadomasochism has been noted in the Polish publication, Przegl\u0105d Seksuologiczny. Research results within the publication indicated that 28% of those paraphilic infantilists surveyed reported an interest in BDSM.\n\n\n=== Pedophilia ===\n\nConfusing infantilism with pedophilia is a common misunderstanding but infantilism involves role-playing exclusively with other adults; infantilism is not related to pedophilia, or any form of child sexual abuse. Sexologist Gloria Brame states that \"...infantilists who recognize and accept their sexuality - and its possible roots in infantile trauma - tend to be acutely protective of real children.\"John Money used the term \"nepiophilia\" to describe attraction to diaper-wearing babies. He described infantilism as \"autonepiophilia,\" in which the individual desires to be and to impersonate a baby and does not desire an infant as a sexual partner.In 1993, sexologists Ray Blanchard and Kurt Freund published and discussed a series of case studies involving infantilists and noted a distinction between them and pedophiles.  While pedophiles were attracted to children (and objects related to childhood) due to the desire for a child sexual partner, infantilists imagined themselves as children and adopted the objects of childhood or infancy to increase the power difference between themselves and their preferred sexual partners of adult women, with whom they acted out masochistic fantasies.\n\n\n=== Other conditions ===\nIn the limited number of extant medical case reports some clinicians have attempted to explain the behaviors associated with infantilism in terms of obsessive compulsive disorder, as \"a concurrent cluster of symptoms found in a variety of psychiatric disorders.\"  Psychiatrist Jay Feierman considers infantilism a form of chronophilia in which the infantilist desires a sexual partner of the same biological age, but their own \"sexuoerotic age\" does not match his or her own biological age (i.e. the adult infantilist wishes an adult sexual partner who treats them as a baby).  A 2011 letter to the editor in the Archives of Sexual Behavior reviewed several case studies and noted a common history of sexual abuse.\n\n\n==== Diaper fetishism ====\nIndividuals with diaper fetishism typically do not imagine themselves as babies. Rather, they more often see themselves as adults who are drawn to wearing diapers.John Money distinguishes between infantilism or autonepiophilia and paraphilic diaper-wearing, stating that the latter is a paraphilic fetish that manifests as an erotic attraction to an article of clothing while the former is a non-fetishistic paraphilia directed at a change of status in terms of age identity.\n\n\n==== Cross-dressing ====\nInfantilists, usually male, may also engage in cross-dressing and wear clothes stereotypically associated with young girls.  This type of behavior is referred to as being a \"sissy baby\".  Masochistic infantilists may wish to be forcibly cross-dressed.\n\n\n== Causes ==\nTo date no broad-based scientific studies have been made on the cause, incidence and general impact of paraphilic infantilism on society at large. This may be due to both the relative rarity of the condition and because few paraphilic infantilists appear to seek professional mental health counseling, and that even fewer appear to require any type of pro-active mental health intervention. A 2002 case report by psychiatrists Jennifer Pate and Glen Goddard found little research on the topic, and they suggested the DSM lacked a category that captured their patient's disorder. Research on the etiology of paraphilias in general is minimal and as of 2008 had essentially come to a standstill; it is not clear whether the development of infantilism shares a common cause with other paraphilias. Criminologists Stephen and Ronald Holmes believe that while there is no simple answer to the origins of infantilism, the practices may involve an element of stress reduction similar to that of transvestism.\n\n\n=== Lovemap theory ===\nJohn Money developed the theory of a lovemap, \n\"a developmental representation or template in the mind and in the brain depicting the idealized lover and the idealized program of sexual and erotic activity projected in imagery or actually engaged in\".\n\nMoney thought that the lovemap was normally fully developed by the age of 8, serving as a kind of sexual template through to the end of one's adult life. Money believed all paraphilias were caused by the formation of abnormal lovemaps during the preadolescent years and that such abnormal lovemaps can be formed by any number of contributing factors or stressors during this developmental period. Money also coined the term \"autonepiophilia\" meaning a \"diaperism\" or diaper fetishism in 1984 to describe the condition. Nepon is Greek for infant.\n\n\n=== Imprinting ===\nIt has been hypothesized that, among other possible causes, sexual templates are established by a process akin to imprinting where lack of availability of female genitals during a critical period of development causes the imprinting mechanism to instead associate with the nearest visual or olfactory approximation. In the case of infantilism, the discipline of the mother or wearing diapers may create associations between pain, humiliation and sexuality.\n\n\n=== Erotic location target error ===\nAn additional theory is that infantilism is an erotic identity disorder where the erotic fantasy is centered on the self rather than on a sexual partner and results from an erotic targeting location error where the erotic target was children yet becomes inverted. According to this model, proposed by Ray Blanchard and Kurt Freund in 1993, infantilism is a sexual attraction to the idea of the self being a child.\n\n\n== History ==\nThe first public event for adult babies was \"Baby Week\", occurring in San Francisco in the early 1990s. Subsequently the internet became a major forum, with numerous websites offering books, magazines, audio and video tapes and related paraphernalia, as well as a 24-hour hotline.  Paraphilic infantilism has appeared as an alternative lifestyle in numerous Western countries including the United States, England, Germany and Australia.The organization \"Diaper Pail Friends\" was established in San Francisco, growing to approximately 3,000 members in 1995 through magazine articles, books, talk shows and the Internet.  The organization was studied in 1995 by a group of sexologists, though the results were not published.  In 2001, the New York organization \"Still in Diapers\" was founded for diaper fetishists. In 2008, the Diaper Pail Friends had expanded to a national organization and claimed a membership of 15,000.Tykables opened the first wholly dedicated paraphilic infantilism physical retail store, in Mount Prospect, Illinois in the Chicagoland area, in 2016 with controversy from the local community. The store owner believes it helps to break the stigma about the community.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nBDSM\nErotic lactation\nAgeplay\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\nMoney, J (1986). Love Maps - Clinical Concepts of Sexual/Erotic Health and Pathology, Paraphilia, and Gender Transposition in Childhood, Adolescence, and Maturity. New York: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-0-8290-1589-8.\nStekel, W (1952). Patterns of Psychosexual Infantilism. Washington Square Press. ISBN 978-0-87140-840-2.\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nLove, B (1992). Encyclopedia of Unusual Sex Practices. Barricade Books. ISBN 978-0-942637-64-9.", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Sexual_orientation_-_4_symbols.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "Paraphilic infantilism, also known as autonepiophilia, psychosexual infantilism and adult baby syndrome, is a sexual fetish that involves role-playing a regression to an infant-like state. Behaviors may include drinking from a bottle or wearing diapers (diaper fetishism). Individuals may engage in gentle and nurturing experiences (an adult who engages only in infantile play is known as an adult baby) or be attracted to masochistic, coercive, punishing or humiliating experiences. Diaper fetishism involves \"diaper lovers\" wearing diapers for sexual or erotic reasons but may not involve infant-like behavior. Individuals who experience both of these things are referred to as adult baby/diaper lovers (AB/DL). When wearing diapers, infantilists may urinate and/or defecate in them.There is no recognized etiology for infantilism and there is little research done on the subject. It has been linked to masochism and a variety of other paraphilias. Although it is commonly confused with pedophilia, the two conditions are distinct and infantilists do not seek children as sexual partners. A variety of causes have been proposed, including altered lovemaps, imprinting gone wrong and errors in erotic targets, though there is no consensus. A variety of organizations exist to discuss infantilism or meet with other practitioners throughout the world."}, "Lust_murder": {"links": ["Human extinction", "Abasiophilia", "Leather Pride flag", "Torture murder", "Mack Ray Edwards", "Urophagia", "David Parker Ray", "Abortion", "Hybristophilia", "Autassassinophilia", "Peter Kurten", "Mutilation", "Necrophilia", "ISBN ", "Rubber and PVC fetishism", "Sean Vincent Gillis", "Lam Kor-wan", "Transvestic fetishism", "Uniform fetishism", "Dacryphilia", "Stoning", "Pantyhose fetishism", "Voluntary manslaughter", "Zoosadism", "Harvey Glatman", "Internet homicide", "Boot worship", "Cultural history of the buttocks", "Issei Sagawa", "Mariticide", "Lawrence Bittaker and Roy Norris", "Racial fetishism", "Psychopath", "Spandex fetishism", "FetLife", "Scopophilia", "Assisted suicide", "Capital punishment", "Smoking fetishism", "Thrill killing", "Microphilia", "Torture", "Perversion", "Hair fetishism", "Pregnancy fetishism", "Armin Meiwes", "John Wayne Gacy", "List of paraphilias", "Spree killer", "Siblicide", "Erotic asphyxiation", "Aquaphilia ", "Murder for body parts", "Sexology", "Crush fetish", "Fratricide", "Fetish magazine", "Gary Ridgway", "Ian Brady", "Jack the Ripper", "Dennis Rader", "Other specified paraphilic disorder", "Narratophilia", "Lynching", "Current Psychiatry Reports", "Breast fetishism", "Gary M. Heidnik", "Odaxelagnia", "Fetish art", "Tamakeri", "Richard von Krafft-Ebing", "Contract killing", "Corset fetishism", "Paul Bernardo", "Genital mutilation", "Sexual organ", "Edmund Kemper", "Regicide", "Algolagnia", "Angelo Buono Jr.", "Human sacrifice", "Dennis Nilsen", "Sexual arousal", "Rodney Alcala", "Acrotomophilia", "Body integrity dysphoria", "Emetophilia", "Friendly fire", "Courtship disorder", "Chester Turner", "Donald Henry Gaskins", "List of fetish artists", "Charles Ray Hatcher", "Feticide", "Dean Corll", "Klismaphilia", "Cannibalism", "Richard Ramirez", "Troilism", "List of patricides", "Suicide", "Terry Blair ", "Coprophagia", "Serial killer", "Lonely hearts killer", "Cuckold", "Murder", "Doll fetish", "Filicide", "H. H. Holmes", "Depraved-heart murder", "Angel of mercy ", "Sexual sadism", "Serial killers", "Urolagnia", "Euthanasia", "Karla Faye Tucker", "Ted Bundy", "Sage Publications", "Gendercide", "Yang Xinhai", "Gaining and feeding", "Erotic target location error", "Sororicide", "Karla Homolka", "Frotteurism", "Avunculicide", "John Christie ", "Vehicular homicide", "Albert Fish", "Fetish fashion", "Andrei Chikatilo", "Hand fetishism", "BDSM", "Paraphilic", "Homicide", "Senicide", "Asian sexual fetishism", "Leg fetishism", "Sexual fetishism", "Mechanophilia", "Manslaughter", "Sexual masochism disorder", "Ottis Toole", "Flatulence fetishism", "Misdemeanor murder", "International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology", "Parricide", "Familicide", "Vorarephilia", "War crime", "Wiley ", "Fetish club", "Balloon fetish", "Patrick Kearney", "Jerry Brudos", "Mass stabbing", "Underwear fetishism", "Object sexuality", "Randy Kraft", "Thigh-high boots", "Westley Allan Dodd", "Chremastistophilia", "Macrophilia", "CRC Press", "Shoe fetishism", "Infanticide", "David Russell Williams", "Justifiable homicide", "Medical fetishism", "Coprophilia", "William Bonin", "Neonaticide", "Carol M. Bundy", "Human sexual activity", "Murder\u2013suicide", "Gordon Stewart Northcott", "Olfactophilia", "Kenneth Bianchi", "Poisoning", "Rosemary West", "Vehicle-ramming attack", "Child sacrifice", "Crucifixion", "Forced seduction", "Moses Sithole", "Henry Lee Lucas", "Sergey Golovkin", "Biastophilia", "Formicophilia", "Fetish model", "Negligent homicide", "Infantophilia", "Tsutomu Miyazaki", "Paraphilia", "Robot fetishism", "International Fetish Day", "Clothing fetish", "Chronophilia", "Peter Dupas", "Ballet boot", "Melvin Rees", "Review article", "Doi ", "Disembowelment", "Doug Clark ", "Erotic lactation", "Boot fetishism", "Foot fetishism", "Sexual fantasy", "Zoophilia", "Human cannibalism", "Genocide", "Tickling game", "Crime of passion", "Assassination", "Somnophilia", "Glove fetishism", "Erotic hypnosis", "Gerontophilia", "Luka Magnotta", "Rape fantasy", "Sexual sadism disorder", "Wet and messy fetishism", "Mass murder", "Execution-style murder", "Honor killing", "Partialism", "Sexual activity", "Agalmatophilia", "Ethnic pornography", "Child murder", "Jurisdiction ", "Matricide", "Deicide", "Dendrophilia ", "Erotic spanking", "Muscle worship", "Latex and PVC fetishism", "Sexual roleplay", "Pyrophilia", "Consensual homicide", "Fred West", "Navel fetishism", "Tightlacing", "Paul John Knowles", "Uxoricide", "Nose fetishism", "Oculolinctus", "Pseudocommando", "Kleptolagnia", "Armpit fetishism", "Jane Toppan", "Manslaughter in English law", "Mass shooting", "Paraphilic infantilism", "Harvey Miguel Robinson", "Pedophilia", "Hiroshi Maeue", "Tyrannicide", "Plushophilia", "Christopher Wilder", "Felony murder rule", "Proxy murder", "Sexual assault", "War", "Obscene phone call", "Leather subculture", "Salirophilia", "Psychopathological", "Polymorphous perversity", "Exhibitionism", "Cuckquean", "Omorashi", "Aggressive Behavior ", "Timothy Krajcir", "Total enclosure fetishism", "Sexual racism", "Kink ", "Voyeurism", "Democide", "Robert Pickton", "Diaper fetishism", "Fat fetishism", "Alvinolagnia"], "content": "A lust murder is a homicide in which the offender searches for erotic satisfaction by killing someone. Lust murder is synonymous with the paraphilic term erotophonophilia, which is sexual arousal or gratification contingent on the death of a human being. The term lust killing stems from the original work of Richard von Krafft-Ebing in his 1898 discussion of sadistic homicides. Commonly, this type of crime is manifested either by murder during sexual activity, by mutilating the sexual organs or areas of the victim's body, or by murder and mutilation. The mutilation of the victim may include evisceration, displacement of the sexual organs, or both. The mutilation usually takes place postmortem. Although the killing sequence may include an act of sexual intercourse, sexual intercourse does not always occur, and other types of sexual acts may be part of the homicide.In 2019, Current Psychiatry Reports published a review of the recent findings on sexual homicide research and concluded that sexual murderers should be viewed as a specific offender with distinct traits which requires an international reporting system. Earlier, the authors of the review reported on comparisons of offenders in the French national police database with the same conclusion.\n\n\n== Characteristics ==\nLust murder sometimes includes activities such as removing clothing from the body, posing and propping of the body in different positions (generally sexual ones), insertion of objects into bodily orifices, cannibalism and necrophilia.\nMost cases of lust murder involve male perpetrators, although accounts of female lust murderers do exist. In general, lust murder is a phenomenon most common among serial killers. These offenders have made a connection between murder and sexual gratification. When this type of offender chooses a victim there must be something about that victim that the offender finds sexually attractive. This attractive trait might be common among all of the offender's victims and is called the offender's Ideal Victim Type (IVT). There might be many potential targets that an offender passes by because they do not meet their ideal victim. Once the offender has found a victim who is ideal, they might engage in stalking or other predatory behaviors before acting out their fantasy on their victim. Fantasies are a key component in lust murders and can never be completely fulfilled. The lust killer will have a fantasy that continues to evolve over time and becomes increasingly violent as they struggle to fulfill it.The most critical component in the psychological development of a serial killer is violent fantasy, especially in the lust murderer. Fantasies accompany \"intrusive thoughts about killing someone that are associated with other distressing psychopathological processes\". Fantasies can never be completely fulfilled; sometimes the experience of killing can generate new fantasies of violence, creating a repetitive cycle. The purpose of fantasy is total control of the victim, whereas a sexual assault can be used as a vehicle for control. Sexual torture becomes a tool to degrade, humiliate, and subjugate the victim. Often the killer selects victims to stand as a proxy, resulting from childhood trauma. Fantasies may be fueled by pornography and facilitated by alcohol or other causes. Typically, fantasies involve one or several forms of paraphilia.The term lust murder is also used in a related, but slightly different sense, to refer to an individual who gains sexual arousal from the act of committing murder, or has persistent sexual fantasies of committing murder, even if the murder itself does not involve genital mutilation or other aforementioned characteristics. As such, it is a type of paraphilia.\nAlthough the dynamic of violent fantasy in lust murders is understood, an individual's violence fantasy alone is not enough to determine if an individual has or has not engaged in lust murder. Moreover, to conclude that an individual is a violent psychopath because they have drawn multitudes of violent images is overreaching.\n\n\n== Examples of lust murderers ==\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/System-search.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "A lust murder is a homicide in which the offender searches for erotic satisfaction by killing someone. Lust murder is synonymous with the paraphilic term erotophonophilia, which is sexual arousal or gratification contingent on the death of a human being. The term lust killing stems from the original work of Richard von Krafft-Ebing in his 1898 discussion of sadistic homicides. Commonly, this type of crime is manifested either by murder during sexual activity, by mutilating the sexual organs or areas of the victim's body, or by murder and mutilation. The mutilation of the victim may include evisceration, displacement of the sexual organs, or both. The mutilation usually takes place postmortem. Although the killing sequence may include an act of sexual intercourse, sexual intercourse does not always occur, and other types of sexual acts may be part of the homicide.In 2019, Current Psychiatry Reports published a review of the recent findings on sexual homicide research and concluded that sexual murderers should be viewed as a specific offender with distinct traits which requires an international reporting system. Earlier, the authors of the review reported on comparisons of offenders in the French national police database with the same conclusion."}, "Shell_organization": {"links": ["List of company registers", "Series LLC", "IXIT Corporation", "Limited liability limited partnership", "Corporate law", "Barbados", "Tag-along right", "Limited liability company", "German company law", "Liechtenstein", "Low-profit limited liability company", "Australian corporate law", "Canadian corporate law", "Switzerland", "Hdl ", "Corporate governance", "Naamloze vennootschap", "Internal competition", "Jersey", "HMV Canada", "Offshore financial centre", "Dummy corporation", "British Virgin Islands company law", "Federalism", "Kolkata", "Partnership", "William M. ", "Nexstar Media Group", "The Independent", "Aksjeselskap", "Limited company", "S corporation", "Private company limited by shares", "Aktiengesellschaft", "Anonymity", "Shelf corporation", "Copyrights", "SUDOC ", "Hong Kong", "Intellectual property", "French company law", "Private limited company", "South African company law", "ISSN ", "European corporate law", "European economic interest grouping", "Cayman Islands company law", "Vaughan Media", "Ansvarlig selskap", "Structured investment vehicle", "Tax inversion", "Company", "two thousand and sixteen Indian banknote demonetisation", "Limited liability partnership", "Rochdale Principles", "Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 \u00e0 responsabilit\u00e9 limit\u00e9e", "Wyoming", "Transparency ", "Nevada", "U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission", "Alternative public offering", "Bermuda", "British Virgin Islands", "Anguillan company law", "Ultra vires", "Sinclair Broadcasting Group", "Industrial and provident society", "FCC", "Benefit corporation", "Offshore Leaks", "Internal affairs doctrine", "Mossack Fonseca", "Delaware statutory trust", "Investment company", "Black market", "Limited partner", "General partner", "Offshore company", "Tax avoidance", "Sega Sammy Holdings", "Gesellschaft mit beschr\u00e4nkter Haftung", "Tax evasion", "Corporation", "S\u00fcddeutsche Zeitung", "Public limited company", "International Consortium of Investigative Journalists", "Securities and Exchange Board of India", "Asset", "International business company", "Treasure Islands: Tax Havens and the Men who Stole the World", "Kabushiki gaisha", "Holding company", "Dissolution ", "Civil procedure", "Massachusetts business trust", "Charitable incorporated organisation", "Shell Oil Company", "General partnership", "Societas privata Europaea", "Singapore", "Channel Islands", "Societas cooperativa Europaea", "Panama Papers", "Nevada corporation", "Financial Crimes Enforcement Network", "Doi ", "Tax haven", "De facto corporation and corporation by estoppel", "Hilco Capital", "Cooperative", "Corporate law in Vietnam", "Joint-stock company", "S.A. ", "Nicholas Shaxson", "Panama", "Luxembourg", "Limited partnership", "Unlimited company", "Atlus", "C corporation", "Brass plate company", "Double Irish arrangement", "Transfer pricing", "Front organization", "Sole proprietorship", "Deerfield Media", "Cunningham Broadcasting", "Shadow banking system", "Societas unius personae", "Shell company", "Cayman Islands", "Royal Dutch Shell", "Private company limited by guarantee", "Societas Europaea", "Limited liability", "Aktieselskab", "Commercial mail receiving agency", "Pump and dump", "Indian company law", "Guernsey", "Osakeyhti\u00f6", "Numbered company", "Conglomerate ", "Contract", "Isle of Man", "Money laundering", "Aktiebolag", "Business judgment rule", "Corporate law in the United States", "Special purpose entity", "Types of business entity", "Mission Broadcasting", "Proprietary company", "Loophole", "Piercing the corporate veil", "Republic of Ireland", "United Kingdom company law", "Community interest company", "Delaware General Corporation Law", "Delaware", "The Bahamas", "Drag-along right", "Royalties"], "content": "A shell corporation is a company or corporation that exists only on paper and has no office and no employees, but may have a bank account or may hold passive investments or be the registered owner of assets, such as intellectual property, or ships. Shell companies may be registered to the address of a company that provides a service setting up shell companies, and which may act as the agent for receipt of legal correspondence (such as an accountant or lawyer). The company may serve as a vehicle for business transactions without itself having any significant assets or operations. Sometimes shell companies are used for tax evasion, tax avoidance, and money laundering, or to achieve a specific goal such as anonymity. Anonymity may be sought to shield personal assets from others, such as a spouse when a marriage is breaking down, from creditors, from government authorities, besides others.\nShell companies can have legitimate business purposes. They may, for example, act as trustee for a trust, and not engage in any other activity on their own account. This structure creates limited liability for the trustee. A corporate shell can also be formed around a partnership to create limited liability for the partners, and other business ventures, or to immunize one part of a business from the risks of another part. Shell companies can be used to transfer assets from one company into a new one, while leaving the liabilities in the former company.\n\n\n== SEC definition ==\nThe U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission defines a \"shell\" company as follows:\n\nShell company: The term shell company means a registrant, other than an asset-backed issuer as defined in Item 1101(b) of Regulation AB (\u00a7 229.1101(b) of this chapter), that has:\n(1) No or nominal operations; and\n(2) Either:\n(i) No or nominal assets;\n(ii) Assets consisting solely of cash and cash equivalents; or\n(iii) Assets consisting of any amount of cash and cash equivalents and nominal other assets.'\n\n\n== Background ==\nSome shell companies may have previously had operations that shrank due to unfavorable market conditions or company mismanagement. A shell corporation may also arise when a company's operations have been wound up, for example following a takeover, but the \"shell\" of the original company continues to exist. The term \"shell corporation\" does not describe the purpose of a corporate entity, but in general is more informative to classify an entity according to its role in a particular corporate structure; e.g. holding company, general partner, or a limited partner.\nShell companies are a main component of the underground economy, especially those based in tax havens. They may also be known as international business companies, personal investment companies, front companies, or \"mailbox\" companies. Shell companies can also be used for tax avoidance. A classic tax avoidance operation may utilize favorable transfer pricing among multiple corporate entities to lower tax liability in a certain country; e.g. Double Irish arrangement.\nA special purpose entity, used often in the context of a larger corporate structure, may be formed to achieve a specific goal, such as to create anonymity.\nAccording to a 2013 experimental study where the researchers requested anonymous incorporation in violation of international law, one in four corporate service providers offered to provide services in violation of international law.\n\n\n== Examples ==\nShell companies can be used to transfer assets of one company into a new company without having the liabilities of the former company. For example, when Sega Sammy Holdings purchased the bankrupt Index Corporation in June 2013, they formed a shell company in September 2013, called Sega Dream Corporation, into which were transferred valuable assets of the old company, including the Atlus brand and Index Corporation's intellectual properties. This meant that the liabilities of the old company were left in the old company, and Sega Dream had clean title to all the assets of the old company. The former Index Corporation was then dissolved. Sega Dream Corporation was renamed as Index Corporation in November 2013.\nWhen Hilco purchased HMV Canada, they used a shell company by the name of Huk 10 Ltd. in order to secure funds and minimize liability. HMV was then sued by Huk 10 Ltd., allowing Hilco to regain assets and dispose of HMV Canada.\nAs another example, the use of a shell company in a tax haven makes it possible to move profits to that shell company, in a strategy called tax evasion. A United States company buying products from overseas would have to pay US taxes on the profits, but to avoid this, it may buy the products through a non-resident shell company based in a tax haven, where it is described as an offshore company. The shell company would purchase the products in its name, mark up the products and sell them on to the US company, thereby transferring the profit to the tax haven. (The products may never actually physically pass through that tax haven, and be shipped directly to the US company.) As the shell company is not based in the United States, its profit is not subject to US income tax, and as it is an offshore company in the tax haven jurisdiction, it is not taxed there either. Under the tax haven law, the profits are deemed not to have been made in the jurisdiction, with the sale deemed to have taken place in the United States. As US personal income tax is significantly less important than corporate income tax, US company executives would claim a salary (or fees, consulting fees, etc.) from the company's profits.\nIn addition, there are several shell companies that are used by broadcasting groups to circumvent FCC limits on television station ownership. For example, Sinclair Broadcasting Group forms local marketing agreements with stations owned by Cunningham Broadcasting and Deerfield Media; nearly all of the stock of Cunningham Broadcasting is controlled by trusts in the name of the owner's children. Other examples include Nexstar Media Group controlling television stations owned by Mission Broadcasting and Vaughan Media.\n\n\n== Countries of domicile ==\nTypical countries of domicile of shell companies are offshore financial centers like Ireland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Isle of Man, and the Channel Islands including Guernsey and Jersey in Europe, Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Cayman Islands, and Virgin Islands in the Caribbean, Panama in Central America, and Hong Kong and Singapore in Asia. Shell companies are usually offered by law firms based in those countries. The process of establishing a shell company can sometimes be done very quickly online.In 2021 anonymous corporations were made illegal in the United States with the passage of the Corporate Transparency Act as part of the William M. (Mac) Thornberry National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2021. But exemptions were included which are meant to limit its scope to the entities most likely to be used for illicit purposes. Companies which are exempt from the act include foreign companies that do not formally register to do business and companies that fall into one of 24 enumerated categories which include companies that employ more than 20 people, have revenues above $5 million, and a physical presence in the United States, as well Churches, charities, non-profits, trusts or partnerships. Companies that are Banks, broker-dealers, public issuers, insurance companies are also exempt.Due to Federalism in the United States, shell companies are often set-up in states such Delaware, Nevada, and Wyoming due to advantageous tax regimes.\n\n\n== Abuse ==\nShell companies have been used to commit fraud, by creating an empty shell company with a name similar to existing real companies, then running up the price of the empty shell and suddenly selling it (pump and dump).There are also shell companies that were created for the purpose of owning assets (including tangibles, such as a real estate for property development, and intangibles, such as royalties or copyrights) and receiving income. The reasons behind creating such a shell company may include protection against litigation and/or tax benefits (some expenses that would not be deductible for an individual may be deductible for a corporation). Sometimes, shell companies are used for tax evasion or tax avoidance.\n\n\n=== Offshore Leaks ===\n\nIn 2013 the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists published a report called \"Offshore Leaks\" with information about the use and owners of 130,000 shell companies. Many of the shell companies belonged to politicians and celebrities from around the world and were being used for tax evasion and hiding financial assets.\n\n\n=== Panama Papers ===\n\nIn 2016 a leak of 11.5 million documents to the German newspaper S\u00fcddeutsche Zeitung revealed information about owners of more than 214,000 shell companies administered by the law firm Mossack Fonseca in Panama. The shell companies were used by politicians, businessmen, autocrats, and terrorists from around the world for tax evasion and other illegal activities.\n\n\n=== India ===\nAfter India's decision to demonetise \u20b9500 and \u20b91000 rupee notes on 8 November 2016, various authorities noticed a surge in shell companies depositing cash in banks, possibly in an attempt to hide the real owner of the wealth. In response, in July 2017, the authorities ordered nearly 2,000 shell companies to be shut down while Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) imposed trading restrictions on 162 listed entities as shell companies. A high-level task force found that hundreds of shell companies were registered in a few buildings in Kolkata. Many of those were found to be locked, with their padlocks coated in dust and many others which had office space the size of cubicles.\n\n\n== Regulation ==\nSince shell companies are very often abused for various illegal purposes, regulation of shell companies is becoming more important to prevent such illegal activities.\n\n\n=== United Kingdom ===\nCurrently British overseas territories and crown dependencies are only required to tell the true name of owners of shell companies upon request from official law enforcement agencies. However, by 2020 they will be forced to publish these names in a public register in order to prevent anonymous use of shell companies.\n\n\n=== United States ===\nThe new customer due diligence (CDD) rule from 2016 forces banks to know the names of their customers in order to reveal them to law enforcement agencies upon request. Thereby, anonymous misuse of shell companies shall be prevented. The rule is administered by the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN). In January 2021 anonymous shell companies were effectively banned via a provision in the William M. (Mac) Thornberry National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2021.\n\n\n=== India ===\nA \"Task Force On Shell Corporations\" was constituted in 2017 under the chairmanship of the Revenue Secretary to the Government Of India and Corporate Affairs Secretary to Govt. Of India, for effectively tackling malpractice by shell companies in a comprehensive manner.\n\n\n== See also ==\nAlternative public offering\nBrass plate company\nDummy corporation\nFront organization\nHolding company\nInternal competition\nLoophole\nMoney laundering\nNumbered company\nOffshore company\nOffshore financial center\nShadow banking system\nStructured investment vehicle\nTax inversion\nTransparency (market)\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Society.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "A shell corporation is a company or corporation that exists only on paper and has no office and no employees, but may have a bank account or may hold passive investments or be the registered owner of assets, such as intellectual property, or ships. Shell companies may be registered to the address of a company that provides a service setting up shell companies, and which may act as the agent for receipt of legal correspondence (such as an accountant or lawyer). The company may serve as a vehicle for business transactions without itself having any significant assets or operations. Sometimes shell companies are used for tax evasion, tax avoidance, and money laundering, or to achieve a specific goal such as anonymity. Anonymity may be sought to shield personal assets from others, such as a spouse when a marriage is breaking down, from creditors, from government authorities, besides others.\nShell companies can have legitimate business purposes. They may, for example, act as trustee for a trust, and not engage in any other activity on their own account. This structure creates limited liability for the trustee. A corporate shell can also be formed around a partnership to create limited liability for the partners, and other business ventures, or to immunize one part of a business from the risks of another part. Shell companies can be used to transfer assets from one company into a new one, while leaving the liabilities in the former company."}, "European_economic_interest_grouping": {"links": ["Private company limited by guarantee", "Contract", "Massachusetts business trust", "European Union", "South African company law", "Societas privata Europaea", "Aktiebolag", "Cooperative", "Ansvarlig selskap", "EURESA", "Societas cooperativa Europaea", "Social insurance", "Cayman Islands company law", "Piercing the corporate veil", "United Kingdom company law", "Arte", "Low-profit limited liability company", "Australian corporate law", "Limited company", "Ultra vires", "Anguillan company law", "Drag-along right", "Legal entity", "Aksjeselskap", "Regulation ", "Series LLC", "Canadian corporate law", "Corporate law", "Limited liability", "List of company registers", "C corporation", "European corporate law", "Private limited company", "Aktiengesellschaft", "Public limited company", "European Company Regulation", "Partnership", "Limited partnership", "Gesellschaft mit beschr\u00e4nkter Haftung", "Corporation", "Benefit corporation", "Corporate governance", "Council Regulation ", "Company", "Delaware General Corporation Law", "Kabushiki gaisha", "S.A. ", "S corporation", "Limited liability limited partnership", "Tag-along right", "German company law", "French company law", "Consortium", "Unlimited company", "Corporation tax", "European Cooperative Society", "Societas unius personae", "Osakeyhti\u00f6", "European Private Company", "Groupement d'int\u00e9r\u00eat \u00e9conomique", "Community interest company", "General partnership", "Delaware statutory trust", "Holding company", "Business judgment rule", "Corporate law in the United States", "Aktieselskab", "Private company limited by shares", "Types of business entity", "Sole proprietorship", "Joint-stock company", "Limited liability company", "European Grouping for Territorial Cooperation", "Internal affairs doctrine", "Languages of the European Union", "Societas Europaea", "VAT", "British Virgin Islands company law", "Nevada corporation", "Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 \u00e0 responsabilit\u00e9 limit\u00e9e", "Naamloze vennootschap", "De facto corporation and corporation by estoppel", "Civil procedure", "Industrial and provident society", "Proprietary company", "Charitable incorporated organisation", "Indian company law", "European Community", "Limited liability partnership", "Unlimited liability", "Rochdale Principles", "Corporate law in Vietnam", "Conglomerate ", "Eurocit\u00e9 basque Bayonne - San Sebastian"], "content": "A European Economic Interest Grouping (EEIG) is a type of legal entity of the European corporate law created on 1985-07-25 under European Community (EC) Council Regulation 2137/85. It is designed to make it easier for companies in different countries to do business together, or to form consortia to take part in EU programmes. \nIts activities must be ancillary to those of its members, and, as with a partnership, any profit or loss it makes is attributed to its members. Thus, although it is liable for VAT and employees\u2019 social insurance, it is not liable to corporation tax. It has unlimited liability. It was based on the pre-existing French groupement d\u00b4int\u00e9r\u00eat \u00e9conomique (G.i.e.).\nSeveral thousand EEIGs now exist, active in fields as varied as agricultural marketing, legal advice, research and development, osteopathy, motorcycle preservation and cat-breeding. One of the more famous EEIGs is the Franco-German television channel ARTE. Among other EEIGs:\n\nEURESA (fr) (operational and flexible tool for cooperation and collaboration among ten European insurance companies belonging to the Social Economy)\nEurocit\u00e9 basque Bayonne - San Sebastian (fr)\n\n\n== Abbreviations ==\nIn contrast to the SE and the SCE, the lack of a Latin name for the EEIG lead to different names in the languages of the European Union:\n\nBulgarian: \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u043e \u0438\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0438 (\u0415\u041e\u0418\u0418)\nSerbian: Evropska Ekonomska Interesna Grupacija (EEIG)\nCroatian: Europsko gospodarsko interesno udru\u017eenje (EGIU)\nCzech: Evropsk\u00e9 hospod\u00e1\u0159sk\u00e9 z\u00e1jmov\u00e9 sdru\u017een\u00ed (EHZS)\nDanish: Europ\u00e6iske \u00f8konomiske firmagrupper (E\u00d8FG)\nDutch: Europees economisch samenwerkingsverband (EESV)\nEnglish: European Economic Interest Grouping (EEIG)\nEstonian: Euroopa majandushuvigrupp (EMHG)\nFinnish: Eurooppalainen taloudellinen etuyhtym\u00e4 (ETEY)\nFrench: Groupement europ\u00e9en d'int\u00e9r\u00eat \u00e9conomique (GEIE)\nGerman: Europ\u00e4ische wirtschaftliche Interessenvereinigung (EWIV)\nGreek: \u0395\u03c5\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03b1\u03ca\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 \u038c\u03bc\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u039f\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd \u03a3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03cd (\u0395\u039f\u039f\u03a3)\nHungarian: Eur\u00f3pai gazdas\u00e1gi egyes\u00fcl\u00e9s (EGE)\nIrish: Gr\u00fap\u00e1il Eorpach um Leas Eacnama\u00edoch (GELE)\nItalian: Gruppo europeo di interesse economico (GEIE)\nLatvian: Eiropas Ekonomisko intere\u0161u grupa (EEIG)\nLithuanian: Europos ekonomini\u0173 interes\u0173 grup\u0117 (EEIG)\nMaltese: Grupp Ewropew ta\u2019 Interess Ekonomiku (GEIE)\nPolish: Europejskie Zgrupowanie Interes\u00f3w Gospodarczych (EZIG)\nPortuguese: Agrupamento Europeu de Interesse Econ\u00f3mico (AEIE)\nRomanian: Grup European de Interes Economic (GEIE)\nSlovak: Eur\u00f3pske zoskupenie hospod\u00e1rskych z\u00e1ujmov (EZHZ)\nSlovenian: Evropsko gospodarsko interesno zdru\u017eenje (EGIZ)\nSpanish: Agrupaci\u00f3n europea de inter\u00e9s econ\u00f3mico (AEIE)\nSwedish: Europeiska ekonomiska intressegrupperingar (EEIG)An EEIG is required to have the abbreviation in its legal name (Art. 5(a) of Council Regulation No. 2137/85).\n\n\n== See also ==\nEuropean Private Company\nTypes of business entity\nEuropean Grouping for Territorial Cooperation\nUK Companies House booklet GPO4\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Society.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "A European Economic Interest Grouping (EEIG) is a type of legal entity of the European corporate law created on 1985-07-25 under European Community (EC) Council Regulation 2137/85. It is designed to make it easier for companies in different countries to do business together, or to form consortia to take part in EU programmes. \nIts activities must be ancillary to those of its members, and, as with a partnership, any profit or loss it makes is attributed to its members. Thus, although it is liable for VAT and employees\u2019 social insurance, it is not liable to corporation tax. It has unlimited liability. It was based on the pre-existing French groupement d\u00b4int\u00e9r\u00eat \u00e9conomique (G.i.e.).\nSeveral thousand EEIGs now exist, active in fields as varied as agricultural marketing, legal advice, research and development, osteopathy, motorcycle preservation and cat-breeding. One of the more famous EEIGs is the Franco-German television channel ARTE. Among other EEIGs:\n\nEURESA (fr) (operational and flexible tool for cooperation and collaboration among ten European insurance companies belonging to the Social Economy)\nEurocit\u00e9 basque Bayonne - San Sebastian (fr)\n\n"}, "Moses_Sithole": {"links": ["ISBN ", "Crime Library", "Elias Xitavhudzi", "Parole", "Rapist", "Shell organization", "Strangulation", "Child abuse", "Ersatz", "A&E Biography", "Transvaal Province", "Serial killer", "Hatchet", "Maxim ", "C-Max", "Sentence ", "Nelson Mandela", "Boksburg", "President of South Africa", "Capital punishment in South Africa", "Cleveland, Gauteng", "List of serial killers by country", "List of serial killers by number of victims", "Atteridgeville", "Gauteng", "South African Police Service", "Orphanage", "Johannesburg", "Bloemfontein", "C Max", "Vosloorus", "Boksburg, Gauteng", "Rape", "IMDb", "Life imprisonment", "Conviction", "Pretoria", "Robbery", "Capital punishment", "South Africa", "Suburb", "Murder", "HIV"], "content": "Moses Sithole  (born 17 November 1964) is a South African serial killer and rapist who committed the ABC Murders, so named because they began in Atteridgeville, continued in Boksburg and finished in Cleveland, a suburb of Johannesburg. Sithole murdered at least 38 people between 16 July 1994 and 6 November 1995.\n\n\n== Early life ==\nMoses Sithole was born on 17 November 1964 in Vosloorus, a township near Boksburg, Transvaal Province (now known as Gauteng). When he was five years old, his father died, and his mother abandoned the family. Sithole and his siblings spent the next three years in an orphanage, where he later said they were mistreated. By his own account, Sithole was arrested for rape in his teens and spent seven years in prison. He later blamed his imprisonment for turning him into a murderer. He explained his crimes by saying that the women he murdered all reminded him of the women who had falsely accused him of rape years before.\n\n\n== Murders ==\nSithole appeared to be a mild-mannered individual to those around him. At the time of his crimes, he was managing a shell organization, Youth Against Human Abuse, ostensibly devoted to the eradication of child abuse. After committing murders in Atteridgeville, near Pretoria, Sithole moved his focus to Boksburg and eventually to Cleveland. By 1995, he had claimed over thirty victims, sparking nationwide panic. In some cases, he would later phone the victims' families for no other apparent reason than to taunt them. At one point, President Nelson Mandela visited Boksburg in person to appeal for public assistance in apprehending the killer.\n\n\n=== Methods ===\nSithole targeted black women between the ages of 19 and 45 years old. Most of his victims were being interviewed for positions with Sithole's ersatz charity. Sithole would take them to remote fields, where he would beat, rape, and murder them. They were generally strangled with their own underwear. He once inflicted a head wound on the two-year-old son of one of his victims and left him to die from exposure.\n\n\n== Capture ==\nIn August 1995, Sithole was identified as having been seen with one of the victims, but he disappeared shortly after SAPS investigators learned details of his previous rape conviction. In October 1995, Sithole contacted South African journalist Tamsen de Beer and identified himself as the wanted murderer. During a phone conversation with de Beer, he indicated that the killings were carried out in revenge for his unjust imprisonment and claimed 76 victims, twice as many as those reported. Finally, in order to prove his identity, Sithole gave directions to where one of the bodies had been left. Local authorities subsequently cornered Sithole in Johannesburg, shooting the suspect when he attacked a constable with a hatchet. Sithole was driven to the hospital, where he was found to be HIV positive.\n\n\n== Trial and imprisonment ==\nOn 5 December 1997, Sithole was sentenced to 50 years' imprisonment for each of the 38 murders, twelve years' imprisonment for each of the 40 rapes, and five years' imprisonment for each of six robberies. Since his sentences run consecutively, his total effective sentence is 2,410 years. Justice David Carstairs ordered that Sithole would be required to serve at least 930 years before being eligible for parole. The judge also told Sithole that had capital punishment not been abolished, he would have been sentenced to death. Sithole was incarcerated in C-Max, the maximum security section of Pretoria Central Prison. He is currently incarcerated in Mangaung Correctional Centre in Bloemfontein.\n\n\n== Victims ==\nFull list of Sithole's victims\n\n\n== See also ==\nElias Xitavhudzi (serial killer in Atteridgeville)\nList of serial killers by country\nList of serial killers by number of victims\n\n\n== References ==\n\nNewton, Michael (2000). The Encyclopedia of Serial Killers. New York: Checkmark Books. p. 207. ISBN 0-8160-3979-8.\nStr\u00f6hm, Martin. \"Graveyard\". Crime Library. Retrieved 26 October 2008.\nvon Nekerk, Philip (October 2000). \"A Time to Kill\". Maxim. maximonline.com. Archived from the original on 17 December 2007.\n\n\n== External links ==\nMoses Sithole: The South African Strangler at IMDb (Documentary)", "images": [], "summary": "Moses Sithole  (born 17 November 1964) is a South African serial killer and rapist who committed the ABC Murders, so named because they began in Atteridgeville, continued in Boksburg and finished in Cleveland, a suburb of Johannesburg. Sithole murdered at least 38 people between 16 July 1994 and 6 November 1995."}, "Cactus": {"links": ["Opuntia microdasys", "Areole", "Growing medium", "Palisade cell", "Monophyletic", "Ovary ", "Africa", "Aztec", "Fusarium oxysporum", "International Plant Names Index", "Atacama Desert", "Tenochtitlan", "Frailea", "Saguaro National Park", "South America", "Early Cretaceous", "West Indies", "Ferocactus cylindraceus", "Pliocene", "Opuntia stricta", "Rebutia", "Radiocarbon dating", "Stoma", "Oligocene", "Saint Peter", "Old World", "Digestive tract", "Upiga virescens", "Receptacle ", "Joshua Tree National Park", "Herbal medicine", "Bat", "Hummingbird", "Thrips", "Echinocactus platyacanthus", "Carl Linnaeus", "three-phosphoglycerate", "Ant", "Legal status of psychoactive cactus by country", "Hawaii", "Global Biodiversity Information Facility", "Cladode", "Carboniferous", "Echinopsis pachanoi", "San Diego County Fair", "Stoma ", "Biological control", "OCLC ", "Fruit", "Slug", "Cereus 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"content": "A cactus (plural cacti, cactuses, or less commonly, cactus) is a member of the plant family Cactaceae, a family comprising about 127 genera with some 1750 known species of the order Caryophyllales. The word \"cactus\" derives, through Latin, from the Ancient Greek \u03ba\u03ac\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, kaktos, a name originally used by Theophrastus for a spiny plant whose identity is now not certain. Cacti occur in a wide range of shapes and sizes. Most cacti live in habitats subject to at least some drought. Many live in extremely dry environments, even being found in the Atacama Desert, one of the driest places on earth. Cacti show many adaptations to conserve water. Almost all cacti are succulents, meaning they have thickened, fleshy parts adapted to store water. Unlike many other succulents, the stem is the only part of most cacti where this vital process takes place. Most species of cacti have lost true leaves, retaining only spines, which are highly modified leaves. As well as defending against herbivores, spines help prevent water loss by reducing air flow close to the cactus and providing some shade. In the absence of leaves, enlarged stems carry out photosynthesis. Cacti are native to the Americas, ranging from Patagonia in the south to parts of western Canada in the north\u2014except for Rhipsalis baccifera, which also grows in Africa and Sri Lanka.\nCactus spines are produced from specialized structures called areoles, a kind of highly reduced branch. Areoles are an identifying feature of cacti. As well as spines, areoles give rise to flowers, which are usually tubular and multipetaled. Many cacti have  short growing seasons and long dormancies, and are able to react quickly to any rainfall, helped by an extensive but relatively shallow root system that quickly absorbs any water reaching the ground surface. Cactus stems are often ribbed or fluted, which allows them to expand and contract easily for quick water absorption after rain, followed by long drought periods. Like other succulent plants, most cacti employ a special mechanism called \"crassulacean acid metabolism\" (CAM) as part of photosynthesis. Transpiration, during which carbon dioxide enters the plant and water escapes, does not take place during the day at the same time as photosynthesis, but instead occurs at night. The plant stores the carbon dioxide it takes in as malic acid, retaining it until daylight returns, and only then using it in photosynthesis. Because transpiration takes place during the cooler, more humid night hours, water loss is significantly reduced.\nMany smaller cacti have globe-shaped stems, combining the highest possible volume for water storage, with the lowest possible surface area for water loss from transpiration. The tallest free-standing cactus is Pachycereus pringlei, with a maximum recorded height of 19.2 m (63 ft), and the smallest is Blossfeldia liliputiana, only about 1 cm (0.4 in) in diameter at maturity. A fully grown saguaro (Carnegiea gigantea) is said to be able to absorb as much as 200 U.S. gallons (760 l; 170 imp gal) of water during a rainstorm. A few species differ significantly in appearance from most of the family. At least superficially, plants of the genera Leuenbergeria, Rhodocactus and Pereskia resemble other trees and shrubs growing around them. They have persistent leaves, and when older, bark-covered stems. Their areoles identify them as cacti, and in spite of their appearance, they, too, have many adaptations for water conservation. Leuenbergeria is considered close to the ancestral species from which all cacti evolved. In tropical regions, other cacti grow as forest climbers and epiphytes (plants that grow on trees). Their stems are typically flattened, almost leaf-like in appearance, with fewer or even no spines, such as the well-known Christmas cactus or Thanksgiving cactus (in the genus Schlumbergera).\nCacti have a variety of uses: many species are used as ornamental plants, others are grown for fodder or forage, and others for food (particularly their fruit). Cochineal is the product of an insect that lives on some cacti.\nMany succulent plants in both the Old and New World \u2013 such as some Euphorbiaceae (euphorbias) \u2013 are also spiny stem succulents and because of this are sometimes incorrectly referred to as \"cactus\".\n\n\n== Morphology ==\n\nThe 1,500 to 1,800 species of cacti mostly fall into one of two groups of \"core cacti\": opuntias (subfamily Opuntioideae) and \"cactoids\" (subfamily Cactoideae). Most members of these two groups are easily recognizable as cacti. They have fleshy succulent stems that are major organs of photosynthesis. They have absent, small, or transient leaves. They have flowers with ovaries that lie below the sepals and petals, often deeply sunken into a fleshy receptacle (the part of the stem from which the flower parts grow). All cacti have areoles\u2014highly specialized short shoots with extremely short internodes that produce spines, normal shoots, and flowers.The remaining cacti fall into only two groups, three tree-like genera, Leuenbergeria, Pereskia and Rhodocactus (all formerly placed in Pereskia), and the much smaller Maihuenia. These two groups are rather different from other cacti, which means any description of cacti as a whole must frequently make exceptions for them. Species of the first three genera superficially resemble other tropical forest trees. When mature, they have woody stems that may be covered with bark and long-lasting leaves that provide the main means of photosynthesis. Their flowers may have superior ovaries (i.e., above the points of attachment of the sepals and petals), and areoles that produce further leaves. The two species of Maihuenia have succulent but non-photosynthetic stems and prominent succulent leaves.\n\n\n=== Growth habit ===\nCacti show a wide variety of growth habits, which are difficult to divide into clear, simple categories.\n\nArborescent cactiThey can be tree-like (arborescent), meaning they typically have a single more-or-less woody trunk topped by several to many branches. In the genera Leuenbergeria, Pereskia and Rhodocactus, the branches are covered with leaves, so the species of these genera may not be recognized as cacti. In most other cacti, the branches are more typically cactus-like, bare of leaves and bark, and covered with spines, as in Pachycereus pringlei or the larger opuntias. Some cacti may become tree-sized but without branches, such as larger specimens of Echinocactus platyacanthus. Cacti may also be described as shrubby, with several stems coming from the ground or from branches very low down, such as in Stenocereus thurberi.\nColumnar cactiSmaller cacti may be described as columnar. They consist of erect, cylinder-shaped stems, which may or may not branch, without a very clear division into trunk and branches. The boundary between columnar forms and tree-like or shrubby forms is difficult to define. Smaller and younger specimens of Cephalocereus senilis, for example, are columnar, whereas older and larger specimens may become tree-like. In some cases, the \"columns\" may be horizontal rather than vertical. Thus, Stenocereus eruca has stems growing along the ground, rooting at intervals.\nGlobular cactiCacti whose stems are even smaller may be described as globular (or globose). They consist of shorter, more ball-shaped stems than columnar cacti. Globular cacti may be solitary, such as Ferocactus latispinus, or their stems may form clusters that can create large mounds. All or some stems in a cluster may share a common root.\nOther formsOther cacti have a quite different appearance. In tropical regions, some grow as forest climbers and epiphytes. Their stems are typically flattened, almost leaf-like in appearance, with fewer or even no spines. Climbing cacti can be very large; a specimen of Hylocereus was reported as 100 meters (330 ft) long from root to the most distant stem. Epiphytic cacti, such as species of Rhipsalis or Schlumbergera, often hang downwards, forming dense clumps where they grow in trees high above the ground.\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n=== Stems ===\n\nThe leafless, spiny stem is the characteristic feature of the majority of cacti (and all of those belonging to the largest subfamily, the Cactoideae). The stem is typically succulent, meaning it is adapted to store water. The surface of the stem may be smooth (as in some species of Opuntia) or covered with protuberances of various kinds, which are usually called tubercles. These vary from small \"bumps\" to prominent, nipple-like shapes in the genus Mammillaria and outgrowths almost like leaves in Ariocarpus species. The stem may also be ribbed or fluted in shape. The prominence of these ribs depends on how much water the stem is storing: when full (up to 90% of the mass of a cactus may be water), the ribs may be almost invisible on the swollen stem, whereas when the cactus is short of water and the stems shrink, the ribs may be very visible.The stems of most cacti are some shade of green, often bluish or brownish green. Such stems contain chlorophyll and are able to carry out photosynthesis; they also have stomata (small structures that can open and close to allow passage of gases). Cactus stems are often visibly waxy.\n\n\n=== Areoles ===\n\nAreoles are structures unique to cacti. Although variable, they typically appear as woolly or hairy areas on the stems from which spines emerge. Flowers are also produced from areoles. In the genus Leuenbergeria, believed similar to the ancestor of all cacti, the areoles occur in the axils of leaves (i.e. in the angle between the leaf stalk and the stem). In leafless cacti, areoles are often borne on raised areas on the stem where leaf bases would have been.\nAreoles are highly specialized and very condensed shoots or branches. In a normal shoot, nodes bearing leaves or flowers would be separated by lengths of stem (internodes). In an areole, the nodes are so close together, they form a single structure. The areole may be circular, elongated into an oval shape, or even separated into two parts; the two parts may be visibly connected in some way (e.g. by a groove in the stem) or appear entirely separate (a dimorphic areole). The part nearer the top of the stem then produces flowers, the other part spines. Areoles often have multicellular hairs (trichomes) that give the areole a hairy or woolly appearance, sometimes of a distinct color such as yellow or brown.In most cacti, the areoles produce new spines or flowers only for a few years, and then become inactive. This results in a relatively fixed number of spines, with flowers being produced only from the ends of stems, which are still growing and forming new areoles. In Pereskia,  a genus close to the ancestor of cacti, areoles remain active for much longer; this is also the case in Opuntia and Neoraimondia.\n\n\n=== Leaves ===\nThe great majority of cacti have no visible leaves; photosynthesis takes place in the stems (which may be flattened and leaflike in some species). Exceptions occur in three groups of cacti. All the species of Leuenbergeria, Pereskia and Rhodocactus are superficially like normal trees or shrubs and have numerous leaves with a midrib and a flattened blade (lamina) on either side.  Many cacti in the opuntia group (subfamily Opuntioideae, opuntioids) also have visible leaves, which may be long-lasting (as in Pereskiopsis species) or be produced only during the growing season and then be lost (as in many species of Opuntia). The small genus Maihuenia also relies on leaves for photosynthesis. The structure of the leaves varies somewhat between these groups. Opuntioids and Maihuenia have leaves that appear to consist only of a midrib.Even those cacti without visible photosynthetic leaves do usually have very small leaves, less than 0.5 mm (0.02 in) long in about half of the species studied and almost always less than 1.5 mm (0.06 in) long. The function of such leaves cannot be photosynthesis; a role in the production of plant hormones, such as auxin, and in defining axillary buds has been suggested.\n\n\n=== Spines ===\nBotanically, \"spines\" are distinguished from \"thorns\": spines are modified leaves, and thorns are modified branches. Cacti produce spines, always from areoles as noted above. Spines are present even in those cacti with leaves, such as Pereskia, Pereskiopsis and Maihuenia, so they clearly evolved before complete leaflessness. Some cacti only have spines when young, possibly only when seedlings. This is particularly true of tree-living cacti, such as Rhipsalis and Schlumbergera, but also of some ground-living cacti, such as Ariocarpus.The spines of cacti are often useful in identification, since they vary greatly between species in number, color, size, shape and hardness, as well as in whether all the spines produced by an areole are similar or whether they are of distinct kinds. Most spines are straight or at most slightly curved, and are described as hair-like, bristle-like, needle-like or awl-like, depending on their length and thickness. Some cacti have flattened spines (e.g. Sclerocactus papyracanthus). Other cacti have hooked spines. Sometimes, one or more central spines are hooked, while outer spines are straight (e.g., Mammillaria rekoi).In addition to normal-length spines, members of the subfamily Opuntioideae have relatively short spines, called glochids, that are barbed along their length and easily shed. These enter the skin and are difficult to remove due to being very fine and easily broken, causing long-lasting irritation.\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n=== Roots ===\nMost ground-living cacti have only fine roots, which spread out around the base of the plant for varying distances, close to the surface. Some cacti have taproots; in genera such as Ariocarpus, these are considerably larger and of a greater volume than the body. Taproots may aid in stabilizing the larger columnar cacti. Climbing, creeping and epiphytic cacti may have only adventitious roots, produced along the stems where these come into contact with a rooting medium.\n\n\n=== Flowers ===\n\nLike their spines, cactus flowers are variable. Typically, the ovary is surrounded by material derived from stem or receptacle tissue, forming a structure called a pericarpel. Tissue derived from the petals and sepals continues the pericarpel, forming a composite tube\u2014the whole may be called a floral tube, although strictly speaking only the part furthest from the base is floral in origin. The outside of the tubular structure often has areoles that produce wool and spines. Typically, the tube also has small scale-like bracts, which gradually change into sepal-like and then petal-like structures, so the sepals and petals cannot be clearly differentiated (and hence are often called \"tepals\"). Some cacti produce floral tubes without wool or spines (e.g. Gymnocalycium) or completely devoid of any external structures (e.g. Mammillaria). Unlike the flowers of most other cacti, Pereskia flowers may be borne in clusters.Cactus flowers usually have many stamens, but only a single style, which may branch at the end into more than one stigma. The stamens usually arise from all over the inner surface of the upper part of the floral tube, although in some cacti, the stamens are produced in one or more distinct \"series\" in more specific areas of the inside of the floral tube.The flower as a whole is usually radially symmetrical (actinomorphic), but may be bilaterally symmetrical (zygomorphic) in some species. Flower colors range from white through yellow and red to magenta.\n\n\n== Adaptations for water conservation ==\n \nAll cacti have some adaptations to promote efficient water use. Most cacti\u2014opuntias and cactoids\u2014specialize in surviving in hot and dry environments (i.e. they are xerophytes), but the first ancestors of modern cacti were already adapted to periods of intermittent drought. A small number of cactus species in the tribes Hylocereeae and Rhipsalideae have become adapted to life as climbers or epiphytes, often in tropical forests, where water conservation is less important.\n\n\n=== Leaves and spines ===\nThe absence of visible leaves is one of the most striking features of most cacti. Pereskia (which is close to the ancestral species from which all cacti evolved) does have long-lasting leaves, which are, however, thickened and succulent in many species.  Other species of cactus with long-lasting leaves, such as the opuntioid Pereskiopsis, also have succulent leaves. A key issue in retaining water is the ratio of surface area to volume. Water loss is proportional to surface area, whereas the amount of water present is proportional to volume. Structures with a high surface area-to-volume ratio, such as thin leaves, necessarily lose water at a higher rate than structures with a low area-to-volume ratio, such as thickened stems.\nSpines, which are modified leaves, are present on even those cacti with true leaves, showing the evolution of spines preceded the loss of leaves. Although spines have a high surface area-to-volume ratio, at maturity they contain little or no water, being composed of fibers made up of dead cells. Spines provide protection from herbivores and camouflage in some species, and assist in water conservation in several ways. They trap air near the surface of the cactus, creating a moister layer that reduces evaporation and transpiration. They can provide some shade, which lowers the temperature of the surface of the cactus, also reducing water loss. When sufficiently moist air is present, such as during fog or early morning mist, spines can condense moisture, which then drips onto the ground and is absorbed by the roots.\n\n\n=== Stems ===\n\nThe majority of cacti are stem succulents, i.e., plants in which the stem is the main organ used to store water. Water may form up to 90% of the total mass of a cactus. Stem shapes vary considerably among cacti. The cylindrical shape of columnar cacti and the spherical shape of globular cacti produce a low surface area-to-volume ratio, thus reducing water loss, as well as minimizing the heating effects of sunlight. The ribbed or fluted stems of many cacti allow the stem to shrink during periods of drought and then swell as it fills with water during periods of availability. A mature saguaro (Carnegiea gigantea) is said to be able to absorb as much as 200 U.S. gallons (760 l; 170 imp gal) of water during a rainstorm. The outer layer of the stem usually has a tough cuticle, reinforced with waxy layers, which reduce water loss. These layers are responsible for the grayish or bluish tinge to the stem color of many cacti.The stems of most cacti have adaptations to allow them to conduct photosynthesis in the absence of leaves. This is discussed further below under Metabolism.\n\n\n=== Roots ===\nMany cacti have roots that spread out widely, but only penetrate a short distance into the soil. In one case, a young saguaro only 12 cm (4.7 in) tall had a root system with a diameter of 2 m (7 ft), but no more than 10 cm (4 in) deep. Cacti can also form new roots quickly when rain falls after a drought. The concentration of salts in the root cells of cacti is relatively high. All these adaptations enable cacti to absorb water rapidly during periods of brief or light rainfall. Thus, Ferocactus cylindraceus reportedly can take up a significant amount of water within 12 hours of as little as 7 mm (0.3 in) of rainfall, becoming fully hydrated in a few days.Although in most cacti, the stem acts as the main organ for storing water, some cacti have in addition large taproots. These may be several times the length of the above-ground body in the case of species such as Copiapoa atacamensis, which grows in one of the driest places in the world, the Atacama Desert in northern Chile.\n\n\n=== Metabolism ===\nPhotosynthesis requires plants to take in carbon dioxide gas (CO2). As they do so, they lose water through transpiration. Like other types of succulents, cacti reduce this water loss by the way in which they carry out photosynthesis. \"Normal\" leafy plants use the C3 mechanism: during daylight hours, CO2 is continually drawn out of the air present in spaces inside leaves and converted first into a compound containing three carbon atoms (3-phosphoglycerate) and then into products such as carbohydrates. The access of air to internal spaces within a plant is controlled by stomata, which are able to open and close. The need for a continuous supply of CO2 during photosynthesis means the stomata must be open, so water vapor is continuously being lost. Plants using the C3 mechanism lose as much as 97% of the water taken up through their roots in this way. A further problem is that as temperatures rise, the enzyme that captures CO2 starts to capture more and more oxygen instead, reducing the efficiency of photosynthesis by up to 25%.Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) is a mechanism adopted by cacti and other succulents to avoid the problems of the  C3 mechanism. In full CAM, the stomata open only at night, when temperatures and water loss are lowest. CO2 enters the plant and is captured in the form of organic acids stored inside cells (in vacuoles). The stomata remain closed throughout the day, and photosynthesis uses only this stored CO2. CAM uses water much more efficiently at the price of limiting the amount of carbon fixed from the atmosphere and thus available for growth. CAM-cycling is a less water-efficient system whereby stomata open in the day, just as in plants using the C3 mechanism. At night, or when the plant is short of water, the stomata close and the CAM mechanism is used to store CO2 produced by respiration for use later in photosynthesis. CAM-cycling is present in Pereskia species.By studying the ratio of 14C to 13C incorporated into a plant\u2014its isotopic signature\u2014it is possible to deduce how much CO2 is taken up at night and how much in the daytime. Using this approach, most of the Pereskia species investigated exhibit some degree of CAM-cycling, suggesting this ability was present in the ancestor of all cacti. Pereskia leaves are claimed to only have the  C3 mechanism with CAM restricted to stems. More recent studies show that \"it is highly unlikely that significant carbon assimilation occurs in the stem\"; Pereskia species are described as having \"C3 with inducible CAM.\" Leafless cacti carry out all their photosynthesis in the stem, using full CAM. As of February 2012, it is not clear whether stem-based CAM evolved once only in the core cacti, or separately in the opuntias and cactoids; CAM is known to have evolved convergently many times.To carry out photosynthesis, cactus stems have undergone many adaptations. Early in their evolutionary history, the ancestors of modern cacti (other than Leuenbergeria species) developed stomata on their stems and began to delay developing bark. However, this alone was not sufficient; cacti with only these adaptations appear to do very little photosynthesis in their stems. Stems needed to develop structures similar to those normally found only in leaves. Immediately below the outer epidermis, a hypodermal layer developed made up of cells with thickened walls, offering mechanical support. Air spaces were needed between the cells to allow carbon dioxide to diffuse inwards. The center of the stem, the cortex, developed \"chlorenchyma\" \u2013 a plant tissue made up of relatively unspecialized cells containing chloroplasts, arranged into a \"spongy layer\" and a \"palisade layer\" where most of the photosynthesis occurs.\n\n\n== Taxonomy and classification ==\n\nNaming and classifying cacti has been both difficult and controversial since the first cacti were discovered for science. The difficulties began with Carl Linnaeus. In 1737, he placed the cacti he knew into two genera, Cactus and Pereskia. However, when he published Species Plantarum in 1753\u2014the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature\u2014he relegated them all to one genus, Cactus. The word \"cactus\" is derived through Latin from the Ancient Greek \u03ba\u03ac\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 (kaktos), a name used by Theophrastus for a spiny plant, which may have been the cardoon (Cynara cardunculus).Later botanists, such as Philip Miller in 1754, divided cacti into several genera, which, in 1789, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu placed in his newly created family Cactaceae. By the early 20th century, botanists came to feel Linnaeus's name Cactus had become so confused as to its meaning (was it the genus or the family?) that it should not be used as a genus name. The 1905 Vienna botanical congress rejected the name Cactus and instead declared Mammillaria was the type genus of the family Cactaceae. It did, however, conserve the name Cactaceae, leading to the unusual situation in which the family Cactaceae no longer contains the genus after which it was named.The difficulties continued, partly because giving plants scientific names relies on \"type specimens\". Ultimately, if botanists want to know whether a particular plant is an example of, say, Mammillaria mammillaris, they should be able to compare it with the type specimen to which this name is permanently attached.  Type specimens are normally prepared by compression and drying, after which they are stored in herbaria to act as definitive references. However, cacti are very difficult to preserve in this way; they have evolved to resist drying and their bodies do not easily compress. A further difficulty is that many cacti were given names by growers and horticulturalists rather than botanists; as a result, the provisions of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (which governs the names of cacti, as well as other plants) were often ignored. Curt Backeberg, in particular, is said to have named or renamed 1,200 species without one of his names ever being attached to a specimen, which, according to David Hunt, ensured he \"left a trail of nomenclatural chaos that will probably vex cactus taxonomists for centuries.\"\n\n\n=== Classification ===\n\nIn 1984, it was decided that the Cactaceae Section of the International Organization for Succulent Plant Study should set up a working party, now called the International Cactaceae Systematics Group (ICSG), to produce consensus classifications down to the level of genera. Their system has been used as the basis of subsequent classifications. Detailed treatments published in the 21st century have divided the family into around 125\u2013130 genera and 1,400\u20131,500 species, which are then arranged into a number of tribes and subfamilies. The ICSG classification of the cactus family recognized four subfamilies, the largest of which was divided into nine tribes. The subfamilies were:\n\nSubfamily Pereskioideae K. SchumannThe only genus in the ICSG classification was Pereskia. It has features considered closest to the ancestors of the Cactaceae. Plants are trees or shrubs with leaves; their stems are smoothly round in cross section, rather than being ribbed or having tubercles. Two systems may be used in photosynthesis, both the \"normal\" C3 mechanism and crassulean acid metabolism (CAM)\u2014an \"advanced\" feature of cacti and other succulents that conserves water.\nMolecular phylogenetic studies showed that when broadly circumscribed, Pereskia was not monophyletic, and it has been split into three genera, Leuenbergeria, Rhodocactus and a narrowly circumscribed Pereskia. Leuenbergeria is then placed on its own in a separate monogeneric subfamily, Leuenbergerioideae.Subfamily Opuntioideae K. SchumannSome 15 genera are included in this subfamily. They may have leaves when they are young, but these are lost later. Their stems are usually divided into distinct \"joints\" or \"pads\" (cladodes). Plants vary in size from the small cushions of Maihueniopsis to treelike species of Opuntia, rising to 10 m (33 ft) or more.Subfamily Maihuenioideae P. FearnThe only genus is Maihuenia, with two species, both of which form low-growing mats. It has some features that are primitive within the cacti. Plants have leaves, and crassulean acid metabolism is wholly absent.Subfamily CactoideaeDivided into nine tribes, this is the largest subfamily, including all the \"typical\" cacti. Members are highly variable in habit, varying from tree-like to epiphytic. Leaves are normally absent, although sometimes very reduced leaves are produced by young plants. Stems are usually not divided into segments, and are ribbed or tuberculate. Two of the tribes, Hylocereeae and Rhipsalideae, contain climbing or epiphytic forms with a rather different appearance; their stems are flattened and may be divided into segments.Molecular phylogenetic studies have supported the monophyly of three of these subfamilies (not Pereskioideae), but have not supported all of the tribes or even genera below this level; indeed, a 2011 study found only 39% of the genera in the subfamily Cactoideae sampled in the research were monophyletic. Classification of the cacti currently remains uncertain and is likely to change.\n\n\n== Phylogeny and evolution ==\n\n\n=== Phylogeny ===\n\nA 2005 study suggested the genus Pereskia as then circumscribed (Pereskia sensu lato) was basal within the Cactaceae, but confirmed earlier suggestions it was not monophyletic, i.e., did not include all the descendants of a common ancestor. The Bayesian consensus cladogram from this study is shown below with subsequent generic changes added.\nA 2011 study using fewer genes but more species also found that Pereskia s.l. was divided into the same clades, but was unable to resolve the members of the \"core cacti\" clade. It was accepted that the relationships shown above are \"the most robust to date.\"Leuenbergeria species (Pereskia s.l. Clade A) always lack two key features of the stem present in most of the remaining \"caulocacti\": like most non-cacti, their stems begin to form bark early in the plants' life and also lack stomata\u2014structures that control admission of air into a plant and hence control photosynthesis. By contrast, caulocacti, including species of Rhodocactus and the remaining species of Pereskia s.s., typically delay forming bark and have stomata on their stems, thus giving the stem the potential to become a major organ for photosynthesis. (The two highly specialized species of Maihuenia are something of an exception.)The first cacti are thought to have been only slightly succulent shrubs or small trees whose leaves carried out photosynthesis. They lived in tropical areas that experienced periodic drought. If Leuenbergeria is a good model of these early cacti, then, although they would have appeared superficially similar to other trees growing nearby, they had already evolved strategies to conserve water (some of which are present in members of other families in the order Caryophyllales). These strategies included being able to respond rapidly to periods of rain, and keeping transpiration low by using water very efficiently during photosynthesis. The latter was achieved by tightly controlling the opening of stomata. Like Pereskia species today, early ancestors may have been able to switch from the normal C3 mechanism, where carbon dioxide is used continuously in photosynthesis, to CAM cycling, in which when the stomata are closed, carbon dioxide produced by respiration is stored for later use in photosynthesis.The clade containing Rhodocactus and Pereskia s.s. marks the beginnings of an evolutionary switch to using stems as photosynthetic organs. Stems have stomata and the formation of bark takes place later than in normal trees. The \"core cacti\" show a steady increase in both stem succulence and photosynthesis accompanied by multiple losses of leaves, more-or-less complete in the Cactoideae. One evolutionary question at present unanswered is whether the switch to full CAM photosynthesis in stems occurred only once in the core cacti, in which case it has been lost in Maihuenia, or separately in Opuntioideae and Cactoideae, in which case it never evolved in Maihuenia.\nUnderstanding evolution within the core cacti clade is difficult as of February 2012, since phylogenetic relationships are still uncertain and not well related to current classifications. Thus, a 2011 study found \"an extraordinarily high proportion of genera\" were not monophyletic, so were not all descendants of a single common ancestor. For example, of the 36 genera in the subfamily Cactoideae sampled in the research, 22 (61%) were found not monophyletic. Nine tribes are recognized within Cactoideae in the International Cactaceae Systematics Group (ICSG) classification; one, Calymmantheae, comprises a single genus, Calymmanthium. Only two of the remaining eight \u2013 Cacteae and Rhipsalideae \u2013 were shown to be monophyletic in a 2011 study by Hern\u00e1ndez-Hern\u00e1ndez et al. For a more detailed discussion of the phylogeny of the cacti, see Classification of the Cactaceae.\n\n\n=== Evolutionary history ===\nNo known fossils of cacti exist to throw light on their evolutionary history. However, the geographical distribution of cacti offers some evidence. Except for a relatively recent spread of Rhipsalis baccifera to parts of the Old World, cacti are plants of South America and mainly southern regions of North America. This suggests the family must have evolved after the ancient continent of Gondwana split into South America and Africa, which occurred during the Early Cretaceous, around 145 to 101 million years ago. Precisely when after this split cacti evolved is less clear. Older sources suggest an early origin around 90 \u2013 66 million years ago, during the Late Cretaceous. More recent molecular studies suggest a much younger origin, perhaps in very Late Eocene to early Oligocene periods, around 35\u201330 million years ago. Based on the phylogeny of the cacti, the earliest diverging group (Leuenbergeria) may have originated in Central America and northern South America, whereas the caulocacti, those with more-or-less succulent stems, evolved later in the southern part of South America, and then moved northwards. Core cacti, those with strongly succulent stems, are estimated to have evolved around 25 million years ago.  A possible stimulus to their evolution may have been uplifting in the central Andes, some 25\u201320 million years ago, which was associated with increasing and varying aridity. However, the current species diversity of cacti is thought to have arisen only in the last 10\u20135 million years (from the late Miocene into the Pliocene). Other succulent plants, such as the Aizoaceae in South Africa, the Didiereaceae in Madagascar and the genus Agave in the Americas, appear to have diversified at the same time, which coincided with a global expansion of arid environments.\n\n\n== Distribution ==\n\nCacti inhabit diverse regions, from coastal plains to high mountain areas. With one exception, they are native to the Americas, where their range extends from Patagonia to British Columbia and Alberta in western Canada. A number of centers of diversity exist. For cacti adapted to drought, the three main centers are Mexico and the southwestern United States; the southwestern Andes, where they are found in Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina; and eastern Brazil, away from the Amazon Basin. Tree-living epiphytic and climbing cacti necessarily have different centers of diversity, as they require moister environments. They are mainly found in the coastal mountains and Atlantic forests of southeastern Brazil; in Bolivia, which is the center of diversity for the subfamily Rhipsalideae; and in forested regions of Central America, where the climbing Hylocereeae are most diverse.Rhipsalis baccifera is the exception; it is native to both the Americas and the Old World, where it is found in tropical Africa, Madagascar, and Sri Lanka. One theory is  it was spread by  being carried as seeds in the digestive tracts of migratory birds; the seeds of Rhipsalis are adapted for bird distribution. Old World populations are polyploid, and regarded as distinct subspecies, supporting the idea that the spread was not recent. The alternative theory is the species initially crossed the Atlantic on European ships trading between South America and Africa, after which birds may have spread it more widely.\n\n\n=== Naturalized species ===\nMany other species have become naturalized outside the Americas after having been introduced by people, especially in Australia, Hawaii, and the Mediterranean region. In Australia, species of Opuntia, particularly Opuntia stricta, were introduced in the 19th century for use as natural agricultural fences and in an attempt to establish a cochineal industry. They rapidly became a major weed problem, but are now controlled by biological agents, particularly the moth Cactoblastis cactorum. The weed potential of Opuntia species in Australia continues however, leading to all opuntioid cacti except O. ficus-indica being declared Weeds of National Significance by the Australian Weeds Committee in April 2012.\nThe Arabian Peninsula has a wide variety of ever-increasing, introduced cactus populations. Some of these are cultivated, some are escapes from cultivation, and some are invasives that are presumed to be ornamental escapes.\n\n\n== Reproductive ecology ==\n\nCactus flowers are pollinated by insects, birds and bats. None are known to be wind-pollinated and self-pollination occurs in only a very few species; for example the flowers of some species of Frailea do not open (cleistogamy). The need to attract pollinators has led to the evolution of pollination syndromes, which are defined as groups of \"floral traits, including rewards, associated with the attraction and utilization of a specific group of animals as pollinators.\"Bees are the most common pollinators of cacti; bee-pollination is considered to have been the first to evolve. Day-flying butterflies and nocturnal moths are associated with different pollination syndromes. Butterfly-pollinated flowers are usually brightly colored, opening during the day, whereas moth-pollinated flowers are often white or pale in color, opening only in the evening and at night. As an example, Pachycereus schottii is pollinated by a particular species of moth, Upiga virescens, which also lays its eggs among the developing seeds its caterpillars later consume. The flowers of this cactus are funnel-shaped, white to deep pink, up to 4 cm (1.6 in) long, and open at night.Hummingbirds are significant pollinators of cacti. Species showing the typical hummingbird-pollination syndrome have flowers with colors towards the red end of the spectrum, anthers and stamens that protrude from the flower, and a shape that is not radially symmetrical, with a lower lip that bends downwards; they produce large amounts of nectar with a relatively low sugar content. Schlumbergera species, such as S. truncata, have flowers that correspond closely to this syndrome. Other hummingbird-pollinated genera include Cleistocactus and Disocactus.Bat-pollination is relatively uncommon in flowering plants, but about a quarter of the genera of cacti are known to be pollinated by bats\u2014an unusually high proportion, exceeded among eudicots by only two other families, both with very few genera. Columnar cacti growing in semidesert areas are among those most likely to be bat-pollinated; this may be because bats are able to travel considerable distances, so are effective pollinators of plants growing widely separated from one another. The pollination syndrome associated with bats includes a tendency for flowers to open in the evening and at night, when bats are active. Other features include a relatively dull color, often white or green; a radially symmetrical shape, often tubular; a smell described as \"musty\"; and the production of a large amount of sugar-rich nectar. Carnegiea gigantea is an example of a bat-pollinated cactus, as are many species of Pachycereus and Pilosocereus.\n\nThe fruits produced by cacti after the flowers have been fertilized vary considerably; many are fleshy, although some are dry. All contain a large number of seeds. Fleshy, colorful and sweet-tasting fruits are associated with seed dispersal by birds. The seeds pass through their digestive systems and are deposited in their droppings. Fruit that falls to the ground may be eaten by other animals; giant tortoises are reported to distribute Opuntia seeds in the Gal\u00e1pagos Islands. Ants appear to disperse the seeds of a few genera, such as Blossfeldia. Drier spiny fruits may cling to the fur of mammals or be moved around by the wind.\n\n\n== Uses ==\n\n\n=== Early history ===\nAs of March 2012, there is still controversy as to the precise dates when humans first entered those areas of the New World where cacti are commonly found, and hence when they might first have used them. An archaeological site in Chile has been dated to around 15,000 years ago, suggesting cacti would have been encountered before then. Early evidence of the use of cacti includes cave paintings in the Serra da Capivara in Brazil, and seeds found in ancient middens (waste dumps) in Mexico and Peru, with dates estimated at 12,000\u20139,000 years ago. Hunter-gatherers likely collected cactus fruits in the wild and brought them back to their camps.\n\nIt is not known when cacti were first cultivated. Opuntias (prickly pears) were used for a variety of purposes by the Aztecs, whose empire, lasting from the 14th to the 16th century, had a complex system of horticulture. Their capital from the 15th century was Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City); one explanation for the origin of the name is that it includes the Nahuatl word n\u014dchtli, referring to the fruit of an opuntia. The coat of arms of Mexico shows an eagle perched on a cactus while holding a snake, an image at the center of the myth of the founding of Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs symbolically linked the ripe red fruits of an opuntia to human hearts; just as the fruit quenches thirst, so offering human hearts to the sun god ensured the sun would keep moving.Europeans first encountered cacti when they arrived in the New World late in the 15th century. Their first landfalls were in the West Indies, where relatively few cactus genera are found; one of the most common is the genus Melocactus. Thus, melocacti were possibly among the first cacti seen by Europeans. Melocactus species were present in English collections of cacti before the end of the 16th century (by 1570 according to one source,) where they were called Echinomelocactus, later shortened to Melocactus by Joseph Pitton de Tourneville in the early 18th century. Cacti, both purely ornamental species and those with edible fruit, continued to arrive in Europe, so Carl Linnaeus was able to name 22 species by 1753. One of these, his Cactus opuntia (now part of Opuntia ficus-indica), was described as \"fructu majore ... nunc in Hispania et Lusitania\" (with larger fruit ... now in Spain and Portugal), indicative of its early use in Europe.\n\n\n=== Food ===\n\nThe plant now known as Opuntia ficus-indica, or the Indian fig cactus, has long been an important source of food. The original species is thought to have come from central Mexico, although this is now obscure because the indigenous people of southern North America developed and distributed a range of horticultural varieties (cultivars), including forms of the species and hybrids with other opuntias. Both the fruit and pads are eaten, the former often under the Spanish name tuna, the latter under the name nopal. Cultivated forms are often significantly less spiny or even spineless. The nopal industry in Mexico was said to be worth US$150 million in 2007. The Indian fig cactus was probably already present in the Caribbean when the Spanish arrived, and was soon after brought to Europe. It spread rapidly in the Mediterranean area, both naturally and by being introduced\u2014so much so, early botanists assumed it was native to the area. Outside the Americas, the Indian fig cactus is an important commercial crop in Sicily, Algeria and other North African countries. Fruits of other opuntias are also eaten, generally under the same name, tuna. Flower buds, particularly of Cylindropuntia species, are also consumed.Almost any fleshy cactus fruit is edible. The word pitaya or pitahaya (usually considered to have been taken into Spanish from Haitian creole) can be applied to a range of \"scaly fruit\", particularly those of columnar cacti. The fruit of the saguaro (Carnegiea gigantea) has long been important to the indigenous peoples of northwestern Mexico and the southwestern United States, including the Sonoran Desert. It can be preserved by boiling to produce syrup and by drying. The syrup can also be fermented to produce an alcoholic drink. Fruits of Stenocereus species have also been important food sources in similar parts of North America; Stenocereus queretaroensis is cultivated for its fruit. In more tropical southern areas, the climber Hylocereus undatus provides pitahaya orejona, now widely grown in Asia under the name dragon fruit. Other cacti providing edible fruit include species of  Echinocereus, Ferocactus, Mammillaria, Myrtillocactus, Pachycereus, Peniocereus and Selenicereus. The bodies of cacti other than opuntias are less often eaten, although Anderson reported that Neowerdermannia vorwerkii is prepared and eaten like potatoes in upland Bolivia.\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n=== Psychoactive agents ===\n\nA number of species of cacti have been shown to contain psychoactive agents, chemical compounds that can cause changes in mood, perception and cognition through their effects on the brain. Two species have a long history of use by the indigenous peoples of the Americas: peyote, Lophophora williamsii, in North America, and the San Pedro cactus, Echinopsis pachanoi, in South America. Both contain mescaline.L. williamsii is native to northern Mexico and southern Texas. Individual stems are about 2\u20136 cm (0.8\u20132.4 in) high with a diameter of 4\u201311 cm (1.6\u20134.3 in), and may be found in clumps up to 1 m (3 ft) wide. A large part of the stem is usually below ground. Mescaline is concentrated in the photosynthetic portion of the stem above ground. The center of the stem, which contains the growing point (the apical meristem), is sunken. Experienced collectors of peyote remove a thin slice from the top of the plant, leaving the growing point intact, thus allowing the plant to regenerate. Evidence indicates peyote was in use more than 5,500 years ago; dried peyote buttons presumed to be from a site on the Rio Grande, Texas, were radiocarbon dated to around 3780\u20133660 BC. Peyote is perceived as a means of accessing the spirit world. Attempts by the Roman Catholic church to suppress its use after the Spanish conquest were largely unsuccessful, and by the middle of the 20th century, peyote was more widely used than ever by indigenous peoples as far north as Canada. It is now used formally by the Native American Church.Echinopsis pachanoi is native to Ecuador and Peru. It is very different in appearance from L. williamsii. It has tall stems, up to 6 m (20 ft) high, with a diameter of 6\u201315 cm (2.4\u20135.9 in), which branch from the base, giving the whole plant a shrubby or tree-like appearance. Archaeological evidence of the use of this cactus appears to date back to 2,000\u20132,300 years ago, with carvings and ceramic objects showing columnar cacti. Although church authorities under the Spanish attempted to suppress its use, this failed, as shown by the Christian element in the common name \"San Pedro cactus\"\u2014Saint Peter cactus. Anderson attributes the name to the belief that just as St Peter holds the keys to heaven, the effects of the cactus allow users \"to reach heaven while still on earth.\" It continues to be used for its psychoactive effects, both for spiritual and for healing purposes, often combined with other psychoactive agents, such as Datura ferox and tobacco. Several other species of Echinopsis, including E. peruviana, also contain mescaline.\n\n\n=== Ornamental plants ===\n\nCacti were cultivated as ornamental plants from the time they were first brought from the New World. By the early 1800s, enthusiasts in Europe had large collections (often including other succulents alongside cacti). Rare plants were sold for very high prices. Suppliers of cacti and other succulents employed collectors to obtain plants from the wild, in addition to growing their own. In the late 1800s, collectors turned to orchids, and cacti became less popular, although never disappearing from cultivation.Cacti are often grown in greenhouses, particularly in regions unsuited to the cultivation of cacti outdoors, such the northern parts of Europe and North America. Here, they may be kept in pots or grown in the ground. Cacti are also grown as houseplants, many being tolerant of the often dry atmosphere. Cacti in pots may be placed outside in the summer to ornament gardens or patios, and then kept under cover during the winter. Less drought-resistant epiphytes, such as epiphyllum hybrids, Schlumbergera (the Thanksgiving or Christmas cactus) and Hatiora (the Easter cactus), are widely cultivated as houseplants.\n\nCacti may also be planted outdoors in regions with suitable climates. Concern for water conservation in arid regions has led to the promotion of gardens requiring less watering (xeriscaping). For example, in California, the East Bay Municipal Utility District sponsored the publication of a book on plants and landscapes for summer-dry climates. Cacti are one group of drought-resistant plants recommended for dry landscape gardening.\n\n\n=== Other uses ===\nCacti have many other uses. They are used for human food and as fodder for animals, usually after burning off their spines. In addition to their use as psychoactive agents, some cacti are employed in herbal medicine. The practice of using various species of Opuntia in this way has spread from the Americas, where they naturally occur, to other regions where they grow, such as India.Cochineal is a red dye produced by a scale insect that lives on species of Opuntia. Long used by the  peoples of Central and North America, demand fell rapidly when European manufacturers began to produce synthetic dyes in the middle of the 19th century. Commercial production has now increased following a rise in demand for natural dyes.Cacti are used as construction materials. Living cactus fences are employed as barricades around buildings to prevent people breaking in. They also used to corral animals. The woody parts of cacti, such as Cereus repandus and Echinopsis atacamensis, are used in buildings and in furniture. The frames of wattle and daub houses built by the Seri people of Mexico may use parts of Carnegiea gigantea. The very fine spines and hairs (trichomes) of some cacti were used as a source of fiber for filling pillows and in weaving.\n\n\n== Conservation ==\n\nAll cacti are included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which \"lists species that are not necessarily now threatened with extinction but that may become so unless trade is closely controlled.\" Control is exercised by making international trade in most specimens of cacti illegal unless permits have been issued, at least for exports. Some exceptions are allowed, e.g., for \"naturalized or artificially propagated plants\". Some cacti, such as all Ariocarpus and Discocactus species, are included in the more restrictive Appendix I, used for the \"most endangered\" species. These may only be moved between countries for scientific purposes, and only then when accompanied by both export and import permits.The three main threats to cacti in the wild are development, grazing and over-collection. Development takes many forms. The construction of a dam near Zimapan, Mexico, caused the destruction of a large part of the natural habitat of Echinocactus grusonii. Urban development and highways have destroyed cactus habitats in parts of Mexico, New Mexico and Arizona, including the Sonoran Desert. The conversion of land to agriculture has affected populations of Ariocarpus kotschoubeyanus in Mexico, where dry plains were plowed for maize cultivation, and of Copiapoa and Eulychnia in Chile, where valley slopes were planted with vines. Grazing, in many areas by introduced animals, such as goats, has caused serious damage to populations of cacti (as well as other plants);  two examples cited by Anderson are the Gal\u00e1pagos Islands generally and the effect on Browningia candelaris in Peru. Over-collection of cacti for sale has greatly affected some species. For example, the type locality of Pelecyphora strobiliformis near Miquihuana, Mexico, was virtually denuded of plants, which were dug up for sale in Europe. Illegal collecting of cacti from the wild continues to pose a threat.Conservation of cacti can be in situ or ex situ. In situ conservation involves preserving habits through enforcement of legal protection and the creation of specially protected areas such as national parks and reserves. Examples of such protected areas in the United States include Big Bend National Park, Texas; Joshua Tree National Park, California; and Saguaro National Park, Arizona. Latin American examples include Parque Nacional del Pinacate, Sonora, Mexico and Pan de Az\u00facar National Park, Chile. Ex situ conservation aims to preserve plants and seeds outside their natural habitats, often with the intention of later reintroduction. Botanical gardens play an important role in ex situ conservation; for example, seeds of cacti and other succulents are kept in long-term storage at the Desert Botanical Garden, Arizona.\n\n\n== Cultivation ==\n\nThe popularity of cacti means many books are devoted to their cultivation. Cacti naturally occur in a wide range of habitats and are then grown in many countries with different climates, so precisely replicating the conditions in which a species normally grows is usually not practical. A broad distinction can be made between semidesert cacti and epiphytic cacti, which need different conditions and are best grown separately. This section is primarily concerned with the cultivation of semidesert cacti in containers and under protection, such as in a greenhouse or in the home, rather than cultivation outside in the ground in those climates that permit it. For the cultivation of epiphytic cacti, see Cultivation of Schlumbergera (Christmas or Thanksgiving cacti), and Cultivation of epiphyllum hybrids.\n\n\n=== Growing medium ===\n\nThe purpose of the growing medium is  to provide support and to store water, oxygen and dissolved minerals to feed the plant. In the case of cacti, there is general agreement that an open medium with a high air content is important. When cacti are grown in containers, recommendations as to how this should be achieved vary greatly; Miles Anderson says that if asked to describe a perfect growing medium, \"ten growers would give 20 different answers\". Roger Brown suggests a mixture of two parts commercial soilless growing medium, one part hydroponic clay and one part coarse pumice or perlite, with the addition of soil from earthworm castings. The general recommendation of 25\u201375% organic-based material, the rest being inorganic such as pumice, perlite or grit, is supported by other sources. However, the use of organic material is rejected altogether by others; Hecht says that cacti (other than epiphytes) \"want soil that is low in or free of humus\", and recommends coarse sand as the basis of a growing medium.\n\n\n=== Watering ===\nSemi-desert cacti need careful watering. General advice is hard to give, since the frequency of watering required depends on where the cacti are being grown, the nature of the growing medium, and the original habitat of the cacti. Brown says that more cacti are lost through the \"untimely application of water than for any other reason\" and that even during the dormant winter season, cacti need some water. Other sources say that water can be withheld during winter (November to March in the Northern Hemisphere). Another issue is the hardness of the water; where it is necessary to use hard water, regular re-potting is recommended to avoid the build up of salts. The general advice given is that during the growing season, cacti should be allowed to dry out between thorough waterings. A water meter can help in determining when the soil is dry.\n\n\n=== Light and temperature ===\nAlthough semi-desert cacti may be exposed to high light levels in the wild, they may still need some shading when subjected to the higher light levels and temperatures of a greenhouse in summer. Allowing the temperature to rise above 32 \u00b0C (90 \u00b0F) is not recommended. The minimum winter temperature required depends very much on the species of cactus involved. For a mixed collection, a minimum temperature of between 5 \u00b0C (41 \u00b0F) and 10 \u00b0C (50 \u00b0F) is often suggested, except for cold-sensitive genera such as Melocactus and Discocactus. Some cacti, particularly those from the high Andes, are fully frost-hardy when kept dry (e.g. Rebutia minuscula survives temperatures down to \u22129 \u00b0C (16 \u00b0F) in cultivation) and may flower better when exposed to a period of cold.\n\n\n=== Propagation ===\nCacti can be propagated by seed, cuttings or grafting. Seed sown early in the year produces seedlings that benefit from a longer growing period. Seed is sown in a moist growing medium and then kept in a covered environment, until 7\u201310 days after germination, to avoid drying out. A very wet growing medium can cause both seeds and seedlings to rot. A temperature range of 18\u201330 \u00b0C (64\u201386 \u00b0F) is suggested for germination; soil temperatures of around 22 \u00b0C (72 \u00b0F) promote the best root growth. Low light levels are sufficient during germination, but afterwards semi-desert cacti need higher light levels to produce strong growth, although acclimatization is needed to conditions in a greenhouse, such as higher temperatures and strong sunlight.\n\nReproduction by cuttings makes use of parts of a plant that can grow roots. Some cacti produce \"pads\" or \"joints\" that can be detached or cleanly cut off. Other cacti produce offsets that can be removed. Otherwise, stem cuttings can be made, ideally from relatively new growth. It is recommended that any cut surfaces be allowed to dry for a period of several days to several weeks until a callus forms over the cut surface. Rooting can then take place in an appropriate growing medium at a temperature of around 22 \u00b0C (72 \u00b0F).Grafting is used for species difficult to grow well in cultivation or that cannot grow independently, such as some chlorophyll-free forms with white, yellow or red bodies, or some forms that show abnormal growth (e.g., cristate or monstrose forms). For the host plant (the stock), growers choose one that grows strongly in cultivation and is compatible with the plant to be propagated: the scion. The grower makes cuts on both stock and scion and joins the two, binding them together while they unite. Various kinds of graft are used\u2014flat grafts, where both scion and stock are of similar diameters, and cleft grafts, where a smaller scion is inserted into a cleft made in the stock.Commercially, huge numbers of cacti are produced annually. For example, in 2002 in Korea alone, 49 million plants were propagated, with a value of almost US$9 million. Most of them (31 million plants) were propagated by grafting.\n\n\n=== Pests and diseases ===\nA range of pests attack cacti in cultivation. Those that feed on sap include mealybugs, living on both stems and roots; scale insects, generally only found on stems; whiteflies, which are said to be an \"infrequent\" pest of cacti; red spider mites, which are very small but can occur in large numbers, constructing a fine web around themselves and badly marking the cactus via their sap sucking, even if they do not kill it; and thrips, which particularly attack flowers. Some of these pests are resistant to many insecticides, although there are biological controls available. Roots of cacti can be eaten by the larvae of sciarid flies and fungus gnats. Slugs and snails also eat cacti.Fungi, bacteria and viruses attack cacti, the first two particularly when plants are over-watered. Fusarium rot can gain entry through a wound and cause rotting accompanied by red-violet mold. \"Helminosporium rot\" is caused by Bipolaris cactivora (syn. Helminosporium cactivorum); Phytophthora species also cause similar rotting in cacti. Fungicides may be of limited value in combating these diseases. Several viruses have been found in cacti, including cactus virus X. These appear to cause only limited visible symptoms, such as chlorotic (pale green) spots and mosaic effects (streaks and patches of paler color). However, in an Agave species, cactus virus X has been shown to reduce growth, particularly when the roots are dry. There are no treatments for virus diseases.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nAnderson, Edward F. (2001), The Cactus Family, Pentland, Oregon: Timber Press, ISBN 978-0-88192-498-5\nAnderson, Miles (1999), Cacti and Succulents : Illustrated Encyclopedia, Oxford: Sebastian Kelly, ISBN 978-1-84081-253-4\nBrown, Roger, \"Cultivation of Cacti\", in Anderson (2001), pp. 85\u201392\nHecht, Hans (1994), Cacti & Succulents (p/b ed.), New York: Sterling, ISBN 978-0-8069-0549-5\nHewitt, Terry (1993), The Complete Book of Cacti & Succulents, London: Covent Garden Books, ISBN 978-1-85605-402-7\nInnes, Clive (1995), \"Cacti\",  in Innes, Clive & Wall, Bill (eds.), Cacti, Succulents and Bromeliads, London: Cassell for the Royal Horticultural Society, pp. 11\u201370, ISBN 978-0-304-32076-9\nKeen, Bill (1990), Cacti and Succulents : step-by-step to growing success, Marlborough, Wiltshire: Crowood Press, ISBN 978-1-85223-264-1\nMcMillan, A.J.S.; Horobin, J.F. (1995), Christmas Cacti : The genus Schlumbergera and its hybrids (p/b ed.), Sherbourne, Dorset: David Hunt, ISBN 978-0-9517234-6-3\nPilbeam, John (1987), Cacti for the Connoisseur, London: Batsford, ISBN 978-0-7134-4861-0\n\n\n== External links ==\n Media related to Cactaceae at Wikimedia Commons\nCactus at Curlie", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Ariocarpus_kotschoubeyanus_flor_cropped.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Astrophytum_capricorne_areole.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Barrel_Cactus_Fruit_cropped.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Barrel_cactus_with_a_view.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Botany_Bay_-_Cynara_cardunculus_1.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Britton_%26_Rose_Vol_1_Plate_III_%28Pereskia_grandifolia%29.jpg", 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"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Schlumbergera_fruit.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Sclerocactus_papyracanthus_fh_087_3_AZ_BB.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Singapore_Botanic_Gardens_Cactus_Garden_2.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Stamen_of_Fish_hook_Cactus.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Starr_030202-0037_Cereus_uruguayanus.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Succu_Mammillaria_longimamma_02.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Sclerocactus_papyracanthus_fh_087_3_AZ_BB.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Various_Cactaceae.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Warzenkaktus_-_Mammillaria_elongata.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Coat_of_arms_of_Mexico.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg"], "summary": "A cactus (plural cacti, cactuses, or less commonly, cactus) is a member of the plant family Cactaceae, a family comprising about 127 genera with some 1750 known species of the order Caryophyllales. The word \"cactus\" derives, through Latin, from the Ancient Greek \u03ba\u03ac\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, kaktos, a name originally used by Theophrastus for a spiny plant whose identity is now not certain. Cacti occur in a wide range of shapes and sizes. Most cacti live in habitats subject to at least some drought. Many live in extremely dry environments, even being found in the Atacama Desert, one of the driest places on earth. Cacti show many adaptations to conserve water. Almost all cacti are succulents, meaning they have thickened, fleshy parts adapted to store water. Unlike many other succulents, the stem is the only part of most cacti where this vital process takes place. Most species of cacti have lost true leaves, retaining only spines, which are highly modified leaves. As well as defending against herbivores, spines help prevent water loss by reducing air flow close to the cactus and providing some shade. In the absence of leaves, enlarged stems carry out photosynthesis. Cacti are native to the Americas, ranging from Patagonia in the south to parts of western Canada in the north\u2014except for Rhipsalis baccifera, which also grows in Africa and Sri Lanka.\nCactus spines are produced from specialized structures called areoles, a kind of highly reduced branch. Areoles are an identifying feature of cacti. As well as spines, areoles give rise to flowers, which are usually tubular and multipetaled. Many cacti have  short growing seasons and long dormancies, and are able to react quickly to any rainfall, helped by an extensive but relatively shallow root system that quickly absorbs any water reaching the ground surface. Cactus stems are often ribbed or fluted, which allows them to expand and contract easily for quick water absorption after rain, followed by long drought periods. Like other succulent plants, most cacti employ a special mechanism called \"crassulacean acid metabolism\" (CAM) as part of photosynthesis. Transpiration, during which carbon dioxide enters the plant and water escapes, does not take place during the day at the same time as photosynthesis, but instead occurs at night. The plant stores the carbon dioxide it takes in as malic acid, retaining it until daylight returns, and only then using it in photosynthesis. Because transpiration takes place during the cooler, more humid night hours, water loss is significantly reduced.\nMany smaller cacti have globe-shaped stems, combining the highest possible volume for water storage, with the lowest possible surface area for water loss from transpiration. The tallest free-standing cactus is Pachycereus pringlei, with a maximum recorded height of 19.2 m (63 ft), and the smallest is Blossfeldia liliputiana, only about 1 cm (0.4 in) in diameter at maturity. A fully grown saguaro (Carnegiea gigantea) is said to be able to absorb as much as 200 U.S. gallons (760 l; 170 imp gal) of water during a rainstorm. A few species differ significantly in appearance from most of the family. At least superficially, plants of the genera Leuenbergeria, Rhodocactus and Pereskia resemble other trees and shrubs growing around them. They have persistent leaves, and when older, bark-covered stems. Their areoles identify them as cacti, and in spite of their appearance, they, too, have many adaptations for water conservation. Leuenbergeria is considered close to the ancestral species from which all cacti evolved. In tropical regions, other cacti grow as forest climbers and epiphytes (plants that grow on trees). Their stems are typically flattened, almost leaf-like in appearance, with fewer or even no spines, such as the well-known Christmas cactus or Thanksgiving cactus (in the genus Schlumbergera).\nCacti have a variety of uses: many species are used as ornamental plants, others are grown for fodder or forage, and others for food (particularly their fruit). Cochineal is the product of an insect that lives on some cacti.\nMany succulent plants in both the Old and New World \u2013 such as some Euphorbiaceae (euphorbias) \u2013 are also spiny stem succulents and because of this are sometimes incorrectly referred to as \"cactus\"."}, "Sansevieria": {"links": ["Groundhog Day ", "Xerophyte", "Xylene", "Dracaena pethera", "Phyllotaxis", "EPPO Code", "Doi ", "New International Encyclopedia", "Plants of the World Online", "International Plant Names Index", "Tropicos", "Dracaena trifasciata", "Formaldehyde", "Global Biodiversity Information Facility", "Snake plant", "San Severo", "Italy", "Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera", "Rhizome", "Dracaena ", "Apical meristem", "Carl Peter Thunberg", "FloraBase", "Stolon", "Asparagaceae", "Nolinoideae", "First aid", "Sansevieria cylindrica", "These Final Hours", "ISBN ", "National Biodiversity Network", "International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants", "Dracaena stuckyi", "Genus", "INaturalist", "Berry ", "Flora of Australia", "Raimondo di Sangro", "Flora of North America", "Sansevieria ehrenbergii", "Duck Soup ", "World Checklist of Selected Plant Families", "The Paper ", "A Serbian Film", "Dracaena ballyi", "Rhizomes", "Plant cuticle", "Toluene", "Dracaena bagamoyensis", "Succulent plant", "Stolons", "Semelparity and iteroparity", "Natural fiber", "JSTOR ", "Fruit", "Feng shui", "Chimera ", "Houseplant", "Cultivar", "Dracaena masoniana", "Blue Velvet ", "Epipremnum aureum", "StwoCID ", "Crassulacean acid metabolism", "Wikispecies", "Wikidata", "Flower", "Dracaena pinguicula", "Homegrown ", "National Center for Biotechnology Information", "Paraphyly", "Germplasm Resources Information Network", "Encyclopedia of Life", "Molecular phylogenetics", "Reineckea carnea", "Dracaena angolensis", "Dracaena fragrans", "Australian Plant Name Index", "Jinn", "Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew", "APG III system", "Dracaena suffruticosa", "Raceme", "Dracaena fischeri", "Family ", "Vincenzo Petagna", "World Flora Online", "Dracaena arborescens", "Integrated Taxonomic Information System", "Natural Resources Conservation Service", "PMID ", "Conserved name", "Dracaena eilensis", "Dracaena hanningtonii", "NASA Clean Air Study", "Being John Malkovich", "Flowering plant", "Agave"], "content": "Sansevieria is a historically recognized genus of flowering plants, native to Africa, notably Madagascar, and southern Asia, now included in the genus Dracaena on the basis of molecular phylogenetic studies. Common names for the 70 or so species formerly placed in the genus include mother-in-law's tongue, devil's tongue, jinn's tongue, bow string hemp, snake plant and snake tongue. In the APG III classification system, Dracaena is placed in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Nolinoideae (formerly the family Ruscaceae). It has also been placed in the former family Dracaenaceae.\n\n\n== Description ==\nThere is great variation within the species formerly placed in the genus; they range from succulent desert plants such as Dracaena pinguicula to thinner leafed tropical plants such as Dracaena trifasciata. Plants often form dense clumps from a spreading rhizome or stolons.\n\n\n=== Foliage ===\nThe leaves of former Sansevieria species are typically arranged in a rosette around the growing point, although some species are distichous. There is a great variation in foliage form. All former species can be divided into one of two basic categories based on their leaves: hard leaved and soft-leaved species. Typically, hard-leaved species originate from arid climates, while soft-leaved species originate from tropical and subtropical regions. Hard leaved species have a number of adaptations for surviving dry regions. These include thick, succulent leaves for storing water and thick leaf cuticles for reducing moisture loss. These leaves may be cylindrical to reduce surface area and are generally shorter than those of their soft leafed tropical counterparts, which are wide and strap-like.\n\n\n=== Flowers ===\nThe flowers of former Sansevieria species are usually greenish-white, also rose, lilac-red, brownish, produced on a simple or branched raceme. The fruit is a red or orange berry. In nature, they are pollinated by moths, but both flowering and fruiting are erratic and few seeds are produced. The raceme is derived from the apical meristem, and a flowered shoot will no longer produce new leaves. Unlike plants such as agave which die after flowering, a bloomed shoot will simply cease to produce new leaves. The flowered shoot continues to grow by producing plantlets via its rhizomes or stolons.\n\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe genus name Sansevieria honors Italian scientist and inventor Raimondo di Sangro [1710\u201371], Prince of San Severo. The genus was originally named Sanseverinia by Vincenzo Petagna in 1787, to honor his patron Pietro Antonio Sanseverino, Count of Chiaromonte (1724\u20131771), in whose garden Petagna had seen the plant. In 1794, Carl Peter Thunberg used the name Sansevieria. It is not clear whether Thunberg's name was intended to be new, or was a typographical error for Petagna's name. \"Sansevieria Thunb.\" is a conserved name in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, notwithstanding arguments that the author should be given as Petagna. The spellings \"Sanseveria\" and \"Sanseviera\" are commonly seen as well, the confusion deriving from alternate spellings of the Italian place name.Molecular phylogenetic studies showed that Sansevieria was nested within Dracaena, rendering the latter paraphyletic unless Dracaena was expanded to include the species formerly placed in Sansevieria.\n\n\n=== Sections ===\nAs of 2015, the genus was subdivided into three sections, one of which was further subdivided into three subsections:\nsect. Sansevieria\nsubsect. Sansevieria\nsubsect. Hastifolia\nsubsect. Solonifera\nsect. Dracomima\nsect. Cephalantha\n\n\n=== Selected former species ===\nSansevieria arborescens Cornu ex G\u00e9r\u00f4me & Labroy = Dracaena arborescens (Cornu ex G\u00e9r\u00f4me & Labroy) Byng & Christenh.\nSansevieria bagamoyensis Carri\u00e8re = Dracaena bagamoyensis (N.E.Br.) Byng & Christenh.\nSansevieria ballyi = Dracaena ballyi\nSansevieria carnea Andrews = Reineckea carnea (Andrews) Kunth\nSansevieria cylindrica Bojer ex Hook. = Dracaena angolensis (Welw. ex Carri\u00e8re) Byng & Christenh.\nSansevieria ehrenbergii  Schweinf. ex Baker = Dracaena hanningtonii Baker\nSansevieria eilensis Chahin. = Dracaena eilensis (Chahin.) Byng & Christenh.\nSansevieria fischeri Baker = Dracaena fischeri\nSansevieria kirkii Baker = Dracaena pethera Byng & Christenh.\nSansevieria masoniana Chahin = Dracaena masoniana (Chahin.) Byng & Christenh.\nSansevieria pinguicula P.R.O.Bally = Dracaena pinguicula (P.R.O.Bally) Byng & Christenh.\nSansevieria stuckyi God.-Leb. ex G\u00e9r\u00f4me & Labroy = Dracaena stuckyi (God.-Leb.) Byng & Christenh.\nSansevieria suffruticosa N.E.Br. = Dracaena suffruticosa (N.E.Br.) Byng & Christenh.\nSansevieria trifasciata Prain = Dracaena trifasciata (Prain) Mabb.\n\n\n== Uses ==\n\n\n=== Rope and traditional uses ===\nIn Africa, the leaves of former Sansevieria species are used for fiber production; in some species, e.g. Dracaena hanningtonii, the plant's sap has antiseptic qualities, and the leaves are used for bandages in traditional first aid.\n\n\n=== Ornamental purposes ===\n\nSeveral former Sansevieria species are popular houseplants in temperate regions, with Dracaena trifasciata the most widely sold; numerous cultivars are available. In China, the plant is usually kept potted in a pot often ornamented with dragons and phoenixes. Growth is comparatively slow and the plant will last for many years. There are two main varieties: wild type sansevierias have stiff, erect, scattered, lance-shaped leaves while the bird's nest sansevierias grow in rosettes. As houseplants, sansevierias thrive on warmth and bright light, but will also tolerate shade. They can rot from over-watering, so it is important that they are potted in well-drained soil, and not over-watered.  They need to be re-potted or split at the root from time to time because they will sometimes grow so large that they break the pot they are growing in.\nIn Korea, potted sansevierias are commonly presented as a gift during opening ceremonies of businesses or other auspicious events.\nIn Barbados, sansevieria is also popularly referred to as the \"money plant\", with the belief that the person having it will always have money.  The belief seems to be based on an association of the color (green) with the US bills.Other former Sansevieria species are less common in cultivation. Another species is Sansevieria cylindrica, which has leaves which look quite different from D. trifasciata, but is equally tough.Plants can be propagated by seed, leaf-cutting, and division. Seeds are rarely used, as plants can normally be grown much faster from cuttings or divisions. As many cultivars are periclinal chimeras, they do not come true to type from leaf cuttings, and therefore must be propagated by rhizome division to retain the variegation.\n\n\n=== Scenery in film and television ===\nSansevierias have frequently been used as a set decoration in many films and TV shows, both in Hollywood and internationally, since at least the 1930s, including A Serbian Film, Being John Malkovich, Blue Velvet, Duck Soup, Groundhog Day, Homegrown, The Paper, and These Final Hours.\n\n\n=== Air purification ===\nAccording to a NASA Clean Air Study, along with other plants such as golden pothos (Epipremnum aureum) and corn plant (Dracaena fragrans), Dracaena trifasciata is capable of purifying air by removing some pollutants such as formaldehyde, xylene, and toluene. Sansevierias use the crassulacean acid metabolism process, which absorbs carbon dioxide at night, although oxygen is released during daylight. Nighttime absorption of CO2 purportedly makes them especially suitable bedroom plants. However, since the leaves are potentially poisonous if ingested, they are not  usually recommended for children's bedrooms.\n\n\n=== Feng shui ===\nAccording to feng shui, because the leaves of sansevierias grow upwards, the plants can be used for feng shui purposes. Some believe that having sansevierias near children helps reduce coarseness, although care must be taken to ensure the child cannot reach the plant's poisonous leaves. Others recommend placing pots near the toilet tank to counter the drain-down vibrations.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\"Hemp, Bowstring\" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Sansevieria_ehrenbergiana_Northern_Tanzania.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Snake_plant.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg"], "summary": "Sansevieria is a historically recognized genus of flowering plants, native to Africa, notably Madagascar, and southern Asia, now included in the genus Dracaena on the basis of molecular phylogenetic studies. Common names for the 70 or so species formerly placed in the genus include mother-in-law's tongue, devil's tongue, jinn's tongue, bow string hemp, snake plant and snake tongue. In the APG III classification system, Dracaena is placed in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Nolinoideae (formerly the family Ruscaceae). It has also been placed in the former family Dracaenaceae."}, "Rhizome": {"links": ["Thorns, spines, and prickles", "Cyperus rotundus", "Plant anatomy", "Western poison-oak", "Sugar", "International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants", "Perseus Project", "Shrub", "Stamen", "Inflorescence", "Root", "Bryology", "Embryo", "Ethnobotany", "Dendrology", "Epidermis ", "Giant horsetail", "Bermuda grass", "Glossary of plant morphology", "Megaspore", "Plant pathology", "Botanical name", "Jasmonic acid", "Paleobotany", "Double fertilization", "Bract", "International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants", "Bamboo", "Habit ", "List of botanists", "Cultivar", "Pedicel ", "Cultivar group", "Plasmodesma", "Fruit", "Sap", "Cellulose", "Henry Liddell", "Zhe'ergen", "Phytochemistry", "Floriculture", "Plant nutrition", "Berry ", "Wood", "Protein", "Robert Scott ", "Timeline of plant evolution", "Alstroemeria", "Galangal", "Rhizome ", "Cataphyll", "Vascular tissue", "Strawberry", "Flowering plant", "StwoCID ", "Doi ", "Stigma ", "Plant ecology", "Receptacle ", "Spore", "Fern", "Bulb", "Correct name", "Petiole ", "Taxonomy ", "Perianth", "Ovary ", "Liana", "Plant evolutionary developmental biology", "Ovule", "Fruit anatomy", "Meristem", "Ginger", "Vascular bundle", "Whorl ", "Mycorrhiza", "Artificial pollination", "Axillary bud", "Photosynthesis", "Taxonomic rank", "Plant hormone", "Bunch grasses", "Agronomy", "Floral formula", "Trichome", "Rosette ", "Sporangium", "Gynoecium", "Prostrate shrub", "Pollen tube", "Canna ", "Spermatophyte", "Aestivation ", "Algae", "Herbarium", "Pollen", "Sporophyll", "Woody plant", "Bryophyte", "Cultigen", "Potato", "A Greek\u2013English Lexicon", "Phytogeography", "Crocosmia", "Plant", "Capsule ", "Chlorophyll", "Physalis alkekengi", "Aspen", "Endosperm", "Plant reproduction", "Stolon", "History of botany", "Umbel", "ISSN ", "Astrobotany", "Grex ", "Fingerroot", "Plant stem", "Floral symmetry", "Orchid", "Tissue ", "Pollinator", "Vascular plant", "Venus flytrap", "Flower", "Tree", "Shoot", "PMC ", "Plant taxonomy", "Forestry", "Floral diagram", "Alternation of generations", "Euphorbia antiquorum", "Sporophyte", "Phycology", "Horticulture", "Branches of botany", "Tapetum ", "Vine", "Turgor pressure", "Non-vascular plant", "Botany", "Cell wall", "Sepal", "Geobotanical prospecting", "List of systems of plant taxonomy", "Node ", "Vacuole", "Ground tissue", "Column ", "Pteridophyte", "Raceme", "Citrus taxonomy", "Iris ", "Starch", "Nectar", "Archegonium", "Phragmoplast", "Glossary of botanical terms", "Pollination", "Ancient Greek language", "Bulk movement", "Evolutionary history of plants", "Floristics", "Botanical expedition", "Archaeplastida", "Nelumbo nucifera", "Transpiration", "Stoma", "Aleurone", "Author citation ", "Gametophyte", "Microsporangia", "ISBN ", "Plastid", "Corm", "PMID ", "Tepal", "Zingiberaceae", "Dracaena trifasciata", "Leaf", "Hops", "International Association for Plant Taxonomy", "Plant evolution", "Succulent plant", "Epicuticular wax", "Rhubarb", "Self-pollination", "Plant morphology", "History of plant systematics", "Gymnosperm", "Rhizoid", "Cork cambium", "Lily of the valley", "Microspore", "Asparagus", "Petal", "ABC model of flower development", "Plant cuticle", "Seed dispersal", "Plant reproductive morphology", "Subshrub", "Seed", "Sessility ", "Germination", "Plant cell", "Staminode", "Phytomelanin", "Storage organ", "Stem tuber", "Johnson grass", "Secondary growth", "Plant physiology", "Bud", "Hypanthium", "List of botanists by author abbreviation ", "Turmeric", "Vegetative reproduction", "Flora", "Ethylene", "Sympodial", "Botanical nomenclature", "Cultivated plant taxonomy", "Cushion plant", "Herbaceous plant"], "content": "In botany and dendrology, a rhizome (, from Ancient Greek: rh\u00edz\u014dma (\u1fe5\u03af\u03b6\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1) \u2013 \"mass of roots\", from rhiz\u00f3\u014d (\u1fe5\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03c9) \"cause to strike root\") is a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and shoots from its nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks or just rootstalks. Rhizomes develop from axillary buds and grow horizontally. The rhizome also retains the ability to allow new shoots to grow upwards.A rhizome is the main stem of the plant that runs underground horizontally. A stolon is similar to a rhizome, but a stolon sprouts from an existing stem, has long internodes, and generates new shoots at the end, such as in the strawberry plant. In general, rhizomes have short internodes, send out roots from the bottom of the nodes, and generate new upward-growing shoots from the top of the nodes.\nA stem tuber is a thickened part of a rhizome or stolon that has been enlarged for use as a storage organ. In general, a tuber is high in starch, e.g. the potato, which is a modified stolon. The term \"tuber\" is often used imprecisely and is sometimes applied to plants with rhizomes.\nIf a rhizome is separated each piece may be able to give rise to a new plant. The plant uses the rhizome to store starches, proteins, and other nutrients. These nutrients become useful for the plant when new shoots must be formed or when the plant dies back for the winter. This is a process known as vegetative reproduction and is used by farmers and gardeners to propagate certain plants. This also allows for lateral spread of grasses like bamboo and bunch grasses. Examples of plants that are propagated this way include hops, asparagus, ginger, irises, lily of the valley, cannas, and sympodial orchids.\nSome rhizomes that are used directly in cooking include ginger, turmeric, galangal, fingerroot, and lotus.\nStored rhizomes are subject to bacterial and fungal infections, making them unsuitable for replanting and greatly diminishing stocks. However, rhizomes can also be produced artificially from tissue cultures. The ability to easily grow rhizomes from tissue cultures leads to better stocks for replanting and greater yields. The plant hormones ethylene and jasmonic acid have been found to help induce and regulate the growth of rhizomes, specifically in rhubarb. Ethylene that was applied externally was found to affect internal ethylene levels, allowing easy manipulations of ethylene concentrations. Knowledge of how to use these hormones to induce rhizome growth could help farmers and biologists to produce plants grown from rhizomes, and more easily cultivate and grow better plants.\nSome plants have rhizomes that grow above ground or that lie at the soil surface, including some Iris species, and ferns, whose spreading stems are rhizomes. Plants with underground rhizomes include gingers, bamboo, snake plant, the Venus flytrap, Chinese lantern, western poison-oak, hops, and Alstroemeria, and the weeds Johnson grass, Bermuda grass, and purple nut sedge. Rhizomes generally form a single layer, but in giant horsetails, can be multi-tiered.Many rhizomes have culinary value, and some, such as zhe'ergen, are commonly consumed raw.\n\n\n== See also ==\nAspen\nCorm\nMycorrhiza\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n Media related to Rhizomes at Wikimedia Commons\nThe Rhizome Collective for sustainable living", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Corm_stolons5680.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Culinary_rhizomes.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Euphorbia_rhizophora2_ies.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Lotus_root.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Curcuma_longa_roots.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "In botany and dendrology, a rhizome (, from Ancient Greek: rh\u00edz\u014dma (\u1fe5\u03af\u03b6\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1) \u2013 \"mass of roots\", from rhiz\u00f3\u014d (\u1fe5\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03c9) \"cause to strike root\") is a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and shoots from its nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks or just rootstalks. Rhizomes develop from axillary buds and grow horizontally. The rhizome also retains the ability to allow new shoots to grow upwards.A rhizome is the main stem of the plant that runs underground horizontally. A stolon is similar to a rhizome, but a stolon sprouts from an existing stem, has long internodes, and generates new shoots at the end, such as in the strawberry plant. In general, rhizomes have short internodes, send out roots from the bottom of the nodes, and generate new upward-growing shoots from the top of the nodes.\nA stem tuber is a thickened part of a rhizome or stolon that has been enlarged for use as a storage organ. In general, a tuber is high in starch, e.g. the potato, which is a modified stolon. The term \"tuber\" is often used imprecisely and is sometimes applied to plants with rhizomes.\nIf a rhizome is separated each piece may be able to give rise to a new plant. The plant uses the rhizome to store starches, proteins, and other nutrients. These nutrients become useful for the plant when new shoots must be formed or when the plant dies back for the winter. This is a process known as vegetative reproduction and is used by farmers and gardeners to propagate certain plants. This also allows for lateral spread of grasses like bamboo and bunch grasses. Examples of plants that are propagated this way include hops, asparagus, ginger, irises, lily of the valley, cannas, and sympodial orchids.\nSome rhizomes that are used directly in cooking include ginger, turmeric, galangal, fingerroot, and lotus.\nStored rhizomes are subject to bacterial and fungal infections, making them unsuitable for replanting and greatly diminishing stocks. However, rhizomes can also be produced artificially from tissue cultures. The ability to easily grow rhizomes from tissue cultures leads to better stocks for replanting and greater yields. The plant hormones ethylene and jasmonic acid have been found to help induce and regulate the growth of rhizomes, specifically in rhubarb. Ethylene that was applied externally was found to affect internal ethylene levels, allowing easy manipulations of ethylene concentrations. Knowledge of how to use these hormones to induce rhizome growth could help farmers and biologists to produce plants grown from rhizomes, and more easily cultivate and grow better plants.\nSome plants have rhizomes that grow above ground or that lie at the soil surface, including some Iris species, and ferns, whose spreading stems are rhizomes. Plants with underground rhizomes include gingers, bamboo, snake plant, the Venus flytrap, Chinese lantern, western poison-oak, hops, and Alstroemeria, and the weeds Johnson grass, Bermuda grass, and purple nut sedge. Rhizomes generally form a single layer, but in giant horsetails, can be multi-tiered.Many rhizomes have culinary value, and some, such as zhe'ergen, are commonly consumed raw."}, "Ethnobotany": {"links": ["Age of enlightenment", "Xenophilia", "List of ethnic slurs", "Ethnocentrism", "List of Australian Aboriginal group names", "Yale School of Forestry", "Sessility ", "Xenophobia", "South American Explorers", "Herbalism", "Botanical expedition", "Fruit", "Embryo", "Botanical", "Trichome", "Traditional ecological knowledge", "Hildegard of Bingen", "Plant hormone", "Race and ethnicity in the United States", "Ethnocide", "International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants", "Plant anatomy", "Demographics of Greenland", "Ethnic media", "Plant", "Microspore", "Phytomelanin", "Ethnotaxonomy", "Lineage-bonded society", "Bryophyte", "Spermatophyte", "Epicuticular wax", "Cultigen", "South Asian ethnic groups", "Great Basin", "Stamen", "Dendrology", "Lynne Cherry", "Ovule", "Tirio people", "Subshrub", "Wade Davis ", "Ethnic groups of East Asia", "Online ethnography", "Ethnopoetics", "Ethnic hatred", "Ethnographic group", "Cell wall", "Ingroups and outgroups", "Anthropology", "Woody plant", "Ethnic pornography", "National language", "Ethnic origin", "Ethnic stereotype", "Ethnic penalty", "Cultural assimilation", "Gary Paul Nabhan", "List of ethnic groups of Africa", "Vine", "Minority group", "Pollinator", "Institutional ethnography", "Artificial pollination", "Consociationalism", "Expedition to Lapland", "Pollen", "Plant pathology", "Timeline of plant evolution", "John William Harshberger", "Plant reproductive morphology", "Pennsylvania", "List of paleoethnobotanists", "Agroecology", "Ethnostatistics", "Flowering plant", "Transpiration", "Anthropologist", "Whorl ", "Xenocentrism", "Pollination", "Mark Plotkin", "Plant reproduction", "Megaspore", "Egypt", "Phytochemistry", "Torres Strait Islanders", "Tribalism", "Botanical name", "Cultivated plant taxonomy", "Ethnoecology", "Ethnoichthyology", "Ethnic groups in the Middle East", "Ethnic flag", "Harold C. Conklin", "Double fertilization", "Flower", "Plant morphology", "Ethnogenesis", "Journal of Ethnopharmacology", "Mores", "Ethnic groups in Europe", "PMID ", "Rhizoid", "Ethnic groups in South America", "Gender bias", "Cork cambium", "John Peabody Harrington", "Stoma", "Amazon rainforest", "San Jose State University", "Ethnic bioweapon", "Ethnoherpetology", "Doi ", "Non-vascular plant", "National myth", "Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine", "Population", "Ethnic cleansing", "ISBN ", "Metroethnicity", "Bulk movement", "Sporophyll", "Shoot", "Nation state", "Ethnolinguistic group", "Floristics", "Leaf", "Vacuole", "Bud", "Ethnosemiotics", "Seed", "Legendary progenitor", "Algae", "Endosperm", "Homeopathy", "Salvage ethnography", "Ethnoscience", "Ovary ", "Phycology", "Indigenous peoples of Siberia", "History of botany", "James Cook", "Origin myth", "Chlorophyll", "Ethnogeology", "List of systems of plant taxonomy", "Phragmoplast", "Botanical nomenclature", "Lists of active separatist movements", "Ayurveda", "Photosynthesis", "Dominant minority", "Ethnography", "Cataphyll", "Jacques Cartier", "Raceme", "Agronomy", "Bryology", "Diaspora politics", "Ethnoentomology", "Neo-Tribalism", "Paleobotany", "Plant cuticle", "Vascular bundle", "Ethnonym", "Latin American and Caribbean Bulletin of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants", "Cultivar group", "Meta-ethnicity", "Pollen tube", "Seed dispersal", "Hypanthium", "Ethnic nationalism", "Evolutionary history of plants", "Plastid", "Ethnoreligious group", "Plant physiology", "Kinship", "Sugar", "Ojibwa", "Ethnic origins of people in Canada", "Historical race concepts", "White ethnic", "Ethnomethodology", "Material culture", "Cultural appropriation", "List of gardener-botanist explorers of the Enlightenment", "Pedanius Dioscorides", "Umbel", "Video ethnography", "List of ethnobotanists", "Ethnic studies", "Plant nutrition", "Ethnoburb", "Ground tissue", "William Bal\u00e9e", "Epidermis ", "Plant ecology", "Plant evolution", "Pantribal sodality", "Petiole ", "Ethnic groups of Southeast Asia", "Alternation of generations", "Europeans in Oceania", "Ethnocracy", "Ethnographic realism", "Glossary of plant morphology", "Race ", "Cosmological", "Turgor pressure", "International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants", "List of contemporary ethnic groups", "Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew", "Citrus taxonomy", "Sporangium", "List of botanists by author abbreviation ", "Ethnoornithology", "Vascular tissue", "Herbarium", "Ethnic joke", "Ethnosymbolism", "Middleman minority", "Ethnic majority", "Gymnosperm", "Cambridge University", "Forestry", "Demographics of Mexico", "Critical ethnography", "International Association for Plant Taxonomy", "Tribe", "Germination", "List of botanists", "National Humanities Center", "Plant taxonomy", "Taxonomic rank", "Plasmodesma", "Intellectual property", "Textile", "Aleurone", "Indigenous rights", "Crete", "Grex ", "Ethnolichenology", "Fruit anatomy", "Pinophyta", "Constantino Manuel Torres", "Spruce", "Tissue ", "Ethnic groups in Australia", "Gametophyte", "Herbaceous plant", "Perianth", "Demonym", "Ethnoarchaeology", "Rhizome", "Astrobotany", "Nation", "Economic Botany", "Cushion plant", "Microsporangia", "Physic garden", "Identity ", "Greece", "Harvard University", "Paleoethnobotany", "Capsule ", "Ethnoprimatology", "Cultivar", "Polyethnicity", "British Columbia", "Stigma ", "Plant stem", "Staminode", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Hyphenated ethnicity", "Ethnic option", "Keewaydinoquay Peschel", "Race and ethnicity in censuses", "Ethnohistory", "Archaeplastida", "IMAX", "Darrell A. Posey", "Glossary of botanical terms", "Model minority", "Root", "Pteridophyte", "Floral formula", "Meristem", "Pedicel ", "Ethnofiction", "Ethnomedicine", "Christian monasticism", "Cyber-ethnography", "Geobotanical prospecting", "Ethnic group", "Statistext", "Matilda Coxe Stevenson", "Indigenism", "Ethnophilosophy", "Folk religion", "Monoethnicity", "Aestivation ", "Zooarchaeology", "North Africa", "Edward Palmer ", "Ethnic religion", "Plant evolutionary developmental biology", "Tapetum ", "Ethnomycology", "Economic botany", "Indigenization", "Floral diagram", "Alexander von Humboldt", "Ethnic conflict", "Emic", "Column ", "Symbolic ethnicity", "Barbara Freire-Marreco", "Historical ecology", "Frank Hamilton Cushing", "Storage organ", "Imagined community", "Ethnomuseology", "Autoethnography", "Ethnomathematics", "Human ecology", "Secondary growth", "William N. Fenton", "Cultural identity", "Nation-building", "Indigenous populations", "Berry ", "Ethnographic village", "Nancy Turner", "Petal", "Taxonomy ", "Tufts University", "Ethnic groups in Central America", "Sepal", "Roy Ellen", "Floral symmetry", "Ethnic violence", "Detribalization", "Cross-race effect", "Ethnology", "Branches of botany", "Ethnic enclave", "Spore", "Nationality", "Netnography", "Nectar", "Receptacle ", "Mythomoteur", "Horticulture", "Tree", "Andrew Pawley", "Ethnic democracy", "Panethnicity", "Ethnic groups in Asia", "Author citation ", "Ethnic interest group", "ABC model of flower development", "Thorns, spines, and prickles", "Richard Evans Schultes", "De Materia Medica", "Person-centered ethnography", "Prostrate shrub", "Syracuse University Press", "Iroquois", "Sporophyte", "Indigenous peoples of Oceania", "Ethnomusicology", "Archegonium", "Non-timber forest product", "Ethnocinema", "Sap", "Starch", "The New York Times", "Botany", "Tepal", "Succulent plant", "University of Chicago", "Endonym and exonym", "Ethnic theme park", "Ethnic groups of Central Asia", "Floriculture", "Wood", "Transidioethnography", "Allophilia", "Clinical ethnography", "YouTube", "Flora", "Cultural ecology", "Urheimat", "Liana", "Self-pollination", "Lewis and Clark Expedition", "Mexico", "Plant cell", "Scandinavia", "Ethnobiology", "Multinational state", "Tribal name", "Gynoecium", "Suriname", "Ethnozoology", "Inflorescence", "Minority rights", "University of Nebraska Press", "Robin Wall Kimmerer", "Ethnic identity development", "Petra", "History of plant systematics", "Bract", "ISSN ", "Ethnolinguistics", "Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean", "Cellulose", "Shrub", "Ethnopsychopharmacology", "Rosette ", "Indigenous peoples", "Clan", "Vascular plant", "Ethnographic film", "Sami people", "Brent Berlin", "Ecological anthropology", "Phytogeography", "Habit ", "Correct name", "Bulb", "Plants in culture"], "content": "Ethnobotany is the study of a region's plants and their practical uses through the traditional knowledge of a local culture and people. An ethnobotanist thus strives to document the local customs involving the practical uses of local flora  for many aspects of life, such as plants as medicines, foods, intoxicants and clothing. Richard Evans Schultes, often referred to as the \"father of ethnobotany\", explained the discipline in this way:\n\nEthnobotany simply means ... investigating plants used by societies in various parts of the world.\nSince the time of Schultes, the field of ethnobotany has grown from simply acquiring ethnobotanical knowledge to that of applying it to a modern society, primarily in the form of pharmaceuticals. Intellectual property rights and benefit-sharing arrangements are important issues in ethnobotany.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nThe idea of ethnobotany was first proposed by the early 20th century botanist John William Harshberger. While Harshberger did perform ethnobotanical research extensively, including in areas such as North Africa, Mexico, Scandinavia, and Pennsylvania, it was not until Richard Evans Schultes began his trips into the Amazon that ethnobotany become a more well known science. However, the practice of ethnobotany is thought to have much earlier origins in the first century AD when a Greek physician by the name of Pedanius Dioscorides wrote an extensive botanical text detailing the medical and culinary properties of \"over 600 mediterranean plants\" named De Materia Medica. Historians note that Dioscorides wrote about traveling often throughout the Roman empire, including regions such as \"Greece, Crete, Egypt, and Petra\", and in doing so obtained substantial knowledge about the local plants and their useful properties. European botanical knowledge drastically expanded once the New World was discovered due to ethnobotany. This expansion in knowledge can primarily be attributed to the substantial influx of new plants from the Americas, including crops such as potatoes, peanuts, avocados, and tomatoes. The French explorer Jacques Cartier learned a cure for scurvy (a tea made from the needles of a coniferous tree, likely spruce) from a local Iroquois tribe.\n\n\n== Medieval and Renaissance ==\nDuring the medieval period, ethnobotanical studies were commonly found connected with monasticism. Notable at this time was Hildegard von Bingen. However, most botanical knowledge was kept in gardens such as physic gardens attached to hospitals and religious buildings. It was thought of in practical use terms for culinary and medical purposes and the ethnographic element was not studied as a modern anthropologist might approach ethnobotany today.\n\n\n== Age of Reason ==\nIn 1732 Carl Linnaeus carried out a research expedition in Scandinavia asking the Sami people about their ethnological usage of plants.The age of enlightenment saw a rise in economic botanical exploration. Alexander von Humboldt collected data from the New World, and James Cook's voyages brought back collections and information on plants from the South Pacific. At this time major botanical gardens were started, for instance the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in 1759. The directors of the gardens sent out gardener-botanist explorers to care for and collect plants to add to their collections.\nAs the 18th century became the 19th, ethnobotany saw expeditions undertaken with more colonial aims rather than trade economics such as that of Lewis and Clarke which recorded both plants and the peoples encountered use of them. Edward Palmer collected material culture artifacts and botanical specimens from people in the North American West (Great Basin) and Mexico from the 1860s to the 1890s. Through all of this research, the field of \"aboriginal botany\" was established\u2014the study of all forms of the vegetable world which aboriginal peoples use for food, medicine, textiles, ornaments and more.\n\n\n== Development and application in modern science ==\nThe first individual to study the emic perspective of the plant world was a German physician working in Sarajevo at the end of the 19th century: Leopold Gl\u00fcck. His published work on traditional medical uses of plants done by rural people in Bosnia (1896) has to be considered the first modern ethnobotanical work.Other scholars analyzed uses of plants under an indigenous/local perspective in the 20th century: Matilda Coxe Stevenson, Zuni plants (1915); Frank Cushing, Zuni foods (1920); Keewaydinoquay Peschel, Anishinaabe fungi (1998), and the team approach of Wilfred Robbins, John Peabody Harrington, and Barbara Freire-Marreco, Tewa pueblo plants (1916).\nIn the beginning, ethonobotanical specimens and studies were not very reliable and sometimes not helpful. This is because the botanists and the anthropologists did not always collaborate in their work. The botanists focused on identifying species and how the plants were used instead of concentrating upon how plants fit into people's lives. On the other hand, anthropologists were interested in the cultural role of plants and treated other scientific aspects superficially. In the early 20th century, botanists and anthropologists better collaborated and the collection of reliable, detailed cross-disciplinary data began.\nBeginning in the 20th century, the field of ethnobotany experienced a shift from the raw compilation of data to a greater methodological and conceptual reorientation. This is also the beginning of academic ethnobotany. The so-called \"father\" of this discipline is Richard Evans Schultes, even though he did not actually coin the term \"ethnobotany\". Today the field of ethnobotany requires a variety of skills: botanical training for the identification and preservation of plant specimens; anthropological training to understand the cultural concepts around the perception of plants; linguistic training, at least enough to transcribe local terms and understand native morphology, syntax, and semantics.\nMark Plotkin, who studied at Harvard University, the Yale School of Forestry and Tufts University, has contributed a number of books on ethnobotany. He completed a handbook for the Tirio people of Suriname detailing their medicinal plants; Tales of a Shaman's Apprentice (1994); The Shaman's Apprentice, a children's book with Lynne Cherry (1998); and Medicine Quest: In Search of Nature's Healing Secrets (2000).\nPlotkin was interviewed in 1998 by South American Explorer magazine, just after the release of Tales of a Shaman's Apprentice and the IMAX movie Amazonia. In the book, he stated that he saw wisdom in both traditional and Western forms of medicine:\n\nNo medical system has all the answers\u2014no shaman that I've worked with has the equivalent of a polio vaccine and no dermatologist that I've been to could cure a fungal infection as effectively (and inexpensively) as some of my Amazonian mentors. It shouldn't be the doctor versus the witch doctor. It should be the best aspects of all medical systems (ayurvedic, herbalism, homeopathic, and so on) combined in a way which makes health care more effective and more affordable for all.\nA great deal of information about the traditional uses of plants is still intact with tribal peoples. But the native healers are often reluctant to accurately share their knowledge to outsiders. Schultes actually apprenticed himself to an Amazonian shaman, which involves a long-term commitment and genuine relationship. In Wind in the Blood: Mayan Healing & Chinese Medicine by Garcia et al. the visiting acupuncturists were able to access levels of Mayan medicine that anthropologists could not because they had something to share in exchange. Cherokee medicine priest David Winston describes how his uncle would invent nonsense to satisfy visiting anthropologists.Another scholar, James W. Herrick, who studied under ethnologist William N. Fenton, in his work Iroquois Medical Ethnobotany (1995) with Dean R. Snow (editor), professor of Anthropology at Penn State, explains that understanding herbal medicines in traditional Iroquois cultures is rooted in a strong and ancient cosmological belief system. Their work provides perceptions and conceptions of illness and imbalances which can manifest in physical forms from benign maladies to serious diseases. It also includes a large compilation of Herrick\u2019s field work from numerous Iroquois authorities of over 450 names, uses, and preparations of plants for various ailments. Traditional Iroquois practitioners had (and have) a sophisticated perspective on the plant world that contrast strikingly with that of modern medical science.Researcher Cassandra Quave at Emory University has used ethnobotany to address the problems that arise from antibiotic resistance. Quave notes that the advantage of medical ethnobotany over Western medicine rests in the difference in mechanism. For example, elmleaf blackberry extract focuses instead on the prevention of bacterial collaboration as opposed to directly exterminating them.\n\n\n== Issues ==\nMany instances of gender bias have occurred in ethnobotany, creating the risk of drawing erroneous conclusions. Anthropologists would often consult with primarily men. In Las Pavas, a small farming community in Panama, anthropologists drew conclusions about the entire community's use of plant from their conversations and lessons with mostly men. They consulted with 40 families, but the women only participated rarely in interviews and never joined them in the field. Due to the division of labor, the knowledge of wild plants for food, medicine, and fibers, among others, was left out of the picture, resulting in a distorted view of which plants were actually important to them.Ethnobotanists have also assumed that ownership of a resource means familiarity with that resource. In some societies women are excluded from owning land, while being the ones who work it. Inaccurate data can come from interviewing only the owners.Other issues include ethical concerns regarding interactions with indigenous populations, and the International Society of Ethnobiology has created a code of ethics to guide researchers.\n\n\n== Scientific journals ==\nJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine\nEconomic Botany\nEthnobotany Research and Application\nJournal of Ethnopharmacology\nIndian Journal of Traditional Knowledge (IJTK)\nLatin American and Caribbean Bulletin of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\"Before Warm Springs Dam: History of Lake Sonoma Area\" This California study has information about one of the first ethnobotanical mitigation projects undertaken in the USA.\nGrow Your Own Drugs, a BBC 2 Programme presented by ethnobotanist James Wong.\nPhytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases\nEthnobotanical Database of Bangladesh (EDB)\nNative American Ethnobotany\nNorth Dakota Ethnobotany Database\nWebsites on ethnobotany and plants\nHoward P. The Major Importance of \u2018Minor\u2019 Resources: Women and plant biodiversity. 2003", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Ojibweherbalistmedicine.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Schultes_amazon_1940s.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "Ethnobotany is the study of a region's plants and their practical uses through the traditional knowledge of a local culture and people. An ethnobotanist thus strives to document the local customs involving the practical uses of local flora  for many aspects of life, such as plants as medicines, foods, intoxicants and clothing. Richard Evans Schultes, often referred to as the \"father of ethnobotany\", explained the discipline in this way:\n\nEthnobotany simply means ... investigating plants used by societies in various parts of the world.\nSince the time of Schultes, the field of ethnobotany has grown from simply acquiring ethnobotanical knowledge to that of applying it to a modern society, primarily in the form of pharmaceuticals. Intellectual property rights and benefit-sharing arrangements are important issues in ethnobotany.\n\n"}, "Ojibwa": {"links": ["Southeastern Michigan", "Upper Peninsula of Michigan", "Mingo", "Minnesota Indian Affairs Council", "Wisconsin", "Thomas Loraine McKenney", "Restoule River", "Iroquois Confederacy", "Pun Plamondon", "Bureau of American Ethnology", "Hell Town, Ohio", "Lakota people", "Anishnabek Nation", "Sandy Lake First Nation", "Miami people", "Hillary Kempenich", "Monongahela culture", "Adena culture", "Abenaki", "Anishinaabe traditional beliefs", "Los Angeles Kings", "Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay", "Stereoscopic", "Treaty of Potawatomi Creek", "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow", "Slate Falls First Nation", "Williams Treaty", "Jack Adams Award", "Coureurs des bois", "Kechewaishke", "La Pointe Chippewa", "Mississaugi First Nation", "Piankeshaw", "Atlantic Ocean", "The Song of Hiawatha", "Lac La Croix First Nation", "Henry Rowe Schoolcraft", "Solidago rigida", "Treaty of Fort McIntosh", "Chahta", "Illinois", "David W. Anderson", "M\u00e9tis", "Mackinac Bands of Chippewa and Ottawa Indians", "French and Indian War", "Lake Simcoe-Lake Huron Purchase", "Northwest Angle", "Sappony", "Spider Grandmother", "Totem", "Crystal Shawanda", "Mosopelea", "Rainy River ", "Sault Tribe of Chippewa Indians", "Mississippi Chippewa", "Carole LaFavor", "Cutler First Nation", "Silene latifolia", "Powwow", "Ozaawindib", "Ted Nolan", "Arron Asham", "Duluth, Minnesota", "Maumee River", "Chippewa", "Lac des Mille Lacs First Nation", "Ohio", "Treaty of St. Peters", "Emetic", "Food deserts", "United States Hockey Hall of Fame", "Isle Royale Agreement", "Frybread", "Siege of Fort Recovery", "Manitoulin Island", "Albert Smoke", "Erie people", "Nanabozho", "Squash ", "Allium tricoccum", "Epic poem", "Northwest Indian War", "Robinson Treaties", "Rod Michano", "Midwestern United States", "Maple syrup", "Carmel Indians", "Pacific Northwest", "First Treaty of Prairie du Chien", "Shibogama First Nations Council", "Public Radio Exchange", "Northern Pintail", "Asubpeeschoseewagong", "Lenape", "North Caribou Lake First Nation", "Fort Hill State Memorial", "Ohio Country", "Ruth Landes", "Antennaria howellii", "Henvey Inlet First Nation", "Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians", "Nishnawbe Aski Nation", "Odawa people", "Treaty of Fort Harmar", "Fort Ancient", "Ojibway Nation of Saugeen First Nation", "Red Lake Band of Chippewa", "Exonym and endonym", "Alfred Michael \"Chief\" Venne", "Lake Superior", "Matawa First Nations", "Shawnedd people", "Treaty nine", "Henry Boucha", "Montreal", "Pee-Che-Kir", "Native Americans in the United States", "Moose", "Royal Proclamation of seventeen sixty-three", "Fort Recovery", "Wahnapitae First Nation", "Jim Northrup ", "Zheewegonab", "Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians", "Bon Echo Provincial Park", "Jingle dress", "Darlene Naponse", "Jay Treaty", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Louise Erdrich", "Mississippi River Band of Chippewa Indians", "Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians", "Symphyotrichum novae-angliae", "Mississagi River", "Europa Universalis IV", "Adam Beach", "Saulteaux", "Bill Gardner ", "Indiana", "Ontario", "Treaty of Camp Charlotte", "French people", "Manitoba", "Potawatomi Trail of Death", "Treaty of Isabella Reservation ", "Weenusk First Nation", "Lord Dunmore's War", "Maize", "Sac ", "Richard Wagamese", "Midewiwin", "Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica Eleventh Edition", "Doodem", "eighteen fifty-four Treaty Authority", "Blue Jacket", "Quebec", "David Treuer", "Iroquoian languages", "Great Lakes", "Rocky Boy ", "Treaty of Chicago", "Treaty of Grouseland", "Virgil Hill", "Red River of the North", "Muskrat Portage Band", "Sagittaria cuneata", "White Earth Band of Chippewa", "Keith Secola", "Cecil Youngfox", "Treaty six", "Fur trade", "Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs", "Toponym", "Manitou", "Vernon Bellecourt", "Treaty of Springwells", "Residential School System", "Saugeen First Nation", "E. Donald Two-Rivers", "Frank Dufina", "Lake Nipigon Ojibway First Nation", "Windigo First Nations Council", "Delaware people", "Indian removals in Ohio", "Huron people", "Anishinaabe", "Keeseekoowenin Ojibway First Nation", "Eabametoong First Nation", "Buffy Sainte-Marie", "Treaty of Detroit", "Sha-c\u00f3-pay", "Buckongahelas", "Dokis nine, Ontario", "Pembina Band of Chippewa Indians", "Tommy Prince", "Cree language", "Magnetawan First Nation", "Tecumseh", "History of Ohio", "George Morrison ", "James Bay", "Whittlesey culture", "Methodism", "Red Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewa", "Quillwork", "Eastman Johnson", "Saint Lawrence River", "Michigan", "Inuit language", "Odell Borg", "Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe", "Beausoleil First Nation", "Treaty of St. Mary's", "Treaty of Green Bay", "Wiigwaasabak", "Iron Confederacy", "Birdstone", "Drumkeeper", "T. J. Oshie", "Joseph Brant", "Minnesota", "Thunderbird ", "Battle of the Brule", "Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission", "William Hull", "Great Lakes Inter-tribal Council", "Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission", "Mille Lacs Indians", "Abies balsamea", "Ojibwa ethnonyms", "Chippewas of Rama First Nation", "Turtle Mountain Chippewa", "Louis Philippe I", "Poplar Hill First Nation", "Dennis Banks", "North Dakota", "Rio Grande", "Clan", "Indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands", "Burt Lake Band of Chippewa and Ottawa Indians", "Infusion", "Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario", "Cat Lake First Nation", "Dakota people", "Sagamok Anishnawbek First Nation", "Treaty of Saganaw Supplemental", "Oral tradition", "Gangrene", "Justice Murray Sinclair", "Treaty five", "George Catlin", "Pontiac's War", "Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act", "Eric Schweig", "Nobel, Ontario", "Chequamegon Bay", "Meskwaki", "Fort Industry", "Brown bullhead", "Gerald Vizenor", "Tsalagi", "Copper", "Raid on Pickawillany", "Yellow Creek massacre", "Beautifying Bird", "Robinson Huron Treaty", "Juniper", "Lake Michigan", "Aamjiwnaang First Nation", "Caldwell First Nation", "Drew Hayden Taylor", "Chippewa ", "Loma Lyns", "Treaty two", "Hopewell tradition", "Peggy Flanagan", "New age", "Kinship and descent", "Cowry", "History of the Indian Tribes of North America", "Northwest Territory", "University of Oklahoma Press", "Grand Council of Treaty three", "Arrowhead Region", "Prehistory of Ohio", "Anishinaabe tribal political organizations", "Mississaugas", "Navajo language", "Treaty of La Pointe", "George Bonga", "Voyageurs", "Canadian French", "France", "La Pointe, Wisconsin", "Poplar River First Nation", "Batchewana First Nation of Ojibways", "Treaty of Saginaw", "Lenape settlements", "Maple sugar", "Iroquois kinship", "National Hockey League", "Tribe ", "Ribes glandulosum", "SunWatch Indian Village", "Ottawa dialect", "Canoe", "Edmonia Lewis", "Naotkamegwanning First Nation", "Thomas David Petite", "Buffalo Sabres", "Din\u00e9", "Western Confederacy", "Treaty four", "Saint Louis River ", "Little Shell Tribe of Chippewa Indians of Montana", "History of Native Americans in the United States", "Fort Ancient ", "Lake Erie", "Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa", "Treaty of Brownstown", "Keweenaw Peninsula", "Wisconsin River", "Monacan Indian Nation", "Canada", "Lake Huron", "Birchbark biting", "Nawash-Kinjoano Reservation", "Ojibwe language", "Shawnee", "Wyandot people", "Egushawa", "Toronto Purchase", "Oceti Sakowin", "Cara Gee", "Gary Sargent", "Princeton University Press", "Uvularia grandiflora", "Winona LaDuke", "Wilderness Road", "Wigwam", "Pinus strobus", "Bois Forte Band of Chippewa", "James Bartleman", "Union of Ontario Indians", "Peter Jones ", "Norval Morrisseau", "Viola canadensis", "Kathleen Annette", "Chief Little Bear", "Odawa", "Minnesota Chippewa Tribe", "Mel Pervais", "Jane Johnston Schoolcraft", "Little Turtle", "Ohio River", "Hanging Cloud", "Joe Lumsden", "Phil Fontaine", "Golden age", "Indigenous languages of the Americas", "Decoction", "Wayback Machine", "List of U.S. state and tribal wilderness areas", "Willow", "Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point", "Wabanquot ", "Moravian Indian Grants", "Siouan languages", "Rainy Lake and River Bands of Saulteaux", "Beshekee", "White Earth Ojibwe", "Curve Lake First Nation", "Treaty of Leech Lake", "Sandy Lake Tragedy", "Zane Shawnee Caverns", "Underwater panther", "Lake Superior Chippewa Tribe", "Wabigoon Lake Ojibway Nation", "Algonquian peoples", "Pictograph", "Pillager Band of Chippewa Indians", "Gonorrhea", "Inter-tribal Council of Michigan", "Upper Canada", "Cree", "Crane ", "List of Ojibwa ethnonyms", "Medicine wheels", "Patrilineal", "Kansas", "New York ", "St. Croix River ", "Upper Sandusky Reservation", "Shawnee Woodland Native American Museum", "First Nations", "Burial mound", "Anishinaabe clan system", "Hopewell Culture National Historical Park", "Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe", "Aroland First Nation", "Moccasin ", "List of place names of Native American origin in Ohio", "New Indian Ridge Museum", "Treaty of Saganaw", "Turtle Mountain ", "Carl Beam", "Lake Nipissing", "Al Hunter ", "Chiefs of Ontario", "Ojibways of the Pic River First Nation", "Maude Kegg", "Pictographs", "Benjamin Chee Chee", "Algonquian languages", "Timeline of First Nations history", "Petroglyphs", "Chapleau Ojibway First Nation", "Clyde Bellecourt", "St. Clair's defeat", "ISBN ", "Raven Davis", "Pan-Indian Movement", "Jerry Fontaine", "Tower Site", "Public Broadcasting Service", "Grand Portage Band of Chippewa", "Chippewa Ottawa Resource Authority", "Chippewas of Georgina Island First Nation", "Flint Ridge State Memorial", "First Nation of Ojibwe California", "Treaty eight", "Mississippi River", "Chippewas of Nawash Unceded First Nation", "Bay Mills Indian Community", "Oji-Cree", "Rocky Boys Indian Reservation", "Council of Three Fires", "Jesuit", "Patrick DesJarlait", "Southern Ontario", "Treaty one", "Assiniboine", "Wild rice", "Treaty of Miami Rapids", "Grand Traverse Band", "Jack-O-Pa", "Creation myth", "Manoomin", "Saugeen Tract Agreement", "Lake of the Woods", "Shawnee language", "Keewaytinook Okimakanak Council", "Wabaseemoong Independent Nation", "Eddy Cobiness", "Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa", "Amikwa people", "Trixie Mattel", "Leonard Peltier", "Francis Assikinack", "Treaty of St. Louis ", "Untouchables ", "Francis Pegahmagabow", "Michigan Territory", "Huron Tract", "Biinjitiwabik Zaaging Anishnabek First Nation", "Whitesand First Nation", "Cody McCormick", "Treaty of Detroit ", "Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien", "Anishinabek Educational Institute", "Rainbow Country", "Chippewa of the Thames First Nation", "Johnson-Humrickhouse Museum", "Birch bark scrolls", "Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians", "Walpole Island Indian Reserve No. forty-six", "Independent First Nations Alliance", "Superior, Wisconsin", "Roundhead ", "Cheyenne language", "Indian removal", "Ottawa River", "Georgian Bay", "Blackfoot language", "Oral history", "Chippewas of Saugeen Ojibway Territory", "Fort Snelling", "Bloodvein First Nation", "Kenora", "Dreamcatcher", "Ribbon work", "Pleurisy", "Pikangikum First Nation", "Chris Simon", "Treaty of Old Crossing ", "Rainy Lake", "Cowry shell", "Jordan Nolan", "Ear Falls", "Treaty of Flint River", "Kraig Grady", "Glenna Matoush", "Apotropaic", "Wikisource", "Grand Council of Treaty eight", "Chalahgawtha", "Honniasont", "Penetanguishene Bay Purchase", "Mi'kmaq people", "Saskatchewan", "Pow-wow", "Great Plains", "World Digital Library", "War of eighteen twelve", "Blanchard's Fork Reserve, Ohio", "Robinson Superior Treaty", "American Revolutionary War", "Birch bark", "Mattagami First Nation", "Brule River", "Algonquin people", "Pittsburgh Penguins", "British Columbia", "Chief Rocky Boy", "Ojibway ", "Potawatomi", "Petroforms", "Bad River Chippewa Band", "French River ", "A-na-cam-e-gish-ca", "Lac Vieux Desert Band of Lake Superior Chippewa", "Menominee language", "Sokaogon Chippewa Community", "Indian reservation", "Basil Johnston", "Niagara Falls", "Thunder Bay", "Beaver Wars", "Colorado Avalanche", "Treaty of Fond du Lac", "Wawatam", "Ne-bah-quah-om", "Rice Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa", "Ojibwe writing systems", "Thomas St. Germaine", "St. Croix Chippewa Indians", "Pekowi", "Treaty of L'Arbre Croche and Michilimackinac", "Islands in the Trent Waters", "Glacial Kame Culture", "Nipissing First Nation", "English language", "Treaty of Greenville", "Catholicism", "Iroquois", "Atikameksheng Anishnawbek First Nation", "Gordon Henry Jr.", "L'Anse Indian Reservation", "Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa", "Solar plexus", "Keewaydinoquay Peschel", "Wabun Tribal Council", "Treaty of Sa\u00falt Ste. Marie", "Treaty of Washington ", "Lac Courte Oreilles", "Agrimonia gryposepala", "Battle of Fallen Timbers", "Garden River First Nation", "Lake Superior Chippewa", "Roy Thomas ", "Wikwemikong Unceded First Nation", "Treaty three", "Saginaw Chippewa Tribal Council", "Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians", "Little French River", "Bear", "Mishkeegogamang First Nation", "George Copway", "Sun dance", "William Whipple Warren", "Cornstalk", "Nanfan Treaty", "Parallel cousin", "Chippewa Cree", "Potawatomi language", "Philip B. Gordon", "John Smith ", "Two Mile Square Reservation", "Alberta", "Treaty of Sac and Fox Agency", "Medicinal plant", "Woodlands style", "Seven Years' War", "Tenskwatawa", "Snowshoe", "Detroit", "Proto-Algonquian language", "Jim Denomie", "Sweatlodge", "Lac Seul First Nation", "Kelly Church", "Great Peace of Montreal", "Medicine wheel", "Treaty of Butte des Morts", "Wampum", "Medweganoonind"], "content": "The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Saulteaux are an Anishinaabe people in what is currently southern Canada and the northern Midwestern United States. In the United States, they have the fifth-largest population among Native American peoples, surpassed in number only by the Din\u00e9, Tsalagi, Chahta and Oceti Sakowin. In Canada, they are the second-largest First Nations population, surpassed only by the Cree. They are one of the most numerous Indigenous Peoples north of the Rio Grande.The Ojibwe people traditionally speak Anishnaabemowin, a branch of the Algonquian language family. They are part of the Council of Three Fires and the Anishinaabeg, which include the Algonquin, Nipissing, Oji-Cree, Odawa, and the Potawatomi. Historically, through the Saulteaux branch, they were a part of the Iron Confederacy, joining the Cree, Assiniboine, and Metis.The Ojibwe population is approximately 320,000 people, with 170,742 living in the United States As of 2010, and approximately 160,000 living in Canada. In the United States, there are 77,940 mainline Ojibwe; 76,760 Saulteaux; and 8,770 Mississauga, organized in 125 bands. In Canada, they live from western Quebec to eastern British Columbia.\nThe Ojibwe are known for their birch bark canoes, birch bark scrolls, mining and trade in copper, as well as their cultivation of wild rice and maple syrup. Their Midewiwin Society is well respected as the keeper of detailed and complex scrolls of events, oral history, songs, maps, memories, stories, geometry, and mathematics.The Ojibwe lands have been colonized by European powers and Canada. The Ojibwe signed treaties with settler leaders to surrender land for settlement in exchange for compensation, land reserves and guarantees of traditional rights. Many European settlers moved into the Ojibwe ancestral lands.\n\n\n== Etymology ==\n\nThe exonym for this Anishinaabe group is Ojibwe (plural: Ojibweg). This name is commonly anglicized as \"Ojibwa\" or \"Ojibway\". The name \"Chippewa\" is an alternative anglicization. Although many variations exist in the literature, \"Chippewa\" is more common in the United States, and \"Ojibway\" predominates in Canada, but both terms are used in each country. In many Ojibwe communities throughout Canada and the U.S. since the late 20th century, more members have been using the generalized name Anishinaabe(-g).\nThe meaning of the name Ojibwe is not known; the most common explanations for the name derivations are:\n\nojiibwabwe (/o/ + /jiibw/ + /abwe/), meaning \"those who cook/roast until it puckers\", referring to their fire-curing of moccasin seams to make them waterproof. Some 19th century sources say this name described a method of ritual torture that the Ojibwe applied to enemies.\nozhibii'iwe (/o/ + /zhibii'/ + /iwe/), meaning \"those who keep records [of a Vision]\", referring to their form of pictorial writing, and pictographs used in Midewiwin sacred rites; or\nojiibwe (/o/ + /jiib/ + /we/), meaning \"those who speak stiffly\" or \"those who stammer\", an exonym or name given to them by the Cree, who described the Ojibwe language for its differences from their own.Because many Ojibwe were formerly located around the outlet of Lake Superior, which the French colonists called Sault Ste. Marie for its rapids, the early Canadian settlers referred to the Ojibwe as Saulteurs. Ojibwe who subsequently moved to the prairie provinces of Canada have retained the name Saulteaux. This is disputed since some scholars believe that only the name migrated west. Ojibwe who were originally located along the Mississagi River and made their way to southern Ontario are known as the Mississaugas.\n\n\n== Language ==\n\nThe Ojibwe language is known as Anishinaabemowin or Ojibwemowin, and is still widely spoken, although the number of fluent speakers has declined sharply. Today, most of the language's fluent speakers are elders. Since the early 21st century, there is a growing movement to revitalize the language and restore its strength as a central part of Ojibwe culture. The language belongs to the Algonquian linguistic group and is descended from Proto-Algonquian. Its sister languages include Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Cree, Fox, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Shawnee among the northern Plains tribes. Anishinaabemowin is frequently referred to as a \"Central Algonquian\" language; Central Algonquian is an area grouping, however, rather than a linguistic genetic one.\nOjibwemowin is the fourth-most spoken Native language in North America after Navajo, Cree, and Inuktitut. Many decades of fur trading with the French established the language as one of the key trade languages of the Great Lakes and the northern Great Plains.\nThe popularity of the epic poem The Song of Hiawatha, written by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in 1855, publicized the Ojibwe culture. The epic contains many toponyms that originate from Ojibwe words.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Pre-contact and spiritual beliefs ===\nAccording to Ojibwe oral history and from recordings in birch bark scrolls, the Ojibwe originated from the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River on the Atlantic coast of what is now Quebec. They traded widely across the continent for thousands of years as they migrated, and knew of the canoe routes to move north, west to east, and then south in the Americas. The identification of the Ojibwe as a culture or people may have occurred in response to contact with Europeans. The Europeans preferred to deal with groups, and tried to identify those they encountered.According to Ojibwe oral history, seven great miigis (Cowrie shells) appeared to them in the Waabanakiing (Land of the Dawn, i.e., Eastern Land) to teach them the mide way of life. One of the miigis was too spiritually powerful and killed the people in the Waabanakiing when they were in its presence. The six others remained to teach, while the one returned into the ocean. The six established doodem (clans) for people in the east, symbolized by animals. The five original Anishinaabe doodem were the Wawaazisii (Bullhead), Baswenaazhi (Echo-maker, i.e., Crane), Aan'aawenh (Pintail Duck), Nooke (Tender, i.e., Bear) and Moozoonsii (Little Moose). The six miigis then returned to the ocean as well. If the seventh had stayed, it would have established the Thunderbird doodem.\nAt a later time, one of these miigis appeared in a vision to relate a prophecy. It said that if the Anishinaabeg did not move farther west, they would not be able to keep their traditional ways alive because of the many new pale-skinned settlers who would arrive soon in the east. Their migration path would be symbolized by a series of smaller Turtle Islands, which was confirmed with miigis shells (i.e., cowry shells). After receiving assurance from their \"Allied Brothers\" (i.e., Mi'kmaq) and \"Father\" (i.e., Abenaki) of their safety to move inland, the Anishinaabeg gradually migrated west along the Saint Lawrence River to the Ottawa River to Lake Nipissing, and then to the Great Lakes.\nThe first of the smaller Turtle Islands was Mooniyaa, where Mooniyaang (present-day Montreal)  developed. The \"second stopping place\" was in the vicinity of the Wayaanag-gakaabikaa (Concave Waterfalls, i.e., Niagara Falls). At their \"third stopping place\", near the present-day city of Detroit, Michigan, the Anishinaabeg divided into six groups, of which the Ojibwe was one.\nThe first significant new Ojibwe culture-center was their \"fourth stopping place\" on Manidoo Minising (Manitoulin Island). Their first new political-center was referred to as their \"fifth stopping place\", in their present country at Baawiting (Sault Ste. Marie).\nContinuing their westward expansion, the Ojibwe divided into the \"northern branch\", following the north shore of Lake Superior, and the \"southern branch\", along its south shore.\nAs the people continued to migrate westward, the \"northern branch\" divided into a \"westerly group\" and a \"southerly group\". The \"southern branch\" and the \"southerly group\" of the \"northern branch\" came together at their \"sixth stopping place\" on Spirit Island (46\u00b041\u203215\u2033N 092\u00b011\u203221\u2033W) located in the Saint Louis River estuary at the western end of Lake Superior. (This has since been developed as the present-day Duluth/Superior cities.) The people were directed in a vision by the miigis being to go to the \"place where there is food (i.e., wild rice) upon the waters.\" Their second major settlement, referred to as their \"seventh stopping place\", was at Shaugawaumikong (or Zhaagawaamikong, French, Chequamegon) on the southern shore of Lake Superior, near the present La Pointe, Wisconsin.\nThe \"westerly group\" of the \"northern branch\" migrated along the Rainy River, Red River of the North, and across the northern Great Plains until reaching the Pacific Northwest. Along their migration to the west, they came across many miigis, or cowry shells, as told in the prophecy.\n\n\n=== Contact with Europeans ===\n\nThe first historical mention of the Ojibwe occurs in the French Jesuit Relation of 1640, a report by the missionary priests to their superiors in France. Through their friendship with the French traders (coureurs des bois and voyageurs), the Ojibwe gained guns, began to use European goods, and began to dominate their traditional enemies, the Lakota and Fox to their west and south. They drove the Sioux from the Upper Mississippi region to the area of the present-day Dakotas, and forced the Fox down from northern Wisconsin. The latter allied with the Sauk for protection.\nBy the end of the 18th century, the Ojibwe controlled nearly all of present-day Michigan, northern Wisconsin, and Minnesota, including most of the Red River area. They also controlled the entire northern shores of lakes Huron and Superior on the Canadian side and extending westward to the Turtle Mountains of North Dakota. In the latter area, the French Canadians called them Ojibwe or Saulteaux.\n\nThe Ojibwe were part of a long-term alliance with the Anishinaabe Odawa and Potawatomi peoples, called the Council of Three Fires. They fought against the Iroquois Confederacy, based mainly to the southeast of the Great Lakes in present-day New York, and the Sioux to the west. The Ojibwa stopped the Iroquois advance into their territory near Lake Superior in 1662. Then they formed an alliance with other tribes such as the Huron and the Odawa who had been displaced by the Iroquois invasion. Together they launched a massive counterattack against the Iroquois and drove them out of Michigan and southern Ontario until they were forced to flee back to their original homeland in upstate New York. At the same time the Iroquois were subjected to attacks by the French. This was the beginning of the end of the Iroquois Confederacy as they were put on the defensive. The Ojibwe expanded eastward, taking over the lands along the eastern shores of Lake Huron and Georgian Bay.\nIn 1745, they adopted guns from the British in order to repel the Dakota people in the Lake Superior area, pushing them to the south and west. In the 1680s the Ojibwa defeated the Iroquois who dispersed their Huron allies and trading partners. This victory allowed them a \"golden age\" in which they ruled uncontested in southern Ontario.Often, treaties known as \"peace and friendship treaties\" were made to establish community bonds between the Ojibwe and the European settlers. These established the groundwork for cooperative resource-sharing between the Ojibwe and the settlers. The United States and Canada viewed later treaties offering land cessions as offering territorial advantages. The Ojibwe did not understand the land cession terms in the same way because of the cultural differences in understanding the uses of land. The governments of the U.S. and Canada considered land a commodity of value that could be freely bought, owned and sold. The Ojibwe believed it was a fully shared resource, along with air, water and sunlight\u2014despite having an understanding of \"territory\". At the time of the treaty councils, they could not conceive of separate land sales or exclusive ownership of land. Consequently, today, in both Canada and the U.S., legal arguments in treaty-rights and treaty interpretations often bring to light the differences in cultural understanding of treaty terms to come to legal understanding of the treaty obligations.\n\nIn part because of its long trading alliance, the Ojibwe allied with the French against Great Britain and its colonists in the Seven Years' War (also called the French and Indian War). After losing the war in 1763, France was forced to cede its colonial claims to lands in Canada and east of the Mississippi River to Britain. After Pontiac's War and adjusting to British colonial rule, the Ojibwe allied with British forces and against the United States in the War of 1812. They had hoped that a British victory could protect them against United States settlers' encroachment on their territory.\nFollowing the war, the United States government tried to forcibly remove all the Ojibwe to Minnesota, west of the Mississippi River. The Ojibwe resisted, and there were violent confrontations. In the Sandy Lake Tragedy, several hundred Ojibwe died because of the federal government's failure to deliver fall annuity payments.  The government attempted to do this in the Keweenaw Peninsula in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Through the efforts of Chief Buffalo and the rise of popular opinion in the U.S. against Ojibwe removal, the bands east of the Mississippi were allowed to return to reservations on ceded territory. A few families were removed to Kansas as part of the Potawatomi removal.\n\nIn British North America, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 following the Seven Years' War governed the cession of land by treaty or purchase . Subsequently, France ceded most of the land in Upper Canada to Great Britain. Even with the Jay Treaty signed between Great Britain and the United States following the American Revolutionary War, the newly formed United States did not fully uphold the treaty. As it was still preoccupied by war with France, Great Britain ceded to the United States much of the lands in Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, parts of Illinois and Wisconsin, and northern Minnesota and North Dakota to settle the boundary of their holdings in Canada.\nIn 1807, the Ojibwe joined three other tribes, the Odawa, Potawatomi and Wyandot people, in signing the Treaty of Detroit. The agreement, between the tribes and William Hull, representing the Michigan Territory, gave the United States a portion of today's Southeastern Michigan and a section of Ohio near the Maumee River. The tribes were able to retain small pockets of land in the territory.The Battle of the Brule was an October 1842 battle between the La Pointe Band of Ojibwe Indians and a war party of Dakota Indians. The battle took place along the Brule River (Bois Br\u00fbl\u00e9) in what is today northern Wisconsin and resulted in a decisive victory for the Ojibwe.\nIn Canada, many of the land cession treaties the British made with the Ojibwe provided for their rights for continued hunting, fishing and gathering of natural resources after land sales. The government signed numbered treaties in northwestern Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. British Columbia had not signed treaties until the late 20th century, and most areas have no treaties yet. The government and First Nations are continuing to negotiate treaty land entitlements and settlements. The treaties are constantly being reinterpreted by the courts because many of them are vague and difficult to apply in modern times. The numbered treaties were some of the most detailed treaties signed for their time. The Ojibwe Nation set the agenda and negotiated the first numbered treaties before they would allow safe passage of many more British settlers to the prairies.\nOjibwe communities have a strong history of political and social activism. Long before contact, they were closely aligned with Odawa and Potawatomi people in the Council of the Three Fires. From the 1870s to 1938, the Grand General Indian Council of Ontario attempted to reconcile multiple traditional models into one cohesive voice to exercise political influence over colonial legislation. In the West, 16 Plains Cree and Ojibwe bands formed the Allied Bands of Qu'Appelle in 1910 in order to redress concerns about the failure of the government to uphold Treaty 4's promises.\n\n\n== Culture ==\n\nThe Ojibwe live in groups (otherwise known as \"bands\"). Most Ojibwe, except for the Great Plains bands, lived a sedentary lifestyle, with the men engaging in fishing and hunting to supplement the women's cultivation of numerous varieties of maize and squash, and the harvesting of manoomin (wild rice). Their typical dwelling was the wiigiwaam (wigwam), built either as a waginogaan (domed-lodge) or as a nasawa'ogaan (pointed-lodge), made of birch bark, juniper bark and willow saplings.\nThey developed a form of pictorial writing, used in religious rites of the Midewiwin and recorded on birch bark scrolls and possibly on rock. The many complex pictures on the sacred scrolls communicate much historical, geometrical, and mathematical knowledge. The use of petroforms, petroglyphs, and pictographs was common throughout the Ojibwe traditional territories. Petroforms and medicine wheels were a way to teach the important concepts of four directions and astronomical observations about the seasons, and to use as a memorizing tool for certain stories and beliefs.\nCeremonies also used the miigis shell (cowry shell), which is found naturally in distant coastal areas. Their use of such shells demonstrates there was a vast trade network across the continent at some time. The use and trade of copper across the continent has also been proof of a large trading network that took place for thousands of years, as far back as the Hopewell tradition. Certain types of rock used for spear and arrow heads were also traded over large distances.\nDuring the summer months, the people attend jiingotamog for the spiritual and niimi'idimaa for a social gathering (pow-wows or \"pau waus\") at various reservations in the Anishinaabe-Aki (Anishinaabe Country). Many people still follow the traditional ways of harvesting wild rice, picking berries, hunting, making medicines, and making maple sugar. Many of the Ojibwe take part in sun dance ceremonies across the continent. The sacred scrolls are kept hidden away until those who are worthy and respect them are given permission to see and interpret them properly.\nThe Ojibwe bury their dead in burial mounds. Many erect a jiibegamig or a \"spirit-house\" over each mound. A traditional burial mound would typically have a wooden marker, inscribed with the deceased's doodem (clan sign). Because of the distinct features of these burials, Ojibwe graves have been often looted by grave robbers. In the United States, many Ojibwe communities safe-guard their burial mounds through the enforcement of the 1990 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act.\nSeveral Ojibwe bands in the United States cooperate in the Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission, which manages the treaty hunting and fishing rights in the Lake Superior-Lake Michigan areas. The commission follows the directives of U.S. agencies to run several wilderness areas. Some Minnesota Ojibwe tribal councils cooperate in the 1854 Treaty Authority, which manages their treaty hunting and fishing rights in the Arrowhead Region. In Michigan, the Chippewa-Ottawa Resource Authority manages the hunting, fishing and gathering rights about Sault Ste. Marie, and the resources of the waters of lakes Michigan and Huron. In Canada, the Grand Council of Treaty No. 3 manages the Treaty 3 hunting and fishing rights related to the area around Lake of the Woods.\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n=== Cuisine ===\nThere is renewed interest in nutritious eating among the Ojibwe, who have been expanding community gardens in food deserts, and have started a mobile kitchen to teach their communities about nutritious food preparation. The traditional Native American diet was seasonally dependent on hunting, fishing and the foraging and farming of produce and grains. The modern diet has substituted some other types of food like frybread and \"Indian tacos\" in place of these traditionally prepared meals. The Native Americans loss of connection to their culture is part of the \"quest to reconnect to their food traditions\" sparking an interest in traditional ingredients like wild rice, that is the official state grain of Minnesota and was part of the pre-colonial diet of the Ojibwe. Other staple foods of the Ojibwe were fish, maple sugar, venison and corn. They grew beans, squash, corn and potatoes and foraged for blueberries, blackberries, choke cherries, raspberries, gooseberries and huckleberries. During the summer game animals like deer, beaver, moose, goose, duck, rabbits and bear were hunted.One traditional method of making granulated sugar known among the Anishinabe was to boil maple syrup until reduced and pour into a trough, where the rapidly cooling syrup was quickly processed into maple sugar using wooden paddles.\n\n\n=== Kinship and clan system ===\n\nTraditionally, the Ojibwe had a patrilineal system, in which children were considered born to the father's clan. For this reason, children with French or English fathers were considered outside the clan and Ojibwe society unless adopted by an Ojibwe male. They were sometimes referred to as \"white\" because of their fathers, regardless if their mothers were Ojibwe, as they had no official place in the Ojibwe society. The people would shelter the woman and her children, but they did not have the same place in the culture as children born to Ojibwe fathers.\nOjibwe understanding of kinship is complex and includes the immediate family as well as extended family. It is considered a modified bifurcate merging kinship system. As with any bifurcate-merging kinship system, siblings generally share the same kinship term with parallel cousins because they are all part of the same clan. The modified system allows for younger siblings to share the same kinship term with younger cross-cousins. Complexity wanes further from the person's immediate generation, but some complexity is retained with female relatives. For example, ninooshenh is \"my mother's sister\" or \"my father's sister-in-law\"\u2014i.e., my parallel-aunt, but also \"my parent's female cross-cousin\". Great-grandparents and older generations, as well as great-grandchildren and younger generations, are collectively called aanikoobijigan. This system of kinship reflects the Anishinaabe philosophy of interconnectedness and balance among all living generations, as well as of all generations of the past and of the future.\nThe Ojibwe people were divided into a number of doodemag (clans; singular: doodem) named primarily for animals and birds totems (pronounced doodem). The five original totems were Wawaazisii (Bullhead), Baswenaazhi (\"Echo-maker\", i.e., Crane), Aan'aawenh (Pintail Duck), Nooke (\"Tender\", i.e., Bear) and Moozwaanowe (\"Little\" Moose-tail). The Crane totem was the most vocal among the Ojibwe, and the Bear was the largest \u2013 so large, that it was sub-divided into body parts such as the head, the ribs and the feet. Each clan had certain responsibilities among the people. People had to marry a spouse from a different clan.\nTraditionally, each band had a self-regulating council consisting of leaders of the communities' clans, or odoodemaan. The band was often identified by the principal doodem. In meeting others, the traditional greeting among the Ojibwe people is, \"What is your 'doodem'?\" (\"Aaniin gidoodem?\" or \"Awanen gidoodem?\") The response allows the parties to establish social conduct by identifying as family, friends or enemies. Today, the greeting has been shortened to \"Aanii\" (pronounced \"Ah-nee\").\n\n\n=== Spiritual beliefs ===\n\nThe Ojibwe have spiritual beliefs that have been passed down by oral tradition under the Midewiwin teachings. These include a creation story and a recounting of the origins of ceremonies and rituals. Spiritual beliefs and rituals were very important to the Ojibwe because spirits guided them through life. Birch bark scrolls and petroforms were used to pass along knowledge and information, as well as for ceremonies. Pictographs were also used for ceremonies.\nThe sweatlodge is still used during important ceremonies about the four directions, when oral history is recounted. Teaching lodges are common today to teach the next generations about the language and ancient ways of the past. The traditional ways, ideas, and teachings are preserved and practiced in such living ceremonies.\n\nThe modern \"dreamcatcher\" adopted by the Pan-Indian Movement and New age groups, originated in the Ojibwe \"spider web charm\", a hoop with woven string or sinew meant to replicate a spider's web, used as a protective charm for infants. According to Ojibwe legend, the protective charms originate with the Spider Woman, known as Asibikaashi; who takes care of the children and the people on the land and as the Ojibwe Nation spread to the corners of North America it became difficult for Asibikaashi to reach all the children, so the mothers and grandmothers weaved webs for the children, which had an apotropaic purpose and were not explicitly connected with dreams.\n\n\n=== Funeral practices ===\n\n\n==== Traditional ====\nIn Ojibwe tradition, the main task after a death is to bury the body as soon as possible, the very next day or even on the day of death. This was important because it allowed the spirit of the dead to journey to its place of joy and happiness. The land of happiness where the dead reside is called Gaagige Minawaanigozigiwining. This was a journey that took four days. If burial preparations could not be completed the day of the death, guests and medicine men were required to stay with the deceased and the family in order to help mourn, while also singing songs and dancing throughout the night. Once preparations were complete, the body would be placed in an inflexed position with their knees towards their chest. Over the course of the four days it takes the spirit to journey to its place of joy, it is customary to have food kept alongside the grave at all times. A fire is set when the sun sets and is kept going throughout the night. The food is to help feed the spirit over the course of the journey, while the smoke from the fire is a directional guide. Once the four day journey is over, a feast is held, which is led by the chief medicine man. At the feast, it is the chief medicine man's duty to give away certain belongings of the deceased. Those who were chosen to receive items from the deceased are required to trade in a new piece of clothing, all of which would be turned into a bundle. The bundle of new cloths and a dish is then given to the closest relative. The recipient of the bundle must then find individuals that he or she believes to be worthy, and pass on one of the new pieces of clothing.\n\n\n==== Contemporary ====\nAccording to Lee Staples, an Ojibwe spiritual leader from the Mil Lacs Indian Reservation, present day practices follow the same spiritual beliefs and remain fairly similar. When an individual dies, a fire is lit in the home of the family, who are also expected to continuously maintain the fire for four days. Over the four days, food is also offered to the spirit. Added to food offerings, tobacco is also offered as it is considered one of four sacred medicines traditionally used by Ojibwe communities. On the last night of food offerings, a feast is also held by the relatives which ends with a final smoke of the offering tobacco or the tobacco being thrown in the fire. Although conventional caskets are mainly used in today's communities, birch bark fire matches are buried along with the body as a tool to help light fires to guide their journey to Gaagige Minawaanigozigiwining.\n\n\n=== Ethnobotany ===\nPlants used by the Ojibwe include Agrimonia gryposepala, used for urinary problems, and Pinus strobus, the resin of which was used to treat infections and gangrene. The roots of Symphyotrichum novae-angliae are smoked in pipes to attract game. Allium tricoccum is eaten as part of Ojibwe cuisine. They also use a decoction as a quick-acting emetic. An infusion of the alba subspecies of Silene latifolia is used as physic. The South Ojibwa use a decoction of the root Viola canadensis for pains near the bladder. The Ojibwa are documented to use the root of Uvularia grandiflora for pain in the solar plexus, which may refer to pleurisy. They take a compound decoction of the root of Ribes glandulosum for back pain and for \"female weakness\". The Ojibwe eat the corms of Sagittaria cuneata for indigestion, and also as a food, eaten boiled fresh, dried or candied with maple sugar. Muskrat and beavers store them in large caches, which they have learned to recognize and appropriate. They take an infusion of the Antennaria howellii ssp. neodioica after childbirth to purge afterbirth and to heal. They use the roots of Solidago rigida, using a decoction of root as an enema and take an infusion of the root for \"stoppage of urine\". \nThey use Abies balsamea; melting the gum on warm stones and inhaling the fumes for headache. They also use a decoction of the root as an herbal steam for rheumatic joints. They also combine the gum with bear grease and use it as an ointment for hair. They use the needle=like leaves in as part of ceremony involving the sweatbath, and use the gum for colds and inhale the leaf smoke for colds. They use the plant as a cough medicine. The gum is used for sores and a compound containing leaves is used as wash. The liquid balsam from bark blisters is used for sore eyes.  They boil the resin twice and add it to suet or fat to make a canoe pitch. The bark gum is taken for chest soreness from colds, applied to cuts and sores, and decoction of the bark is used to induce sweating. The bark gum is also taken for gonorrhea.\n\n\n== Bands ==\nIn his History of the Ojibway People (1855), William W. Warren recorded 10 major divisions of the Ojibwe in the United States. He mistakenly omitted the Ojibwe located in Michigan, western Minnesota and westward, and all of Canada. When identified major historical bands located in Michigan and Ontario are added, the count becomes 15:\nThese 15 major divisions developed into the following Ojibwe Bands and First Nations of today. Bands are listed under their respective tribes where possible. See also the listing of Saulteaux communities.\n\n\n== Notable Ojibwe people ==\n\n\n== Ojibwe treaties ==\nChippewa Ottawa Resource Authority\u20141836CT fisheries\nGrand Council of Treaty 3\u2014Treaty 3\nGrand Council of Treaty 8\u2014Treaty 8\nGreat Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission\u20141837CT, 1836CT, 1842CT and 1854CT\nNishnawbe Aski Nation\u2014Treaty 5 and Treaty 9\nRed Lake Band of Chippewa\u20141886CT and 1889CT\nUnion of Ontario Indians\u2014RS, RH1, RH2, misc. pre-confederation treatiesTreaties with FranceLa Grande Paix de Montr\u00e9al (1701)Treaties with Great Britain and the United Kingdom\nTreaties with Canada\nTreaties with the United States\n\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n== In popular culture ==\nOjibwe is a playable nation in Europa Universalis IV, and in the DLC \"Leviathan\" is the leader of the federation Council of Three Fires and is able to form it as a nation.\n\n\n== See also ==\nAmikwa people\nFirst Nations\nTimeline of First Nations history\nHistory of Native Americans in the United States\nNative Americans in the United States\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\nF. Densmore, Chippewa Customs (1929, repr. 1970)\nH. Hickerson, The Chippewa and Their Neighbors (1970)\nR. Landes, Ojibwa Sociology (1937, repr. 1969)\nR. Landes, Ojibwa Woman (1938, repr. 1971)\nF. Symington, The Canadian Indian (1969)\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nAaniin Ekidong: Ojibwe Vocabulary Project. St. Paul: Minnesota Humanities Center, 2009\nBento-Banai, Edward (2004). Creation- From the Ojibwa. The Mishomis Book.\nChild, Brenda J. (2014). My Grandfather's Knocking Sticks: Ojibwe Family Life and Labor on the Reservation. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press.\nDanziger, E.J., Jr. (1978). The Chippewa of Lake Superior. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.\nDenial, Catherine J. (2013). Making Marriage: Husbands, Wives, and the American State in Dakota and Ojibwe Country. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press.\nDensmore, F. (1979). Chippewa customs. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press. (Published originally 1929)\nGrim, J.A. (1983). The shaman: Patterns of religious healing among the Ojibway Indians. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.\nGross, L.W. (2002). The comic vision of Anishinaabe culture and religion. American Indian Quarterly, 26, 436\u2013459.\nHowse, Joseph. A Grammar of the Cree Language; With which is combined an analysis of the Chippeway dialect. London: J.G.F. & J. Rivington, 1844.\nJohnston, B. (1976). Ojibway heritage. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart.\nLong, J. Voyages and Travels of an Indian Interpreter and Trader Describing the Manners and Customs of the North American Indians, with an Account of the Posts Situated on the River Saint Laurence, Lake Ontario, & C., to Which Is Added a Vocabulary of the Chippeway Language ... a List of Words in the Iroquois, Mehegan, Shawanee, and Esquimeaux Tongues, and a Table, Shewing the Analogy between the Algonkin and the Chippeway Languages. London: Robson, 1791.\nNichols, J.D., & Nyholm, E. (1995). A concise dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.\nTreuer, Anton. Everything You Wanted to Know About Indians But Were Afraid to Ask. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2012.\nTreuer, Anton. The Assassination of Hole in the Day. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2011.\nTreuer, Anton. Ojibwe in Minnesota. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 2010. Ojibwe in Minnesota. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2010.\nTreuer, Anton. Living Our Language: Ojibwe Tales & Oral Histories. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2001.\nVizenor, G. (1972). The everlasting sky: New voices from the people named the Chippewa. New York: Crowell-Collier Press.\nVizenor, G. (1981). Summer in the spring: Ojibwe lyric poems and tribal stories. Minneapolis: The Nodin Press.\nVizenor, G. (1984). The people named the Chippewa: Narrative histories. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.\nWarren, William W. (1851). History of the Ojibway People.\nWhite, Richard (1991). The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Studies in North American Indian History) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.\nWhite, Richard (July 31, 2000). Chippewas of the Sault. The Sault Tribe News.\nWub-e-ke-niew. (1995). We have the right to exist: A translation of aboriginal indigenous thought. New York: Black Thistle Press.\n\n\n== External links ==\nOjibwe Song Pictures, recorded by Frances Desmore\nOjibwe People's Dictionary\nOjibwe Waasa-Inaabidaa\u2014PBS documentary featuring the history and culture of the Anishinaabe-Ojibwe people of the Great Lakes (United States\u2013focused).\nOjibwe migratory map from Ojibwe Waasa-Inaabidaa\nBatchewana First Nation of Ojibways\nRed Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewa\nMississaugi First Nation\nSoutheast Tribal Council\nWabun Tribal Council\nOjibwe Stories: Gaganoonididaa from the Public Radio Exchange", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/1940_govt_photo_minnesota_farming_scene_chippewa_baby_teething_on_magazine_indians_at_work.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/A-na-cam-e-gish-ca.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/A_Chippeway_Widow.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Be_sheekee.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Bulletin_%281929%29_%2819801535514%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Caa-tou-see.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Chippewa_lodges%2C_Beaver_Bay%2C_by_Childs%2C_B._F..jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Eastman_Johnson_-_Kay_be_sen_day_way_We_Win_-_ejb_-_fig_101_-_pg_225.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Eastman_Johnson_-_Ojibwe_Wigwam_at_Grand_Portage_-_ebj_-_fig_22_pg_41.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/George_Catlin_003.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/George_Catlin_005.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Hangingcloud.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Historic_petition_of_Ojibwe_Chiefs_1849_Seth_Eastman_State_Historical_Society_of_Wisconsin.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Hombres_ojibwe.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Jack-O-Pa.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Leech_Lake_Chippewa_delegation_to_Washington_1899.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Meda_songs%2C_1851.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Motto_edmonia_lewis_original.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Nanongabe.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Ojibwa_dance.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Ojibwe_Language_Map.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/One-Called-From-A-Distance_Chippewa.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/PeeCheKir.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Photograph_of_Chief_Medicine_Man_of_Chippewa_Indians_Axel_Pasey_with_His_Family_-_NARA_-_2128360.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Rocky_Boy_Chippewa_chief.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Squawandchild.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Sweat_lodge_at_Lake_Superior_PP.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Tshusick.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Upper_Mazinaw_Lake%2C_Mazinaw_Rock.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Wells_american_indian_picture_writing.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/George_Catlin_-_Sha-c%C3%B3-pay%2C_The_Six%2C_Chief_of_the_Plains_Ojibwa_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/90/Ojibwa_Chief.gif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg"], "summary": "The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Saulteaux are an Anishinaabe people in what is currently southern Canada and the northern Midwestern United States. In the United States, they have the fifth-largest population among Native American peoples, surpassed in number only by the Din\u00e9, Tsalagi, Chahta and Oceti Sakowin. In Canada, they are the second-largest First Nations population, surpassed only by the Cree. They are one of the most numerous Indigenous Peoples north of the Rio Grande.The Ojibwe people traditionally speak Anishnaabemowin, a branch of the Algonquian language family. They are part of the Council of Three Fires and the Anishinaabeg, which include the Algonquin, Nipissing, Oji-Cree, Odawa, and the Potawatomi. Historically, through the Saulteaux branch, they were a part of the Iron Confederacy, joining the Cree, Assiniboine, and Metis.The Ojibwe population is approximately 320,000 people, with 170,742 living in the United States As of 2010, and approximately 160,000 living in Canada. In the United States, there are 77,940 mainline Ojibwe; 76,760 Saulteaux; and 8,770 Mississauga, organized in 125 bands. In Canada, they live from western Quebec to eastern British Columbia.\nThe Ojibwe are known for their birch bark canoes, birch bark scrolls, mining and trade in copper, as well as their cultivation of wild rice and maple syrup. Their Midewiwin Society is well respected as the keeper of detailed and complex scrolls of events, oral history, songs, maps, memories, stories, geometry, and mathematics.The Ojibwe lands have been colonized by European powers and Canada. The Ojibwe signed treaties with settler leaders to surrender land for settlement in exchange for compensation, land reserves and guarantees of traditional rights. Many European settlers moved into the Ojibwe ancestral lands."}, "Beshekee": {"links": ["Chief Buffalo ", "Mississippi Chippewa", "Santee Sioux", "Pillager Chippewa", "Doodem", "Mississippi River", "Ojibwa language", "Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay", "Treaty of St. Peters", "Minnesota", "Leech Lake Indian Reservation", "Native Americans in the United States"], "content": "Beshekee also Pezeke and other variant spellings of Ojibwe: Bizhiki (English: Buffalo) was a noted war chief from the Bear doodem of the Pillager Chippewa Band during the 19th century in North America.\nAs a young man, he signed the 1837 Treaty of St. Peters as Pe-zhe-kins (Bizhikiins, meaning \"Young Buffalo\"), a Warrior.  The Pillager Band was famous for producing skilled fighters in the wars against the Dakota, and in his time, Beshekee was among the most respected of these.\nIn 1855, he travelled with Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay (Flat Mouth), another prominent Pillager leader to Washington D.C. to address the grievances of the Mississippi Chippewa and to negotiate a cession of Ojibwe lands at the headwaters of the Mississippi River to the U.S. Government.\nBeshekee would later sign the 1863 Treaty that partially addressed these grievances by establishing permanent reservations in Minnesota, including one at Leech Lake.\n\n\n== External links ==\nThe 1847 Treaty between the United States and the Pillager Band of Chippewa Indians", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Be_sheekee.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/SittingBull.jpg"], "summary": "Beshekee also Pezeke and other variant spellings of Ojibwe: Bizhiki (English: Buffalo) was a noted war chief from the Bear doodem of the Pillager Chippewa Band during the 19th century in North America.\nAs a young man, he signed the 1837 Treaty of St. Peters as Pe-zhe-kins (Bizhikiins, meaning \"Young Buffalo\"), a Warrior.  The Pillager Band was famous for producing skilled fighters in the wars against the Dakota, and in his time, Beshekee was among the most respected of these.\nIn 1855, he travelled with Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay (Flat Mouth), another prominent Pillager leader to Washington D.C. to address the grievances of the Mississippi Chippewa and to negotiate a cession of Ojibwe lands at the headwaters of the Mississippi River to the U.S. Government.\nBeshekee would later sign the 1863 Treaty that partially addressed these grievances by establishing permanent reservations in Minnesota, including one at Leech Lake."}, "W_A_Mozart": {"links": ["Dover Publications", "Mozart's nationality", "Mozart in Italy", "Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg", "Johann Georg Mozart", "Notes in\u00e9gales", "Ludwig van Beethoven", "Tanzmeisterhaus", "Grove Music Online", "Transition from Classical to Romantic music", "Viol", "Clarinet Concerto ", "Brandenburg Concertos", "George Grove", "List of compositions by Ludwig van Beethoven", "Domenico Cimarosa", "Keyboard instrument", "Niccol\u00f2 Piccinni", "Freemasonry", "Maria Anna Thekla Mozart", "String quintet", "Emily Anderson", "Contents of the Voyager Golden Record", "List of sonatas by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "Romanticism", "Gor\u014d Yamaguchi", "Piano concertos by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "Columbia Symphony Orchestra", "Mozart and dance", "Carl Stamitz", "Die Entf\u00fchrung aus dem Serail", "Hieronymus von Colloredo ", "Louis Philippe I, Duke of Orl\u00e9ans", "Regensburg", "Muzio Clementi", "List of compositions by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "Beethoven\u2013Haydn\u2013Mozart Memorial", "Pietro Antonio Lorenzoni", "British Library", "Biographies of Mozart", "Pope Clement XIV", "Salzburg Mozarteum", "Frankfurt", "Valya Balkanska", "Maynard Solomon", "Mass ", "Peter Branscombe", "Mikhail Glinka", "Italian overture", "BBC Radio three", "Georg Nikolaus von Nissen", "Variations on \"L\u00e0 ci darem la mano\" ", "Practical joke", "Intermezzo", "Karl Richter ", "Johann Andreas Stein", "List of concert arias, songs and canons by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "Nannerl Notenbuch", "Chakrulo", "Voyager two", "Constanze Mozart", "Concerto for Flute, Harp, and Orchestra ", "SUDOC ", "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "List of string quartets by Joseph Haydn", "Izlel ye Delyo Haydutin", "Singspiel", "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and the Catholic Church", "Mozart's starling", "Streptococcus", "LibriVox", "Lorenzo Da Ponte", "Rheumatic fever", "Giambettino Cignaroli", "Antonio Salieri", "Max Reger", "Roland John Wiley", "Lucio Silla", "Otto Jahn", "Blind Willie Johnson", "Carl Friedrich Abel", "Bicorne", "The Rite of Spring", "Pastorale", "Mitridate, re di Ponto", "Franz Schubert", "Antonio Soler", "Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach", "Carom billiards", "RISM ", "Influenza", "Gregorio Allegri", "Symphony No. twenty-five ", "Maria Anna Mozart", "Classical economics", "Joseph Lange", "Piano Sonata No. eight ", "Giuseppe Sarti", "Project Gutenberg", "Choir", "Vicente Mart\u00edn y Soler", "Stanford University Press", "Mozart ", "Otto Klemperer", "Neoclassicism", "Louis Carrogis Carmontelle", "Musical form", "Order of the Golden Spur", "Peter H. 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C. Robbins Landon", "Arthur Grumiaux", "La finta giardiniera", "Mozart Monument, Vienna", "Relative key", "Classic FM ", "Symphony No. forty ", "Classical physics", "Fernando Sor", "Charles Rosen", "Louis Armstrong and His Hot Seven", "The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians", "Wikisource", "Georg Benda", "Edda Moser", "ISSN ", "Haydn Quartets ", "IMDb", "Mozart's birthplace", "Fayard", "Sistine Chapel", "American Association for the Advancement of Science", "Pelisse", "Piano Sonata No. eleven ", "Motet", "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground", "ISBN ", "Trichinosis", "Haydn and Mozart", "Choral Public Domain Library", "Antonio Sacchini", "Luigi Boccherini", "Ludwig Ritter von K\u00f6chel", "Classicism", "Franz Ignaz Beck", "Louis Spohr", "Simon P. Keefe", "Zurich", "Don Giovanni", "Horn Concertos ", "Pendragon Press", "Oxford University Press", "Timbre"], "content": "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (27 January 1756 \u2013 5 December 1791), baptised as Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period.\nBorn in Salzburg, in the Holy Roman Empire, Mozart showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood. Already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty, embarking on a grand tour. At 17, Mozart was engaged as a musician at the Salzburg court but grew restless and travelled in search of a better position.\nWhile visiting Vienna in 1781, he was dismissed from his Salzburg position. He chose to stay in Vienna, where he achieved fame but little financial security. During his final years in Vienna, he composed many of his best-known symphonies, concertos, and operas, and portions of the Requiem, which was largely unfinished at the time of his early death at the age of 35. The circumstances of his death are largely uncertain, and have thus been much mythologized.\nDespite his early death, his rapid pace of composition resulted in more than 600 works of virtually every genre of his time. Many of these compositions are acknowledged as pinnacles of the symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral repertoire. He is considered among the greatest classical composers of all time, and his influence on Western music is profound. Ludwig van Beethoven composed his early works in the shadow of Mozart, and Joseph Haydn wrote: \"posterity will not see such a talent again in 100 years\".\n\n\n== Life and career ==\n\n\n=== Early life ===\n\n\n==== Family and childhood ====\n\nWolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born on 27 January 1756 to Leopold Mozart (1719\u20131787) and Anna Maria, n\u00e9e Pertl (1720\u20131778), at Getreidegasse 9 in Salzburg. Salzburg was the capital of the Archbishopric of Salzburg, an ecclesiastic principality in the Holy Roman Empire (today in Austria). He was the youngest of seven children, five of whom died in infancy. His elder sister was Maria Anna Mozart (1751\u20131829), nicknamed \"Nannerl\". Mozart was baptised the day after his birth, at St. Rupert's Cathedral in Salzburg. The baptismal record gives his name in Latinized form, as Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart. He generally called himself \"Wolfgang Amad\u00e8 Mozart\" as an adult, but his name had many variants.\nLeopold Mozart, a native of Augsburg, then an Imperial Free City in the Holy Roman Empire, was a minor composer and an experienced teacher. In 1743, he was appointed as fourth violinist in the musical establishment of Count Leopold Anton von Firmian, the ruling Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg. Four years later, he married Anna Maria in Salzburg. Leopold became the orchestra's deputy Kapellmeister in 1763. During the year of his son's birth, Leopold published a violin textbook, Versuch einer gr\u00fcndlichen Violinschule, which achieved success.When Nannerl was 7, she began keyboard lessons with her father, while her three-year-old brother looked on. Years later, after her brother's death, she reminisced:\n\nHe often spent much time at the clavier, picking out thirds, which he was ever striking, and his pleasure showed that it sounded good. ... In the fourth year of his age his father, for a game as it were, began to teach him a few minuets and pieces at the clavier. ... He could play it faultlessly and with the greatest delicacy, and keeping exactly in time. ... At the age of five, he was already composing little pieces, which he played to his father who wrote them down.\n\nThese early pieces, K. 1\u20135, were recorded in the Nannerl Notenbuch. There is some scholarly debate about whether Mozart was four or five years old when he created his first musical compositions, though there is little doubt that Mozart composed his first three pieces of music within a few weeks of each other: K. 1a, 1b, and 1c.In his early years, Wolfgang's father was his only teacher. Along with music, he taught his children languages and academic subjects. Solomon notes that, while Leopold was a devoted teacher to his children, there is evidence that Mozart was keen to progress beyond what he was taught. His first ink-spattered composition and his precocious efforts with the violin were of his initiative and came as a surprise to Leopold, who eventually gave up composing when his son's musical talents became evident.\n\n\n==== 1762\u201373: Travel ====\n\nWhile Wolfgang was young, his family made several European journeys in which he and Nannerl performed as child prodigies. These began with an exhibition in 1762 at the court of Prince-elector Maximilian III of Bavaria in Munich, and at the Imperial Courts in Vienna and Prague. A long concert tour followed, spanning three and a half years, taking the family to the courts of Munich, Mannheim, Paris, London, Dover, The Hague, Amsterdam, Utrecht, Mechelen and again to Paris, and back home via Zurich, Donaueschingen, and Munich. During this trip, Wolfgang met many musicians and acquainted himself with the works of other composers. A particularly significant influence was Johann Christian Bach, whom he visited in London in 1764 and 1765. When he was eight years old, Mozart wrote his first symphony, most of which was probably transcribed by his father.\n\nThe family trips were often challenging, and travel conditions were primitive. They had to wait for invitations and reimbursement from the nobility, and they endured long, near-fatal illnesses far from home: first Leopold (London, summer 1764), then both children (The Hague, autumn 1765). The family again went to Vienna in late 1767 and remained there until December 1768.\nAfter one year in Salzburg, Leopold and Wolfgang set off for Italy, leaving Anna Maria and Nannerl at home. This tour lasted from December 1769 to March 1771. As with earlier journeys, Leopold wanted to display his son's abilities as a performer and a rapidly maturing composer. Wolfgang met Josef Myslive\u010dek and Giovanni Battista Martini in Bologna and was accepted as a member of the famous Accademia Filarmonica. In Rome, he heard Gregorio Allegri's Miserere twice in performance, in the Sistine Chapel, and wrote it out from memory, thus producing the first unauthorized copy of this closely guarded property of the Vatican.In Milan, Mozart wrote the opera Mitridate, re di Ponto (1770), which was performed with success. This led to further opera commissions. He returned with his father twice to Milan (August\u2013December 1771; October 1772 \u2013 March 1773) for the composition and premieres of Ascanio in Alba (1771) and Lucio Silla (1772). Leopold hoped these visits would result in a professional appointment for his son, and indeed ruling Archduke Ferdinand contemplated hiring Mozart, but owing to his mother Empress Maria Theresa's reluctance to employ \"useless people\", the matter was dropped and Leopold's hopes were never realized. Toward the end of the journey, Mozart wrote the solo motet Exsultate, jubilate, K. 165.\n\n\n=== 1773\u201377: Employment at the Salzburg court ===\n\nAfter finally returning with his father from Italy on 13 March 1773, Mozart was employed as a court musician by the ruler of Salzburg, Prince-Archbishop Hieronymus Colloredo. The composer had many friends and admirers in Salzburg and had the opportunity to work in many genres, including symphonies, sonatas, string quartets, masses, serenades, and a few minor operas. Between April and December 1775, Mozart developed an enthusiasm for violin concertos, producing a series of five (the only ones he ever wrote), which steadily increased in their musical sophistication. The last three\u2014K. 216, K. 218, K. 219\u2014are now staples of the repertoire. In 1776, he turned his efforts to piano concertos, culminating in the E\u266d concerto K. 271 of early 1777, considered by critics to be a breakthrough work.Despite these artistic successes, Mozart grew increasingly discontented with Salzburg and redoubled his efforts to find a position elsewhere. One reason was his low salary, 150 florins a year; Mozart longed to compose operas, and Salzburg provided only rare occasions for these. The situation worsened in 1775 when the court theatre was closed, especially since the other theatre in Salzburg was primarily reserved for visiting troupes.Two long expeditions in search of work interrupted this long Salzburg stay. Mozart and his father visited Vienna from 14 July to 26 September 1773, and Munich from 6 December 1774 to March 1775. Neither visit was successful, though the Munich journey resulted in a popular success with the premiere of Mozart's opera La finta giardiniera.\n\n\n=== 1777\u201378: Journey to Paris ===\n\nIn August 1777, Mozart resigned his position at Salzburg and on 23 September ventured out once more in search of employment, with visits to Augsburg, Mannheim, Paris, and Munich.Mozart became acquainted with members of the famous orchestra in Mannheim, the best in Europe at the time. He also fell in love with Aloysia Weber, one of four daughters of a musical family. There were prospects of employment in Mannheim, but they came to nothing, and Mozart left for Paris on 14 March 1778 to continue his search. One of his letters from Paris hints at a possible post as an organist at Versailles, but Mozart was not interested in such an appointment. He fell into debt and took to pawning valuables. The nadir of the visit occurred when Mozart's mother was taken ill and died on 3 July 1778. There had been delays in calling a doctor\u2014probably, according to Halliwell, because of a lack of funds. Mozart stayed with Melchior Grimm, who, as a personal secretary of the Duke d'Orl\u00e9ans, lived in his mansion.While Mozart was in Paris, his father was pursuing opportunities of employment for him in Salzburg. With the support of the local nobility, Mozart was offered a post as court organist and concertmaster. The annual salary was 450 florins, but he was reluctant to accept. By that time, relations between Grimm and Mozart had cooled, and Mozart moved out. After leaving Paris in September 1778 for Strasbourg, he lingered in Mannheim and Munich, still hoping to obtain an appointment outside Salzburg. In Munich, he again encountered Aloysia, now a very successful singer, but she was no longer interested in him. Mozart finally returned to Salzburg on 15 January 1779 and took up his new appointment, but his discontent with Salzburg remained undiminished.Among the better-known works which Mozart wrote on the Paris journey are the A minor piano sonata, K. 310/300d, the \"Paris\" Symphony (No. 31), which were performed in Paris on 12 and 18 June 1778. and the Concerto for Flute and Harp in C major, K. 299/297c.\n\n\n=== Vienna ===\n\n\n==== 1781: Departure ====\n\nIn January 1781, Mozart's opera Idomeneo premiered with \"considerable success\" in Munich. The following March, Mozart was summoned to Vienna, where his employer, Archbishop Colloredo, was attending the celebrations for the accession of Joseph II to the Austrian throne. For Colloredo, this was simply a matter of wanting his musical servant to be at hand (Mozart indeed was required to dine in Colloredo's establishment with the valets and cooks.) However, Mozart was planning a bigger career even as he continued in the archbishop's service; for example, he wrote to his father:\n\nMy main goal right now is to meet the emperor in some agreeable fashion, I am absolutely determined he should get to know me. I would be so happy if I could whip through my opera for him and then play a fugue or two, for that's what he likes.\nMozart did indeed soon meet the Emperor, who eventually was to support his career substantially with commissions and a part-time position.\nIn the same letter to his father just quoted, Mozart outlined his plans to participate as a soloist in the concerts of the Tonk\u00fcnstler-Societ\u00e4t, a prominent benefit concert series; this plan as well came to pass after the local nobility prevailed on Colloredo to drop his opposition.Colloredo's wish to prevent Mozart from performing outside his establishment was in other cases, however, carried through, raising the composer's anger; one example was a chance to perform before the Emperor at Countess Thun's for a fee equal to half of his yearly Salzburg salary.\nThe quarrel with the archbishop came to a head in May: Mozart attempted to resign and was refused. The following month, permission was granted, but in a grossly insulting way: the composer was dismissed literally \"with a kick in the arse\", administered by the archbishop's steward, Count Arco. Mozart decided to settle in Vienna as a freelance performer and composer.The quarrel with Colloredo was more difficult for Mozart because his father sided against him. Hoping fervently that he would obediently follow Colloredo back to Salzburg, Mozart's father exchanged intense letters with his son, urging him to be reconciled with their employer. Mozart passionately defended his intention to pursue an independent career in Vienna. The debate ended when Mozart was dismissed by the archbishop, freeing himself both of his employer and of his father's demands to return. Solomon characterizes Mozart's resignation as a \"revolutionary step\" that significantly altered the course of his life.\n\n\n==== Early years ====\n\nMozart's new career in Vienna began well. He often performed as a pianist, notably in a competition before the Emperor with Muzio Clementi on 24 December 1781, and he soon \"had established himself as the finest keyboard player in Vienna\". He also prospered as a composer, and in 1782 completed the opera Die Entf\u00fchrung aus dem Serail (\"The Abduction from the Seraglio\"), which premiered on 16 July 1782 and achieved considerable success. The work was soon being performed \"throughout German-speaking Europe\", and thoroughly established Mozart's reputation as a composer.\n\nNear the height of his quarrels with Colloredo, Mozart moved in with the Weber family, who had moved to Vienna from Mannheim. The family's father, Fridolin, had died, and the Webers were now taking in lodgers to make ends meet.\n\n\n==== Marriage and children ====\nAfter failing to win the hand of Aloysia Weber, who was now married to the actor and artist Joseph Lange, Mozart's interest shifted to the third daughter of the family, Constanze.\nThe courtship did not go entirely smoothly; surviving correspondence indicates that Mozart and Constanze briefly separated in April 1782. Mozart faced a challenging task in getting his father's permission for the marriage. The couple were finally married on 4 August 1782 in St. Stephen's Cathedral, the day before his father's consenting letter arrived in the mail.The couple had six children, of whom only two survived infancy:\nRaimund Leopold (17 June \u2013 19 August 1783)\nKarl Thomas Mozart (21 September 1784 \u2013 31 October 1858)\nJohann Thomas Leopold (18 October \u2013 15 November 1786)\nTheresia Constanzia Adelheid Friedericke Maria Anna (27 December 1787 \u2013 29 June 1788)\nAnna Maria (died soon after birth, 16 November 1789)\nFranz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart (26 July 1791 \u2013 29 July 1844)\n\n\n=== 1782\u201387 ===\nIn 1782 and 1783, Mozart became intimately acquainted with the work of Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel as a result of the influence of Gottfried van Swieten, who owned many manuscripts of the Baroque masters. Mozart's study of these scores inspired compositions in Baroque style and later influenced his musical language, for example in fugal passages in Die Zauberfl\u00f6te (\"The Magic Flute\") and the finale of Symphony No. 41.In 1783, Mozart and his wife visited his family in Salzburg. His father and sister were cordially polite to Constanze, but the visit prompted the composition of one of Mozart's great liturgical pieces, the Mass in C minor. Though not completed, it was premiered in Salzburg, with Constanze singing a solo part.Mozart met Joseph Haydn in Vienna around 1784, and the two composers became friends. When Haydn visited Vienna, they sometimes played together in an impromptu string quartet. Mozart's six quartets dedicated to Haydn (K. 387, K. 421, K. 428, K. 458, K. 464, and K. 465) date from the period 1782 to 1785, and are judged to be a response to Haydn's Opus 33 set from 1781. Haydn in 1785 told Mozart's father: \"I tell you before God, and as an honest man, your son is the greatest composer known to me by person and repute, he has taste and what is more the greatest skill in composition.\"From 1782 to 1785 Mozart mounted concerts with himself as a soloist, presenting three or four new piano concertos in each season. Since space in the theatres was scarce, he booked unconventional venues: a large room in the Trattnerhof apartment building, and the ballroom of the Mehlgrube restaurant. The concerts were very popular, and his concertos premiered there are still firm fixtures in his repertoire. Solomon writes that during this period, Mozart created \"a harmonious connection between an eager composer-performer and a delighted audience, which was given the opportunity of witnessing the transformation and perfection of a major musical genre\".With substantial returns from his concerts and elsewhere, Mozart and his wife adopted a more luxurious lifestyle. They moved to an expensive apartment, with a yearly rent of 460 florins. Mozart bought a fine fortepiano from Anton Walter for about 900 florins, and a billiard table for about 300. The Mozarts sent their son Karl Thomas to an expensive boarding school and kept servants. During this period Mozart saved little of his income.On 14 December 1784, Mozart became a Freemason, admitted to the lodge Zur Wohlt\u00e4tigkeit (\"Beneficence\"). Freemasonry played an essential role in the remainder of Mozart's life: he attended meetings, a number of his friends were Masons, and on various occasions, he composed Masonic music, e.g. the Maurerische Trauermusik.\n\n\n==== 1786\u201387: Return to opera ====\n\nDespite the great success of Die Entf\u00fchrung aus dem Serail, Mozart did little operatic writing for the next four years, producing only two unfinished works and the one-act Der Schauspieldirektor. He focused instead on his career as a piano soloist and writer of concertos. Around the end of 1785, Mozart moved away from keyboard writing and began his famous operatic collaboration with the librettist Lorenzo Da Ponte. 1786 saw the successful premiere of The Marriage of Figaro in Vienna. Its reception in Prague later in the year was even warmer, and this led to a second collaboration with Da Ponte: the opera Don Giovanni, which premiered in October 1787 to acclaim in Prague, but less success in Vienna during 1788. The two are among Mozart's most famous works and are mainstays of operatic repertoire today, though at their premieres their musical complexity caused difficulty both for listeners and for performers. These developments were not witnessed by Mozart's father, who had died on 28 May 1787.In December 1787, Mozart finally obtained a steady post under aristocratic patronage. Emperor Joseph II appointed him as his \"chamber composer\", a post that had fallen vacant the previous month on the death of Gluck. It was a part-time appointment, paying just 800 florins per year, and required Mozart only to compose dances for the annual balls in the Redoutensaal (see Mozart and dance). This modest income became important to Mozart when hard times arrived. Court records show that Joseph aimed to keep the esteemed composer from leaving Vienna in pursuit of better prospects.In 1787, the young Ludwig van Beethoven spent several weeks in Vienna, hoping to study with Mozart. No reliable records survive to indicate whether the two composers ever met.\n\n\n=== Later years ===\n\n\n==== 1788\u201390 ====\n\nToward the end of the decade, Mozart's circumstances worsened. Around 1786 he had ceased to appear frequently in public concerts, and his income shrank. This was a difficult time for musicians in Vienna because of the Austro-Turkish War: both the general level of prosperity and the ability of the aristocracy to support music had declined.By mid-1788, Mozart and his family had moved from central Vienna to the suburb of Alsergrund. Although it has been suggested that Mozart aimed to reduce his rental expenses by moving to a suburb, as he wrote in his letter to Puchberg, Mozart had not reduced his expenses but merely increased the housing space at his disposal. Mozart began to borrow money, most often from his friend and fellow mason Michael Puchberg; \"a pitiful sequence of letters pleading for loans\" survives. Maynard Solomon and others have suggested that Mozart was suffering from depression, and it seems his musical output slowed. Major works of the period include the last three symphonies (Nos. 39, 40, and 41, all from 1788), and the last of the three Da Ponte operas, Cos\u00ec fan tutte, premiered in 1790.\nAround this time, Mozart made some long journeys hoping to improve his fortunes, visiting Leipzig, Dresden, and Berlin in the spring of 1789, and Frankfurt, Mannheim, and other German cities in 1790.\n\n\n==== 1791 ====\nMozart's last year was, until his final illness struck, a time of high productivity\u2014and by some accounts, one of personal recovery. He composed a great deal, including some of his most admired works: the opera The Magic Flute; the final piano concerto (K. 595 in B\u266d); the Clarinet Concerto K. 622; the last in his series of string quintets (K. 614 in E\u266d); the motet Ave verum corpus K. 618; and the unfinished Requiem K. 626.\nMozart's financial situation, a source of anxiety in 1790, finally began to improve. Although the evidence is inconclusive, it appears that wealthy patrons in Hungary and Amsterdam pledged annuities to Mozart in return for the occasional composition. He is thought to have benefited from the sale of dance music written in his role as Imperial chamber composer. Mozart no longer borrowed large sums from Puchberg and began to pay off his debts.He experienced great satisfaction in the public success of some of his works, notably The Magic Flute (which was performed several times in the short period between its premiere and Mozart's death) and the Little Masonic Cantata K. 623, premiered on 17 November 1791.\n\n\n==== Final illness and death ====\n\nMozart fell ill while in Prague for the premiere, on 6 September 1791, of his opera La clemenza di Tito, which was written in that same year on commission for the Emperor's coronation festivities. He continued his professional functions for some time and conducted the premiere of The Magic Flute on 30 September. His health deteriorated on 20 November, at which point he became bedridden, suffering from swelling, pain, and vomiting.\n\nMozart was nursed in his final days by his wife and her youngest sister, and was attended by the family doctor, Thomas Franz Closset. He was mentally occupied with the task of finishing his Requiem, but the evidence that he dictated passages to his student Franz Xaver S\u00fcssmayr is minimal.Mozart died in his home on 5 December 1791(1791-12-05) (aged 35) at 12:55 am. The New Grove describes his funeral:\n\nMozart was interred in a common grave, in accordance with contemporary Viennese custom, at the St. Marx Cemetery outside the city on 7 December. If, as later reports say, no mourners attended, that too is consistent with Viennese burial customs at the time; later Otto Jahn (1856) wrote that Salieri, S\u00fcssmayr, van Swieten and two other musicians were present. The tale of a storm and snow is false; the day was calm and mild.\nThe expression \"common grave\" refers to neither a communal grave nor a pauper's grave, but an individual grave for a member of the common people (i.e., not the aristocracy). Common graves were subject to excavation after ten years; the graves of aristocrats were not.The cause of Mozart's death is not known with certainty. The official record of hitziges Frieselfieber (\"severe miliary fever\", referring to a rash that looks like millet seeds) is more a symptomatic description than a diagnosis. Researchers have suggested more than a hundred causes of death, including acute rheumatic fever, streptococcal infection, trichinosis, influenza, mercury poisoning, and a rare kidney ailment.Mozart's modest funeral did not reflect his standing with the public as a composer; memorial services and concerts in Vienna and Prague were well-attended. Indeed, in the period immediately after his death, his reputation rose substantially. Solomon describes an \"unprecedented wave of enthusiasm\" for his work; biographies were written first by Schlichtegroll, Niemetschek, and Nissen, and publishers vied to produce complete editions of his works.\n\n\n== Appearance and character ==\n\nMozart's physical appearance was described by tenor Michael Kelly in his Reminiscences: \"a remarkably small man, very thin and pale, with a profusion of fine, fair hair of which he was rather vain\". His early biographer Niemetschek wrote, \"there was nothing special about [his] physique. ... He was small and his countenance, except for his large intense eyes, gave no signs of his genius.\" His facial complexion was pitted, a reminder of his childhood case of smallpox. Of his voice, his wife later wrote that it \"was a tenor, rather soft in speaking and delicate in singing, but when anything excited him, or it became necessary to exert it, it was both powerful and energetic.\"He loved elegant clothing. Kelly remembered him at a rehearsal: \"[He] was on the stage with his crimson pelisse and gold-laced cocked hat, giving the time of the music to the orchestra.\" Based on pictures that researchers were able to find of Mozart, he seemed to wear a white wig for most of his formal occasions\u2014researchers of the Salzburg Mozarteum declared that only one of his fourteen portraits they had found showed him without his wig.Mozart usually worked long and hard, finishing compositions at a tremendous pace as deadlines approached. He often made sketches and drafts; unlike Beethoven's, these are mostly not preserved, as his wife sought to destroy them after his death.Mozart lived at the center of the Viennese musical world, and knew a significant number and variety of people: fellow musicians, theatrical performers, fellow Salzburgers, and aristocrats, including some acquaintance with Emperor Joseph II. Solomon considers his three closest friends to have been Gottfried von Jacquin, Count August Hatzfeld, and Sigmund Barisani; others included his elder colleague Joseph Haydn, singers Franz Xaver Gerl and Benedikt Schack, and the horn player Joseph Leutgeb. Leutgeb and Mozart carried on a curious kind of friendly mockery, often with Leutgeb as the butt of Mozart's practical jokes.He enjoyed billiards, dancing, and kept pets, including a canary, a starling, a dog, and a horse for recreational riding. He had a startling fondness for scatological humour, which is preserved in his surviving letters, notably those written to his cousin Maria Anna Thekla Mozart around 1777\u20131778, and in his correspondence with his sister and parents. Mozart also wrote scatological music, a series of canons that he sang with his friends. Mozart was raised a Catholic and remained a devout member of the Church throughout his life.\n\n\n== Works, musical style, and innovations ==\n\n\n=== Style ===\nMozart's music, like Haydn's, stands as an archetype of the Classical style. At the time he began composing, European music was dominated by the style galant, a reaction against the highly evolved intricacy of the Baroque. Progressively, and in large part at the hands of Mozart himself, the contrapuntal complexities of the late Baroque emerged once more, moderated and disciplined by new forms, and adapted to a new aesthetic and social milieu. Mozart was a versatile composer, and wrote in every major genre, including symphony, opera, the solo concerto, chamber music including string quartet and string quintet, and the piano sonata. These forms were not new, but Mozart advanced their technical sophistication and emotional reach. He almost single-handedly developed and popularized the Classical piano concerto. He wrote a great deal of religious music, including large-scale masses, as well as dances, divertimenti, serenades, and other forms of light entertainment.The central traits of the Classical style are all present in Mozart's music. Clarity, balance, and transparency are the hallmarks of his work, but simplistic notions of its delicacy mask the exceptional power of his finest masterpieces, such as the Piano Concerto No. 24 in C minor, K. 491; the Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K. 550; and the opera Don Giovanni. Charles Rosen makes the point forcefully:\n\nIt is only through recognizing the violence and sensuality at the center of Mozart's work that we can make a start towards a comprehension of his structures and an insight into his magnificence. In a paradoxical way, Schumann's superficial characterization of the G minor Symphony can help us to see Mozart's daemon more steadily. In all of Mozart's supreme expressions of suffering and terror, there is something shockingly voluptuous.\nDuring his last decade, Mozart frequently exploited chromatic harmony. A notable instance is his String Quartet in C major, K. 465 (1785), whose introduction abounds in chromatic suspensions, giving rise to the work's nickname, the \"Dissonance\" quartet.\nMozart had a gift for absorbing and adapting the valuable features of others' music. His travels helped in the forging of a unique compositional language. In London as a child, he met J. C. Bach and heard his music. In Paris, Mannheim, and Vienna he met with other compositional influences, as well as the avant-garde capabilities of the Mannheim orchestra. In Italy, he encountered the Italian overture and opera buffa, both of which deeply affected the evolution of his practice. In London and Italy, the galant style was in the ascendent: simple, light music with a mania for cadencing; an emphasis on tonic, dominant, and subdominant to the exclusion of other harmonies; symmetrical phrases; and clearly articulated partitions in the overall form of movements. Some of Mozart's early symphonies are Italian overtures, with three movements running into each other; many are homotonal (all three movements having the same key signature, with the slow middle movement being in the relative minor). Others mimic the works of J. C. Bach, and others show the simple rounded binary forms turned out by Viennese composers.\n\nAs Mozart matured, he progressively incorporated more features adapted from the Baroque. For example, the Symphony No. 29 in A major K. 201 has a contrapuntal main theme in its first movement, and experimentation with irregular phrase lengths. Some of his quartets from 1773 have fugal finales, probably influenced by Haydn, who had included three such finales in his recently published Opus 20 set. The influence of the Sturm und Drang (\"Storm and Stress\") period in music, with its brief foreshadowing of the Romantic era, is evident in the music of both composers at that time. Mozart's Symphony No. 25 in G minor K. 183 is another excellent example.\nMozart would sometimes switch his focus between operas and instrumental music. He produced operas in each of the prevailing styles: opera buffa, such as The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, and Cos\u00ec fan tutte; opera seria, such as Idomeneo; and Singspiel, of which Die Zauberfl\u00f6te is the most famous example by any composer. In his later operas, he employed subtle changes in instrumentation, orchestral texture, and tone colour, for emotional depth and to mark dramatic shifts. Here his advances in opera and instrumental composing interacted: his increasingly sophisticated use of the orchestra in the symphonies and concertos influenced his operatic orchestration, and his developing subtlety in using the orchestra to psychological effect in his operas was in turn reflected in his later non-operatic compositions.\n\n\n=== K\u00f6chel catalogue ===\n\nFor unambiguous identification of works by Mozart, a K\u00f6chel catalogue number is used. This is a unique number assigned, in regular chronological order, to every one of his known works. A work is referenced by the abbreviation \"K.\" or \"KV\" followed by this number. The first edition of the catalogue was completed in 1862 by Ludwig von K\u00f6chel. It has since been repeatedly updated, as scholarly research improves knowledge of the dates and authenticity of individual works.\n\n\n=== Instruments ===\nAlthough some of Mozart's early pieces were written for harpsichord, he also got acquainted in his early years with pianos made by Regensburg builder Franz Jakob Sp\u00e4th. Later when Mozart was visiting Augsburg, he got impressed by Stein pianos and shared this in a letter to his father. On 22 October 1777, Mozart had premiered his triple-piano concerto, K. 242, on instruments provided by Stein. The Augsburg Cathedral organist Demmler was playing the first, Mozart the second and Stein the third part. In 1783 when living in Vienna he purchased an instrument by Walter. Leopold Mozart confirmed the attachment which Mozart had with his Walter fortepiano: \"It is impossible to describe the hustle and bustle. Your brother's pianoforte has been moved at least twelve times from his house to the theatre or to someone else's house.\"\n\n\n== Influence ==\n\nHis most famous pupil, whom the Mozarts took into their Vienna home for two years as a child, was probably Johann Nepomuk Hummel, a transitional figure between the Classical and Romantic eras. More important is the influence Mozart had on composers of later generations. Ever since the surge in his reputation after his death, studying his scores has been a standard part of classical musicians' training.Ludwig van Beethoven, Mozart's junior by fifteen years, was deeply influenced by his work, with which he was acquainted as a teenager. He is thought to have performed Mozart's operas while playing in the court orchestra at Bonn and travelled to Vienna in 1787 hoping to study with the older composer. Some of Beethoven's works have direct models in comparable works by Mozart, and he wrote cadenzas (WoO 58) to Mozart's D minor piano concerto K. 466. For further details, see Mozart and Beethoven.\nComposers have paid homage to Mozart by writing sets of variations on his themes. Beethoven wrote four such sets (Op. 66, WoO 28, WoO 40, WoO 46). Others include Fernando Sor's Introduction and Variations on a Theme by Mozart (1821), Mikhail Glinka's Variations on a Theme from Mozart's Opera \"Die Zauberfl\u00f6te\" (1822), Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Chopin's Variations on \"L\u00e0 ci darem la mano\" from Don Giovanni (1827), and Max Reger's Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Mozart (1914), based on the variation theme in the piano sonata K. 331.Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky wrote his Orchestral Suite No. 4 in G, Mozartiana (1887), as a tribute to Mozart.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Works cited ===\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nBraunbehrens, Volkmar (1990). Mozart: Lebensbilder. G. Lubbe. ISBN 978-3-7857-0580-3.\nCairns, David (2006). Mozart and His Operas. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22898-6. OCLC 62290645.\nEisen, Cliff; Sadie, Stanley. \"Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus\", in: The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd edition, vol. 17, Oxford University Press, New York, 2001. ISBN 978-0-19-517067-2.\nHolmes, Edward (2005). The Life of Mozart. New York: Cosimo Classics. ISBN 978-1-59605-147-8. OCLC 62790104.\nKallen, Stuart A. (2000). Great Composers. San Diego: Lucent. ISBN 978-1-56006-669-9.\nMozart, Wolfgang (1972).  Mersmann, Hans (ed.). Letters of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-22859-4. OCLC 753483.\nTill, Nicholas (1995). Mozart and the Enlightenment: Truth, Virtue and Beauty in Mozart's Operas. New York City: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-31395-6. OCLC 469628809.\n\n\n== External links ==\nWolfgang Amadeus Mozart at the Musopen project\nSalzburg Mozarteum Foundation\nChronological-Thematic Catalog Archived 26 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine\n\"Discovering Mozart\". BBC Radio 3.\nWolfgang Amadeus Mozart at IMDb\nList of works by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart with certification rating at the Classical Music DBDigitized documentsWorks by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart at Project Gutenberg\nWorks by or about Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart at Internet Archive\nWorks by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) \n\"Mozart\" Titles; Mozart as author at Google Books\nDigital Mozart Edition (Internationale Stiftung Mozarteum)\n\"Mozart\" titles from Gallica (in French)\nFrom the British Library\nMozart's Thematic Catalogue\nMozart's Musical Diary\nBackground information on Mozart and the Thematic Catalogue\nLetters of Leopold Mozart und Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (in German) (Baden State Library)Sheet musicComplete sheet music (scores) from the Neue Mozart-Ausgabe (Internationale Stiftung Mozarteum)\nMozart titles from the Munich Digitization Center (MDZ)\nMozart titles from the University of Rochester\nFree scores by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)\nFree scores by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)\nFree typeset sheet music of Mozart's works from Cantorion.org\nThe Mutopia Project has compositions by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Audio_a.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Casa_natale_di_Mozart.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Costanze_Mozart_by_Lange_1782.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Croce_MozartFamilyPortrait.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/De-Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/K626_Requiem_Dies_Irae.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Louis_Carrogis_dit_Carmontelle_-_Portrait_de_Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart_%28Salzbourg%2C_1756-Vienne%2C_1791%29_jouant_%C3%A0_Paris_avec_son_p%C3%A8re_Jean..._-_Google_Art_Project.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Mozart%27s_old_home.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Mozart_%28unfinished%29_by_Lange_1782.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Mozart%C5%AFv_klav%C3%ADr_1.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Operalogo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Portrait_of_Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart_at_the_age_of_13_in_Verona%2C_1770.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/The_Sounds_of_Earth_Record_Cover_-_GPN-2000-001978.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Wolfgang-amadeus-mozart_1.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Wolfgang-amadeus-mozart_2.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart_%281756-1791%29_-_Quaerite_primum_regnum_Dei_%C3%A04%2C_K.86_73v_%281770%29.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart_-_Don_Giovanni_-_Overt%C3%BCre.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart_-_Symphony_40_g-moll_-_1._Molto_allegro.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart_Signature.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Croce-Mozart-Detail.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Martini_bologna_mozart_1777.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Mozart_drawing_Doris_Stock_1789.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/P_vip.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg"], "summary": "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (27 January 1756 \u2013 5 December 1791), baptised as Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period.\nBorn in Salzburg, in the Holy Roman Empire, Mozart showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood. Already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty, embarking on a grand tour. At 17, Mozart was engaged as a musician at the Salzburg court but grew restless and travelled in search of a better position.\nWhile visiting Vienna in 1781, he was dismissed from his Salzburg position. He chose to stay in Vienna, where he achieved fame but little financial security. During his final years in Vienna, he composed many of his best-known symphonies, concertos, and operas, and portions of the Requiem, which was largely unfinished at the time of his early death at the age of 35. The circumstances of his death are largely uncertain, and have thus been much mythologized.\nDespite his early death, his rapid pace of composition resulted in more than 600 works of virtually every genre of his time. Many of these compositions are acknowledged as pinnacles of the symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral repertoire. He is considered among the greatest classical composers of all time, and his influence on Western music is profound. Ludwig van Beethoven composed his early works in the shadow of Mozart, and Joseph Haydn wrote: \"posterity will not see such a talent again in 100 years\"."}, "Robert_Schumann": {"links": ["Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot", "Frauenliebe und -leben", "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow", "Piano Trio No. one ", "Nikolaus Lenau", "Jules Michelet", "Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder", "Craniopharyngioma", "Choral", "J. D. 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Maison", "Arabeske ", "Philistines", "\u00c9tienne Pivert de Senancour", "Wolfgang Sawallisch", "Franz Berwald", "Hilde Krahl", "Kreischa", "Fantasiest\u00fccke, Op. twelve", "Bunte Bl\u00e4tter", "Luigi Cherubini", "Friedrich Wieck", "Bohemia", "Washington Irving", "Thomas Moore", "Carl Czerny", "Walter Savage Landor", "Alexander Scriabin", "Giuseppe Mazzini", "Joseph Joachim", "Gesamtkunstwerk", "Waldszenen", "Adolphe Adam", "Sigismond Thalberg", "Lord Byron", "Fran\u00e7ois-Ren\u00e9 de Chateaubriand", "Romanticism", "Henry Fothergill Chorley", "Gothic Revival architecture", "Justinus Kerner", "Harold C. Schonberg", "Orest Kiprensky", "Violin Sonata No. two ", "Thomas Cole", "Piano Trio No. two ", "Richard Strauss", "Henry Fuseli", "Johannes Brahms", "Wilhelm K\u00fcchelbecker", "Schizophrenia"], "content": "Robert Schumann (German: [\u02c8\u0283u\u02d0man]; 8 June 1810 \u2013 29 July 1856) was a German composer, pianist, and influential music critic. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era. Schumann left the study of law, intending to pursue a career as a virtuoso pianist. His teacher, Friedrich Wieck, a German pianist, had assured him that he could become the finest pianist in Europe, but a hand injury ended this dream. Schumann then focused his musical energies on composing.\nIn 1840, Schumann married Clara Wieck, after a long and acrimonious legal battle with her father, Friedrich, who opposed the marriage. A lifelong partnership in music began, as Clara herself was an established pianist and music prodigy. Clara and Robert also maintained a close relationship with German composer Johannes Brahms.\nUntil 1840, Schumann wrote exclusively for the piano. Later, he composed piano and orchestral works, and many Lieder (songs for voice and piano). He composed four symphonies, one opera, and other orchestral, choral, and chamber works. His best-known works include Carnaval, Symphonic Studies, Kinderszenen, Kreisleriana, and the Fantasie in C. Schumann was known for infusing his music with characters through motifs, as well as references to works of literature. These characters bled into his editorial writing in the Neue Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Musik (New Journal for Music), a Leipzig-based publication that he co-founded.\nSchumann suffered from a mental disorder that first manifested in 1833 as a severe melancholic depressive episode\u2014which recurred several times alternating with phases of \"exaltation\" and increasingly also delusional ideas of being poisoned or threatened with metallic items. What is now thought to have been a combination of bipolar disorder and perhaps mercury poisoning led to \"manic\" and \"depressive\" periods in Schumann's compositional productivity. After a suicide attempt in 1854, Schumann was admitted at his own request to a mental asylum in Endenich near Bonn. Diagnosed with psychotic melancholia, he died of pneumonia two years later at the age of 46, without recovering from his mental illness.\n\n\n== Biography ==\n\n\n=== Early life ===\n\nSchumann was born in Zwickau, in the Kingdom of Saxony (today Central Germany), the fifth and last child of Johanna Christiane (n\u00e9e Schnabel) and August Schumann. Schumann began to compose before the age of seven, but his boyhood was spent in the cultivation of literature as much as music\u2014undoubtedly influenced by his father, a bookseller, publisher, and novelist.At age seven, Schumann began studying general music and piano with Johann Gottfried Kuntzsch, a teacher at the Zwickau high school. The boy immediately developed a love of music, and worked on his own compositions, without the aid of Kuntzsch. Even though he often disregarded the principles of musical composition, he created works regarded as admirable for his age. The Universal Journal of Music 1850 supplement included a biographical sketch of Schumann that noted, \"It has been related that Schumann, as a child, possessed rare taste and talent for portraying feelings and characteristic traits in melody,\u2014ay, he could sketch the different dispositions of his intimate friends by certain figures and passages on the piano so exactly and comically that everyone burst into loud laughter at the similitude of the portrait.\"At age 14, Schumann wrote an essay on the aesthetics of music and also contributed to a volume, edited by his father, titled Portraits of Famous Men. While still at school in Zwickau, he read the works of the German poet-philosophers Schiller and Goethe, as well as Byron and the Greek tragedians. His most powerful and permanent literary inspiration was Jean Paul, a German writer whose influence is seen in Schumann's youthful novels Juniusabende, completed in 1826, and Selene.\nSchumann's interest in music was sparked by attending a performance of Ignaz Moscheles playing at Karlsbad, and he later developed an interest in the works of Beethoven, Schubert, and Mendelssohn. His father, who had encouraged his musical aspirations, died in 1826 when Schumann was 16. Thereafter, neither his mother nor his guardian encouraged him to pursue a music career. In 1828, Schumann left high school, and after a trip during which he met the poet Heinrich Heine in Munich, he left to study law at the University of Leipzig under family pressure. But in Leipzig Schumann instead focused on improvisation, song composition, and writing novels. He also began to seriously study piano with Friedrick Wieck, a well-known piano teacher. In 1829, he continued his law studies in Heidelberg, where he became a lifelong member of Corps Saxo-Borussia Heidelberg.\n\n\n=== 1830\u20131834 ===\n\nDuring Eastertide 1830, he heard the Italian violinist, violist, guitarist, and composer Niccol\u00f2 Paganini play in Frankfurt. In July he wrote to his mother, \"My whole life has been a struggle between Poetry and Prose, or call it Music and Law.\" With her permission, by Christmas he was back in Leipzig, at age 20 taking piano lessons from his old master Friedrich Wieck, who assured him that he would be a successful concert pianist after a few years' study with him. During his studies with Wieck, some stories claim that Schumann permanently injured a finger on his right hand. Wieck claimed that Schumann damaged his finger by using a mechanical device that held back one finger while he exercised the others\u2014which was supposed to strengthen the weakest fingers. Clara Schumann discredited the story, saying the disability was not due to a mechanical device, and Robert Schumann himself referred to it as \"an affliction of the whole hand.\" Some argue that, as the disability appeared to have been chronic and have affected the hand, and not just a finger, it was not likely caused by a finger strengthening device. In 2012, neurologists discussed Schumann's symptoms at a conference called \"Musicians With Dystonia.\"Schumann abandoned the idea of a concert career and devoted himself instead to composition. To this end he began a study of music theory under Heinrich Dorn, a German composer six years his senior and, at that time, conductor of the Leipzig Opera.\n\n\n==== Papillons ====\nSchumann's fusion of literary ideas with musical ones\u2014known as program music\u2014may have first taken shape in Papillons, Op. 2 (Butterflies), a musical portrayal of events in Jean Paul's novel Flegeljahre. In a letter from Leipzig dated April 1832, Schumann bids his brothers, \"Read the last scene in Jean Paul's Flegeljahre as soon as possible, because the Papillons are intended as a musical representation of that masquerade.\" This inspiration is foreshadowed to some extent in his first written criticism\u2014an 1831 essay on Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Chopin's variations on a theme from Mozart's Don Giovanni, published in the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung. In it, Schumann creates imaginary characters who discuss Chopin's work: Florestan (the embodiment of Schumann's passionate, voluble side) and Eusebius (his dreamy, introspective side)\u2014the counterparts of Vult and Walt in Flegeljahre. They call on a third, Meister Raro, for his opinion. Raro may represent either the composer himself, Wieck's daughter Clara, or the combination of the two (Clara + Robert).\nIn the winter of 1832, at age 22, Schumann visited relatives in Zwickau and Schneeberg, where he performed the first movement of his Symphony in G minor (without opus number, known as the \"Zwickauer\"). In Zwickau, the music was performed at a concert given by Clara Wieck, who was then just 13 years old. On this occasion Clara played bravura Variations by Henri Herz, a composer whom Schumann was already deriding as a philistine. Schumann's mother said to Clara, \"You must marry my Robert one day.\" The Symphony in G minor was not published during Schumann's lifetime but has been played and recorded in recent times.\nThe 1833 deaths of Schumann's brother Julius and his sister-in-law Rosalie in the worldwide cholera pandemic brought on a severe depressive episode.\n\n\n==== Neue Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Musik ====\nBy spring 1834, Schumann had sufficiently recovered to inaugurate Die Neue Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Musik (\"New Journal for Music\"), first published on 3 April 1834. In his writings, Schumann created a fictional music society based on people in his life, called the Davidsb\u00fcndler, named after the biblical King David who fought against the Philistines. Schumann published most of his critical writings in the journal, and often lambasted the popular taste for flashy technical displays from figures whom Schumann perceived as inferior composers, or \"philistines\". Schumann campaigned to revive interest in major composers of the past, including Mozart, Beethoven, and Weber. He also promoted the work of some contemporary composers, including Chopin (about whom Schumann famously wrote, \"Hats off, Gentlemen! A genius!\") and Hector Berlioz, whom he praised for creating music of substance. On the other hand, Schumann disparaged the school of Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner. Among Schumann's associates at this time were composers Norbert Burgm\u00fcller and Ludwig Schuncke (to whom Schumann dedicated his Toccata in C).\n\n\n==== Carnaval ====\nCarnaval, Op. 9 (1834) is one of Schumann's most characteristic piano works. Schumann begins nearly every section of Carnaval with a musical cryptogram, the musical notes signified in German by the letters that spell Asch (A, E-flat, C, and B, or alternatively A-flat, C, and B; in German these are A, Es, C and H, and As, C and H respectively), the Bohemian town in which Ernestine was born, and the notes are also the musical letters in Schumann's own name. Eusebius and Florestan, the imaginary figures appearing so often in his critical writings, also appear, alongside brilliant imitations of Chopin and Paganini. To each of these characters he devotes a section of Carnaval. The work comes to a close with a march of the Davidsb\u00fcndler\u2014the league of King David's men against the Philistines\u2014in which may be heard the clear accents of truth in contest with the dull clamour of falsehood embodied in a quotation from the seventeenth century Grandfather's Dance. The march, a step nearly always in duple meter, is here in 3/4 time (triple meter). The work ends in joy and a degree of mock-triumph. In Carnaval, Schumann went further than in Papillons, by conceiving the story as well as the musical representation (and also displaying a maturation of compositional resource).\n\n\n==== Relationships ====\nDuring the summer of 1834 Schumann became engaged to 16-year-old Ernestine von Fricken, the adopted daughter of a rich Bohemian-born noble. In August 1835, he learned that Ernestine was born illegitimate, which meant that she would have no dowry. Fearful that her limited means would force him to earn his living like a \"day-labourer,\" Schumann completely broke with her toward the end of the year. He felt a growing attraction to 15-year-old Clara Wieck. They made mutual declarations of love in December in Zwickau, where Clara appeared in concert. His budding romance with Clara was disrupted when her father learned of their trysts during the Christmas holidays. He summarily forbade them further meetings, and ordered all their correspondence burnt.\n\n\n=== 1835\u20131839 ===\nOn 3 October 1835, Schumann met Felix Mendelssohn at Wieck's house in Leipzig, and his enthusiastic appreciation of that artist was shown with the same generous freedom that distinguished his acknowledgement of the greatness of Chopin and other colleagues, and later prompted him to publicly pronounce the then-unknown Johannes Brahms a genius.\n\nIn 1837 Schumann published his Symphonic Studies, a complex set of \u00e9tude-like variations written in 1834\u20131835, which demanded a finished piano technique. These variations were based on a theme by the adoptive father of Ernestine von Fricken. The work\u2014described as \"one of the peaks of the piano literature, lofty in conception and faultless in workmanship\" [Hutcheson]\u2014was dedicated to the young English composer William Sterndale Bennett, for whom Schumann had had a high regard when they worked together in Leipzig.The Davidsb\u00fcndlert\u00e4nze, Op. 6, (also published in 1837 despite the low opus number) literally \"Dances of the League of David\", is an embodiment of the struggle between enlightened Romanticism and musical philistinism. Schumann credited the two sides of his character with the composition of the work (the more passionate numbers are signed F. (Florestan) and the more dreamy signed E. (Eusebius)). The work begins with the \"motto of C. W.\" (Clara Wieck) denoting her support for the ideals of the Davidsbund. The Bund was a music society of Schumann's imagination, members of which were kindred spirits (as he saw them) such as Chopin, Paganini and Clara, as well as the personalized Florestan and Eusebius.Kinderszenen, Op. 15, completed in 1838 and a favourite of Schumann's piano works, depicts the innocence and playfulness of childhood. The \"Tr\u00e4umerei\" in F major, No. 7 of the set, is one of the most famous piano pieces ever written, and has been performed in myriad forms and transcriptions. It has been the favourite encore of several great pianists, including Vladimir Horowitz. Melodic and deceptively simple, the piece is \"complex\" in its harmonic structure.\nKreisleriana, Op. 16 (1838), considered one of Schumann's greatest works, carried his fantasy and emotional range deeper. Johannes Kreisler was a fictional musician created by poet E. T. A. Hoffmann, and characterized as a \"romantic brought into contact with reality.\" Schumann used the figure to express \"fantastic and mad\" emotional states. According to Hutcheson (\"The Literature of the Piano\"), this work is \"among the finest efforts of Schumann's genius. He never surpassed the searching beauty of the slow movements (Nos. 2, 4, 6) or the urgent passion of others (Nos. 1, 3, 5, 7) [\u2026] To appreciate it a high level of aesthetic intelligence is required [\u2026] This is no facile music, there is severity alike in its beauty and its passion.\"\nThe Fantasie in C, Op. 17, composed in the summer of 1836, is a work of passion and deep pathos, imbued with the spirit of the late Beethoven. Schumann intended to use proceeds from sales of the work toward the construction of a monument to Beethoven, who had died in 1827. The first movement of the Fantasie contains a musical quote from Beethoven's song cycle, An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 (at the Adagio coda, taken from the last song of the cycle). The original titles of the movements were Ruins, Triumphal Arch, and The Starry Crown. According to Franz Liszt, who played the work for Schumann and to whom it was dedicated, the Fantasie was apt to be played too heavily, and should have a dreamier (tr\u00e4umerisch) character than vigorous German pianists tended to impart. Liszt also said: \"It is a noble work, worthy of Beethoven, whose career, by the way, it is supposed to represent\". Again, according to Hutcheson: \"No words can describe the Phantasie, no quotations set forth the majesty of its genius. It must suffice to say that it is Schumann's greatest work in large form for piano solo.\"\nAfter a visit to Vienna, during which he discovered Franz Schubert's previously unknown Symphony No. 9 in C, in 1839 Schumann wrote the Faschingsschwank aus Wien (Carnival Prank from Vienna). Most of the joke is in the central section of the first movement, which makes a thinly veiled reference to La Marseillaise. (Vienna had banned the song due to harsh memories of Napoleon's invasion.) The festive mood does not preclude moments of melancholic introspection in the Intermezzo.\n\n\n=== 1840\u20131849 ===\nFrom 1832 to 1839, Schumann wrote almost exclusively for piano, but in 1840 alone he wrote at least 138 songs. Indeed, 1840 (the Liederjahr or year of song) is highly significant in Schumann's musical legacy, despite his earlier deriding of works for piano and voice as inferior.\n\nAfter a long and acrimonious legal battle with her father, Schumann married Clara Wieck in the Ged\u00e4chtniskirche Sch\u00f6nefeld in Leipzig-Sch\u00f6nefeld, on 12 September 1840, the day before her 21st birthday. Had they waited another day, they would no longer have required her father's consent. Their marriage supported a remarkable business partnership, with Clara  acting as an inspiration, critic, and confidante to her husband. Despite her delicate appearance, she was an extremely strong-willed and energetic woman, who kept up a demanding schedule of concert tours in between bearing several children. Two years after their marriage, Friedrich Wieck at last reconciled himself with the couple, eager to see his grandchildren.\nPrior to the legal case and subsequent marriage, the lovers exchanged love letters and rendezvoused in secret. Robert often waited for hours in a cafe in a nearby city just to see Clara for a few minutes after one of her concerts. The strain of this long courtship and its consummation may have led to this great outpouring of Lieder (vocal songs with piano accompaniment). This is evident in Widmung, for example, where he uses the melody from Schubert's Ave Maria in the postlude in homage to Clara. Schumann's biographers attribute the sweetness, doubt, and despair of these songs to the emotions aroused by his love for Clara and the uncertainties of their future together.\nRobert and Clara had eight children, Emil (1846\u20131847), who died at 1 year; Marie (1841\u20131929); Elise (1843\u20131928); Julie (1845\u20131872); Ludwig (1848\u20131899); Ferdinand (1849\u20131891); Eugenie (1851\u20131938); and Felix (1854\u20131879).\n\nHis chief song-cycles in this period were settings of the Liederkreis of Joseph von Eichendorff, Op. 39 (depicting a series of moods relating to or inspired by nature); the Frauenliebe und -leben of Chamisso, Op. 42 (relating the tale of a woman's marriage, childbirth and widowhood); the Dichterliebe of Heine, Op. 48 (depicting a lover rejected, but coming to terms with his painful loss through renunciation and forgiveness); and Myrthen, a collection of songs, including poems by Goethe, R\u00fcckert, Heine, Byron, Burns and Moore. The songs Belsatzar, Op. 57 and Die beiden Grenadiere, Op. 49, both to Heine's words, show Schumann at his best as a ballad writer, although the dramatic ballad is less congenial to him than the introspective lyric. The Op. 35, 40 and 98a sets (words by Justinus Kerner, Chamisso and Goethe respectively), although less well known, also contain songs of lyric and dramatic quality.\n\nIn 1841 he wrote two of his four symphonies, No. 1 in B-flat, Op. 38, Spring and No. 4 in D minor (the latter a pioneering work in \"cyclic form\", was performed that year but published only much later after revision and extensive re-orchestration as Op. 120). He devoted 1842 to composing chamber music, including the Piano Quintet in E-flat, Op. 44, now one of his best known and most admired works; the Piano Quartet and three string quartets. In 1843 he wrote Paradise and the Peri, his first attempt at concerted vocal music, an oratorio style work based on Lalla-Rookh by Thomas Moore. The main role of Peri in the world premiere was performed by Schumann's family friend, soprano Livia Frege. After this, his compositions were not confined to any one form during any particular period.\nThe stage in his life when he was deeply engaged in setting Goethe's Faust to music (1844\u201353) was a turbulent one for his health. He spent the first half of 1844 with Clara on tour in Russia, and his depression grew worse as he felt inferior to Clara as a musician. On returning to Germany, he abandoned his editorial work and left Leipzig for Dresden, where he suffered from persistent \"nervous prostration\". As soon as he began to work, he was seized with fits of shivering and an apprehension of death, experiencing an abhorrence of high places, all metal instruments (even keys), and drugs. Schumann's diaries also state that he suffered perpetually from imagining that he had the note A5 sounding in his ears.His state of unease and neurasthenia is reflected in his Symphony in C, numbered second but third in order of composition, in which the composer explores states of exhaustion, obsession, and depression, culminating in Beethovenian spiritual triumph. Also published in 1845 was his Piano Concerto in A minor, Op. 54, originally conceived and performed as a one-movement Fantasy for Piano and Orchestra in 1841. It is one of the most popular and oft-recorded of all piano concertos; according to Hutcheson \"Schumann achieved a masterly work and we inherited the finest piano concerto since Mozart and Beethoven\".\n\nIn 1846, he felt he had recovered. In the winter, the Schumanns revisited Vienna, traveling to Prague and Berlin in the spring of 1847 and in the summer to Zwickau, where he was received with enthusiasm. This pleased him, since until that time he was famous in only Dresden and Leipzig.\nHis only opera, Genoveva, Op. 81, premiered in Spring 1850. In it, Schumann attempted to abolish recitative, which he regarded as an interruption to the musical flow (an influence on Richard Wagner; Schumann's consistently flowing melody can be seen as a forerunner to Wagner's Melos). The subject of Genoveva\u2014based on Ludwig Tieck and Christian Friedrich Hebbel's plays\u2014was not seen an ideal choice. The text is often considered to lack dramatic qualities; the work has not remained in the repertoire. As early as 1842 the possibilities of German opera had been keenly realized by Schumann, who wrote, \"Do you know my prayer as an artist, night and morning? It is called 'German Opera.' Here is a real field for enterprise ... something simple, profound, German\". And in his notebook of suggestions for the text of operas are found amongst others: Nibelungen, Lohengrin and Till Eulenspiegel.\nThe music to Byron's Manfred was written in 1849, the overture of which is one of Schumann's most frequently performed orchestral works. The insurrection of Dresden caused Schumann to move to Kreischa, a little village a few miles outside the city. In August 1849, on the occasion of the centenary of Goethe's birth, completed scenes of Schumann's Scenes from Goethe's Faust were performed in Dresden, Leipzig and Weimar. Liszt gave him assistance and encouragement. The rest of the work was written later in 1849, and the overture (which Schumann described as \"one of the sturdiest of [his] creations\") in 1853.\n\n\n=== After 1850 ===\n\nFrom 1850 to 1854, Schumann composed in a wide variety of genres. Critics have disputed the quality of his work at this time; a widely held view has been that his music showed signs of mental breakdown and creative decay. More recently, critics have suggested that the changes in style may be explained by \"lucid experimentation\".In 1850, Schumann succeeded Ferdinand Hiller as musical director at D\u00fcsseldorf, but he was a poor conductor and quickly aroused the opposition of the musicians. According to Harold C. Schonberg, in his 1967 The Great Conductors: \"The great composer was impossible on the platform ... There is something heartrending about poor Schumann's epochal inefficiency as a conductor.\" His contract was eventually terminated. By the end of that year he completed his Symphony No. 3, \"Rhenish\" (a work containing five movements and whose 4th movement is apparently intended to represent an episcopal coronation ceremony). In 1851 he revised what would be published as his fourth symphony. From 1851 to 1853 he visited Switzerland, Belgium and Leipzig.\nOn 30 September 1853, the 20-year-old composer Johannes Brahms arrived unannounced at the door of the Schumanns carrying a letter of introduction from violinist Joseph Joachim. (Schumann was not at home, and would not meet Brahms until the next day.) Brahms amazed Clara and Robert with his music, stayed with them for several weeks, and became a close family friend. (He later worked closely with Clara to popularize Schumann's compositions during her long widowhood.)\nDuring this time Schumann, Brahms and Schumann's pupil Albert Dietrich collaborated on the composition of the F-A-E Sonata for Joachim; Schumann also published an article, \"Neue Bahnen\" (\"New Paths\") in the Neue Zeitschrift (his first article in many years), hailing the unknown young Brahms from Hamburg, a man who had published nothing, as \"the Chosen One\" who \"was destined to give ideal expression to the times.\" It was an extraordinary way to present Brahms to the musical world, setting up great expectations that he did not fulfill for many years. In January 1854, Schumann went to Hanover, where he heard a performance of his Paradise and the Peri organized by Joachim and Brahms. Two years later at Schumann's request, the work received its first English performance conducted by William Sterndale Bennett.\n\nSchumann returned to D\u00fcsseldorf and began to edit his complete works and make an anthology on the subject of music. He suffered a renewal of the symptoms that had threatened him earlier. Besides the single note sounding in his ear (possibly evidence of tinnitus,) he imagined that voices sounded in his ear and he heard angelic music. One night he suddenly left his bed, having dreamt or imagined that a ghost (purportedly the spirit of either Schubert or Mendelssohn) had dictated a \"spirit theme\" to him. The theme was one he had used several times before: in his Second String Quartet, again in his Lieder-Album f\u00fcr die Jugend, and finally in the slow movement of his Violin Concerto. In the days leading up to his suicide attempt, Schumann wrote five variations on this theme for the piano, his last completed work, today known as the Geistervariationen (Ghost Variations). Brahms published it in a supplementary volume to the complete edition of Schumann's piano music. In 1861 Brahms published his Variations for Piano Four Hands, Op. 23, based on this theme.\n\n\n=== Final illness and death ===\nIn late February 1854, Schumann's symptoms increased, the angelic visions sometimes being replaced by demonic ones. He warned Clara that he feared he might do her harm. On 27 February, he attempted suicide by throwing himself from a bridge into the Rhine River (his elder sister Emilie had committed suicide in 1825, possibly by drowning herself). Rescued by boatmen and taken home, he asked to be taken to an asylum for the insane. He entered Dr. Franz Richarz's sanatorium in Endenich, a quarter of Bonn, and remained there until he died on 29 July 1856 at the age of 46. During his confinement, he was not allowed to see Clara, although Brahms was free to visit him. Clara finally visited him two days before his death. He appeared to recognize her, but was able to speak only a few words.Given his reported symptoms, one modern view is that he died from syphilis, which he could have contracted during his student days, and which could have remained latent during most of his marriage. According to studies by the musicologist and literary scholar Eric Sams, Schumann's symptoms during his terminal illness and death appear consistent with those of mercury poisoning; mercury was a common treatment for syphilis and other conditions. Another possibility is that his neurological problems were a result of an intracranial mass. A report by Janisch and Nauhaus on Schumann's autopsy indicates that he had a \"gelatinous\" tumor at the base of the brain; it may have represented a colloid cyst, a craniopharyngioma, a chordoma, or a chordoid meningioma. In particular, meningiomas are known to produce musical auditory hallucinations such as Schumann reported. It has also been hypothesised that he suffered from schizophrenia, or schizoaffective disorder; bipolar type, or bipolar disorder and bipolar II disorder. His medical records from this illness were released in 1991, and suggest a \"progressive paralysis\", a term used for neurosyphilis at the time, although a diagnostic test for Treponema pallidum did not become available till 1906.Schumann heard a persistent A-note at the end of his life. It was a form of tinnitus, or perhaps an auditory hallucination related to his major depressive episode. At times, he had musical hallucinations that were longer than just the single A, but his diaries include comments about hearing that annoying single note.After Robert's death, Clara continued her career as a concert pianist, which supported the family. From mid-career on, she mainly performed music by leading composers. A hired cook and housekeeper tended to the children while she traveled. In 1856, she first visited England. The critics received Robert's music coolly, with Henry Fothergill Chorley being particularly harsh. She returned to London in 1865 and made regular appearances there in later years, often performing chamber music with the violinist Joseph Joachim and others. She became the authoritative editor of her husband's works for Breitkopf & H\u00e4rtel. It was rumoured that she and Brahms destroyed many of Schumann's later works, which they thought were tainted by his madness, but only the Five Pieces for Cello and Piano are known to have been destroyed. Most of Schumann's late works, particularly the Violin Concerto, the Fantasy for Violin and Orchestra and the Violin Sonata No. 3, all from 1853, have entered the repertoire.\n\n\n== Legacy ==\n\nSchumann had considerable influence in the nineteenth century and beyond, despite his adoption of more conservative modes of composition after his marriage. He left an array of acclaimed music in virtually all the forms then known. Partly through his prot\u00e9g\u00e9 Brahms, Schumann's ideals and musical vocabulary became widely disseminated. Composer Sir Edward Elgar called Schumann \"my ideal.\"\nSchumann has often been confused with Austrian composer Franz Schubert; one well-known example occurred in 1956, when East Germany issued a pair of postage stamps featuring Schumann's picture against an open score that featured Schubert's music. The stamps were soon replaced by a pair featuring music written by Schumann.\n\n\n== Instruments ==\nOne of the best known instruments that Robert Schumann played on was the grand piano by Conrad Graf, a present from Graf on the occasion of Robert and Clara\u2019s marriage in 1839. This instrument stood in Schumann\u2019s workroom in D\u00fcsseldorf and was later given by Clara Schumann to Johannes Brahms. After changing a few lodgings, it was received by the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde and can be seen at the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna.\n\n\n== Compositions ==\nList of compositions by Robert Schumann\nCategory:Compositions by Robert Schumann\n\n\n== Media portrayals ==\nDreaming (1944) is a UFA movie starring Mathias Wieman as Schumann, Hilde Krahl as Clara Wieck, Ullrich Haupt as Johannes Brahms, and Emil Lohkamp as Franz Liszt.\nSong of Love (1947) is an MGM film starring Paul Henreid as Schumann, Katharine Hepburn as Clara Wieck, Robert Walker as Johannes Brahms, and Henry Daniell as Franz Liszt.\nPeter Schamoni's 1983 movie Fr\u00fchlingssinfonie (Spring Symphony) tells the story of Schumann and Wieck's romance, against her father's opposition. Robert was played by Herbert Gr\u00f6nemeyer, Clara by Nastassja Kinski, and Clara's father by Rolf Hoppe. The role of Niccol\u00f2 Paganini was played by the violinist Gidon Kremer. The score was written by Gr\u00f6nemeyer and conducted by Wolfgang Sawallisch.\nThe Andrew Crumey novel Mobius Dick has a chapter depicting Schumann at Endenich.\nSeinfeld: Robert Schumann is mentioned in a 1991 episode of Seinfeld called \"The Jacket\".\nFrasier: The troubled Dresden premiere of the Second Symphony is mentioned in a 1998 episode of Frasier \"Frasier's Curse\".\nGeliebte Clara (\"Beloved Clara\") was a 2008 Franco-German-Hungarian film about the lives of Clara and Robert.\nLonging is a 2000 biographical novel by American author J. D. Landis.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n\n=== Life and works ===\nMusical Rules at Home and in Life \u2013 text by Robert Schumann\n\"Discovering Schumann\". BBC Radio 3.\nTroubadisc \u2013 Robert Schumann\nS\u00e4chsische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig \u2013 edition of letters written by Robert and Clara Schumann\nTexts and translations of Schumann's Lieder\nThe city of Robert Schumann\nRobert and Clara Schumann and their teacher, Johann Sebastian Bach\nWorks by or about Robert Schumann at Internet Archive (texts)\n\n\n=== Sheet music ===\nFree scores by Robert Schumann at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)\nFree scores by Robert Schumann in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)\nFree digital scores by Robert Schumann in the OpenScore Lieder Corpus\nRobert Schumann at the Mutopia Project\nWorks by Robert Schumann at Project Gutenberg\n\n\n=== Recordings and MIDI ===\nSchumann cylinder recordings, from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library.\nWorks by or about Robert Schumann at Internet Archive (audio and video)\nRecording of Kinderszenen (Scenes from Childhood)\nSelected Lieder (MIDI)\nKunst der Fuge Robert Schumann \u2013 MIDI files\nHerbert von Karajan / Vienna Symphony Orchestra rehearse the 4th Symphony on YouTube", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/1960_CPA_2422.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Andreas_Staub_-_Clara_Wieck_%28Lithographie_1839%2C_cropped%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Audio_a.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Bonn_graveyard_robert_schumann_20080509.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Friedrich_Wieck_um_1838.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/GDR_stamp_Robert_Schumann_1956-vertical.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Leipzig_Schumann-Haus.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Rob.Schumann.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Robert-Schumann-Haus.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Robert_Schumann_-_Andante_and_Variations_-_Introduction%2C_Theme_and_Variations_01-05.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Robert_Schumann_-_Andante_and_Variations_-_Variations_06-10.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Robert_Schumann_-_Andante_and_Variations_-_Variations_11-15.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Robert_Schumann_-_Fantasie_-_Lento_sostenuto_Sempre_piano.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Robert_Schumann_-_Fantasie_-_Moderato%2C_Sempre_energico.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Robert_Schumann_-_Fantasie_-_Sempre_Fantasticamente_ed_Appassionatamente.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Robert_Schumann_1839.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Robert_Schumann_Kreisleriana_Op._16_N3_Giorgi_Latsabidze.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Robert_Schumann_in_youth.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Robert_and_Clara_Schumann.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Robert_u_Clara_Schumann_1847.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Robertschumann.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Schumann-arabeske-andrea-valori.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Schumann-photo1850.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Schumannhaus_ALT.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Signature_Robert_Schumann-2.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Zwickau_Robert_Schumann_Birth_House.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/P_vip.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"], "summary": "Robert Schumann (German: [\u02c8\u0283u\u02d0man]; 8 June 1810 \u2013 29 July 1856) was a German composer, pianist, and influential music critic. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era. Schumann left the study of law, intending to pursue a career as a virtuoso pianist. His teacher, Friedrich Wieck, a German pianist, had assured him that he could become the finest pianist in Europe, but a hand injury ended this dream. Schumann then focused his musical energies on composing.\nIn 1840, Schumann married Clara Wieck, after a long and acrimonious legal battle with her father, Friedrich, who opposed the marriage. A lifelong partnership in music began, as Clara herself was an established pianist and music prodigy. Clara and Robert also maintained a close relationship with German composer Johannes Brahms.\nUntil 1840, Schumann wrote exclusively for the piano. Later, he composed piano and orchestral works, and many Lieder (songs for voice and piano). He composed four symphonies, one opera, and other orchestral, choral, and chamber works. His best-known works include Carnaval, Symphonic Studies, Kinderszenen, Kreisleriana, and the Fantasie in C. Schumann was known for infusing his music with characters through motifs, as well as references to works of literature. These characters bled into his editorial writing in the Neue Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Musik (New Journal for Music), a Leipzig-based publication that he co-founded.\nSchumann suffered from a mental disorder that first manifested in 1833 as a severe melancholic depressive episode\u2014which recurred several times alternating with phases of \"exaltation\" and increasingly also delusional ideas of being poisoned or threatened with metallic items. What is now thought to have been a combination of bipolar disorder and perhaps mercury poisoning led to \"manic\" and \"depressive\" periods in Schumann's compositional productivity. After a suicide attempt in 1854, Schumann was admitted at his own request to a mental asylum in Endenich near Bonn. Diagnosed with psychotic melancholia, he died of pneumonia two years later at the age of 46, without recovering from his mental illness."}, "Toccata_": {"links": ["Arpeggio", "Andrea Gabrieli", "Maurice Ravel", "Dieterich Buxtehude", "Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji", "MIDI", "Toccata ", "Nikolai Kapustin", "Hans Leo Hassler", "Giovanni Gabrieli", "Improvisation", "Randolph Hokanson", "The Musical Times", "Johann Sebastian Bach", "Classical Archives", "Symphony No. eight ", "Charles-Marie Widor", "Baroque music", "Pierre Sancan", "Piano", "Alessandro Scarlatti", "Italian language", "Piano Concerto ", "Robert Browning", "Violin Concerto ", "Fugue", "Toccatas for Keyboard ", "A Toccata of Galuppi's", "Virtuoso", "Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck", "Keyboard instrument", "Trubschachen", "Imitation ", "Adriano Banchieri", "Claudio Merulo", "Ralph Vaughan Williams", "L'Orfeo", "Robert Schumann", "Claudio Monteverdi", "George Enescu", "Wanda Landowska", "Prelude ", "twentyth-century classical music", "Girolamo Frescobaldi", "Charles-Valentin Alkan", "Michelangelo Rossi", "John Rutter", "Franz Liszt", "Baldassare Galuppi", "Claude Debussy", "Jacques-Nicolas Lemmens", "Johann Pachelbel", "John Adams ", "Paul Hindemith", "Romantic music", "Louis Vierne", "Symphony for Organ No. five ", "Le Tombeau de Couperin", "Moises Moleiro", "Sergei Prokofiev", "Aram Khachaturian", "York Bowen", "Johann Jakob Froberger", "Luzzasco Luzzaschi", "Piano Suite No. two ", "Jazz", "Evgeny Kissin", "Orchestra", "Benjamin Britten", "Plucked string instrument", "Renaissance music", "Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV five sixty-five", "Pour le piano", "Kammermusik ", "Emma Lou Diemer", "Jules Massenet", "Nikolai Medtner"], "content": "Toccata (from Italian toccare, literally, \"to touch\", with \"toccata\" being the action of touching) is a virtuoso piece of music typically for a keyboard or plucked string instrument featuring fast-moving, lightly fingered or otherwise virtuosic passages or sections, with or without imitative or fugal interludes, generally emphasizing the dexterity of the performer's fingers. Less frequently, the name is applied to works for multiple instruments (the opening of Claudio Monteverdi's opera L'Orfeo being a notable example).\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Renaissance ===\nThe form first appeared in the late Renaissance period. It originated in northern Italy. Several publications of the 1590s include toccatas, by composers such as Claudio Merulo, Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli, Adriano Banchieri, and Luzzasco Luzzaschi. These are keyboard compositions in which one hand, and then the other, performs virtuosic runs and brilliant cascading passages against a chordal accompaniment in the other hand. Among the composers working in Venice at this time was the young Hans Leo Hassler, who studied with the Gabrielis; he brought the form back with him to Germany. It was in Germany where it underwent its highest development, culminating in the work of Johann Sebastian Bach more than a hundred years later.\n\n\n=== Baroque ===\nThe Baroque toccata, beginning with Girolamo Frescobaldi, is more sectional and increased in length, intensity and virtuosity from the Renaissance version, reaching heights of extravagance equivalent to the overwhelming detail seen in the architecture of the period. It often featured rapid runs and arpeggios alternating with chordal or fugal parts. Sometimes there was a lack of regular tempo and almost always an improvisational feel.\nOther Baroque composers of toccatas, in the period before Bach, include Johann Pachelbel, Michelangelo Rossi, Johann Jakob Froberger, Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck, Alessandro Scarlatti, and Dieterich Buxtehude.\nBach's toccatas are among the most famous examples of the form, and his Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565 is one of the most popular organ works today, although its authorship is disputed by some authorities. His toccatas for organ are improvisatory compositions, and are often followed by an independent fugue movement. In such cases, the toccata is used in place of the usually more stable prelude. Bach's toccatas for harpsichord are multi-sectional works which include fugal writing as part of their structure.\n\n\n=== After the Baroque ===\nBeyond the Baroque period, toccatas are found less frequently. There are a few notable examples, however. From the Romantic period, Robert Schumann and Franz Liszt each wrote a piano toccata. Schumann's ambitious Toccata in C major is considered one of the most technically difficult works in the repertoire and the foremost representative of the genre in the 1800s. The Liszt toccata is a very short and austere composition from his late period, and is practically a toccata only by name. Smaller-scale toccatas are sometimes called \"toccatina\": Liszt's contemporary and well-known virtuoso in his day Charles-Valentin Alkan composed a brief toccatina as his last published work (Op. 75).\nFrom the early 20th century, Prokofiev and Aram Khachaturian each wrote a toccata for solo piano, as did French composers Maurice Ravel as part of Le Tombeau de Couperin, Jules Massenet, Claude Debussy in his suite Pour le piano and also \"Jardins sous la pluie\" (which is a toccata but not in name), Pierre Sancan and York Bowen's Toccata Op. 155. Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji wrote four toccatas for solo piano, while Moises Moleiro wrote two. George Enescu's Piano Suite No. 2, Op. 10, opens with a toccata. The first movement of Benjamin Britten's Piano Concerto is a toccata, as is the first movement of Nikolai Medtner's 2nd piano concerto.\nThe toccata form was of great importance in the French romantic organ school, something of which Jacques-Nicolas Lemmens laid the foundation with his Fanfare. Toccatas in this style usually consist of rapid chord progressions combined with a powerful tune (often played in the pedal). The most famous examples are the ending movement of Charles-Marie Widor's Symphony No. 5, and the Finale of Louis Vierne's Symphony No. 1.\nMore recently, John Rutter wrote Toccata in Seven, so called because of its time signature. Toccatas occasionally make appearances in works for full orchestra; a notable example is the final movement of the Eighth Symphony of Ralph Vaughan Williams. As for toccatas written for string instruments, the final movement of John Adams' Violin Concerto is entitled \"Toccare,\" a possible reference to the origins of the word toccata; and the first movement (Schnelle halbe) of Paul Hindemith's fifth Kammermusik (a viola concerto) is written as a toccata. Another contemporary composer who has written many toccatas is Emma Lou Diemer. In addition to several toccatas for organ, she has written three for piano (the one written in 1979 is frequently played), one for flute chorus, one for violin and piano, one for solo timpani and one for six mallet percussion. Russian jazz composer Nikolai Kapustin composed two toccatina; one as part of his Eight Concert Etudes, Op. 40 and another Opus 36. Evgeny Kissin wrote a jazz-inspired toccata as part of his Four Piano Pieces, Op. 1.\n\n\n== Literature ==\nRobert Browning used the motif or concept of a toccata by Baldassare Galuppi to evoke thoughts of human transience in his poem \"A Toccata of Galuppi's\" (although Galuppi did not actually write any piece with the name 'Toccata').\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nRobert Browning, \"A Toccata of Galuppi's\" published 1855 e-text", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Girolamo_Frescobaldi_-_Toccata_3.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/JSBach_Toccata_Dmaj.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Johann_Pachelbel_Toccata_F-Dur.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Johann_Pachelbel_Toccata_e-Moll.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Ringk_Copy_-_First_Page_Fragment.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Scarlatti_-_Toccata_3.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Toccata_et_Fugue_BWV565.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg"], "summary": "Toccata (from Italian toccare, literally, \"to touch\", with \"toccata\" being the action of touching) is a virtuoso piece of music typically for a keyboard or plucked string instrument featuring fast-moving, lightly fingered or otherwise virtuosic passages or sections, with or without imitative or fugal interludes, generally emphasizing the dexterity of the performer's fingers. Less frequently, the name is applied to works for multiple instruments (the opening of Claudio Monteverdi's opera L'Orfeo being a notable example)."}, "Alessandro_Scarlatti": {"links": ["Pietro Filippo Scarlatti", "Tommaso Traetta", "Kobie van Rensburg", "Antonio Abete", "I Musici", "Veronica Cangemi", "International Music Score Library Project", "Ostinato", "Trove ", "Silvia Tro Santafe", "Stabat Mater ", "Naples", "Giacomo Carissimi", "List of operas by Alessandro Scarlatti", "Giuseppe Scarlatti", "Richard Croft ", "Decca Records", "Griselda ", "Ritornello", "Neapolitan school", "Stigliano", "Leonardo Vinci", "Mitridate Eupatore", "Niccol\u00f2 Piccinni", "Binary form", "Francesco Provenzale", "Telemaco ", "Domenico Cimarosa", "ISNI ", "Gesellschaft f\u00fcr Musikforschung", "Carlo re d'Allemagna", "Graciela Oddone", "Erminia ", "Ferdinando ", "Francesco Feo", "Gian Francesco de Majo", "Scarlatti ", "Trapani", "Violin", "Lenore Smith ", "Viceroy", "Domenico Scarlatti", "ATMA Classique", "Hans Elhorst", "Serenata", "L'honest\u00e0 negli amori", "Recitatives", "Da capo", "Messa di Santa Cecilia", "Cardinal Ottoboni", "Rome", "Saint Cecilia", "Rosa Scarlatti", "Nicholas McGegan", "Nicholas Phan", "Nicola Porpora", "Emma Kirkby", "Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore", "Johann Sebastian Bach", "Se tu della mia morte", "Francesco Acquaviva", "Tigrane ", "Dorothea R\u00f6schmann", "Urbino", "Cantata", "Philharmonia Baroque Orchestra", "Niccol\u00f2 Jommelli", "Oboe", "Scarlatti Peak", "Teatro Capranica", "Baroque music", "RISM ", "Ludwig van Beethoven", "Leonardo Leo", "Giovanni Legrenzi", "Florence", "Trumpet", "Opera", "Ternary form", "Il trionfo dell'onore", "Choral Public Domain Library", "Francesco Scarlatti", "Cambise ", "MBA ", "Ren\u00e9 Jacobs", "Neapolitan School", "Il Pompeo", "Santa Maria di Montesanto, Naples", "Giovanni Bononcini", "Giovanni Paisiello", "William Bennett ", "Lawrence Zazzo", "Oratorio", "SUDOC ", "Sinfonie di concerto grosso", "Alessandro Stradella", "Giovanni Battista Pergolesi", "Kingdom of Sicily ", "Il Martirio di Santa Cecilia", "Christina of Sweden", "Venice", "Composer", "Bernarda Fink", "Francesco Durante", "VIAF ", "Palermo", "Harry van der Kamp", "Bernard Soustrot"], "content": "Pietro Alessandro Gaspare Scarlatti (2 May 1660 \u2013 22 October 1725) was an Italian Baroque composer, known especially for his operas and chamber cantatas. He is considered the most important representative of the Neapolitan school of opera. He was the father of two other composers, Domenico Scarlatti and Pietro Filippo Scarlatti.\n\n\n== Life ==\nScarlatti was born in Palermo (or in Trapani), then part of the Kingdom of Sicily. He is generally said to have been a pupil of Giacomo Carissimi in Rome, and some theorize that he had some connection with northern Italy because his early works seem to show the influence of Stradella and Legrenzi. The production at Rome of his opera Gli equivoci nel sembiante (1679) gained him the support of Queen Christina of Sweden (who at the time was living in Rome), and he became her maestro di cappella. In February 1684 he became maestro di cappella to the viceroy of Naples, perhaps through the influence of his sister, an opera singer, who might have been the mistress of an influential Neapolitan noble. Here he produced a long series of operas, remarkable chiefly for their fluency and expressiveness, as well as other music for state occasions.\nIn 1702 Scarlatti left Naples and did not return until the Spanish domination had been superseded by that of the Austrians. In the interval he enjoyed the patronage of Ferdinando de' Medici, for whose private theatre near Florence he composed operas, and of Cardinal Ottoboni, who made him his maestro di cappella, and procured him a similar post at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome in 1703.\nAfter visiting Venice and Urbino in 1707, Scarlatti took up his duties in Naples again in 1708, and remained there until 1717. By this time Naples seems to have become tired of his music; the Romans, however, appreciated it better, and it was at the Teatro Capranica in Rome that he produced some of his finest operas (Telemaco, 1718; Marco Attilio Regol\u00f2, 1719; La Griselda, 1721), as well as some noble specimens of church music, including a Messa di Santa Cecilia for chorus and orchestra, composed in honor of Saint Cecilia for Cardinal Francesco Acquaviva in 1721. His last work on a large scale appears to have been the unfinished Erminia serenata for the marriage of the prince of Stigliano in 1723. He died in Naples in 1725 and is entombed there at the church of Santa Maria di Montesanto.\n\n\n== Scarlatti's music ==\n\nScarlatti's music forms an important link between the early Baroque Italian vocal styles of the 17th century, with their centers in Florence, Venice and Rome, and the classical school of the 18th century. Scarlatti's style, however, is more than a transitional element in Western music; like most of his Naples colleagues he shows an almost modern understanding of the psychology of modulation and also frequently makes use of the ever-changing phrase lengths so typical of the Napoli school.\nHis early operas\u2014Gli equivoci nel sembiante 1679; L'honest\u00e0 negli amori 1680, containing the famous aria \"Gi\u00e0 il sole dal Gange\"; Il Pompeo 1683, containing the well-known airs \"O cessate di piagarmi\" and \"Toglietemi la vita ancor,\" and others down to about 1685\u2014retain the older cadences in their recitatives, and a considerable variety of neatly constructed forms in their charming little arias, accompanied sometimes by the string quartet, treated with careful elaboration, sometimes with the continuo alone. By 1686, he had definitely established the \"Italian overture\" form (second edition of Dal male il bene), and had abandoned the ground bass and the binary form air in two stanzas in favour of the ternary form or da capo type of air. His best operas of this period are La Rosaura (1690, printed by the Gesellschaft f\u00fcr Musikforschung), and Pirro e Demetrio (1694), in which occur the arias \"Le Violette\", and \"Ben ti sta, traditor\".\nFrom about 1697 onwards (La caduta del Decemviri), influenced partly perhaps by the style of Giovanni Bononcini and probably more by the taste of the viceregal court, his opera arias become more conventional and commonplace in rhythm, while his scoring is hasty and crude, yet not without brilliance (L'Eraclea, 1700), the oboes and trumpets being frequently used, and the violins often playing in unison. The operas composed for Ferdinando de' Medici are lost; they might have given a more favourable idea of his style as his correspondence with the prince shows that they were composed with a very sincere sense of inspiration.\n\nMitridate Eupatore, accounted his masterpiece, composed for Venice in 1707, contains music far in advance of anything that Scarlatti had written for Naples, both in technique and in intellectual power. The later Neapolitan operas (L'amor volubile e tiranno 1709; La principessa fedele 1710; Tigrane, 1714, &c.) are showy and effective rather than profoundly emotional; the instrumentation marks a great advance on previous work, since the main duty of accompanying the voice is thrown upon the string quartet, the harpsichord being reserved exclusively for the noisy instrumental ritornelli. In his opera Teodora (1697) he originated the use of the orchestral ritornello.\nHis last group of operas, composed for Rome, exhibit a deeper poetic feeling, a broad and dignified style of melody, a strong dramatic sense, especially in accompanied recitatives, a device which he himself had been the first to use as early as 1686 (Olimpia vendicata) and a much more modern style of orchestration, the horns appearing for the first time, and being treated with striking effect.\n\nBesides the operas, oratorios (Agar et Ismaele esiliati, 1684; La Maddalena, 1685; La Giuditta, 1693; Christmas Oratorio, c. 1705; S. Filippo Neri, 1714; and others) and serenatas, which all exhibit a similar style, Scarlatti composed upwards of five hundred chamber-cantatas for solo voice. These represent the most intellectual type of chamber-music of their period, and it is to be regretted that they have remained almost entirely in manuscript, since a careful study of them is indispensable to anyone who wishes to form an adequate idea of Scarlatti's development.\nHis few remaining Masses (the story of his having composed two hundred is hardly credible) and church music in general are comparatively unimportant, except the great Saint Cecilia Mass (1721), which is one of the first attempts at the style which reached its height in the great Masses of Johann Sebastian Bach and Ludwig van Beethoven. His instrumental music, though not without interest, is curiously antiquated as compared with his vocal works.\n\n\n== Operas ==\n\n\n== Recordings ==\nPhilharmonia Baroque Orchestra, Nicholas McGegan. (2016). La Gloria di Primavera. Philharmonia Baroque Orchestra. Diana Moore, Suzana Ograjensek, Nicholas Phan, Clint van der Linde, Douglas Williams, Philharmonia Chorale.\nAkademie f\u00fcr alte Musik Berlin, Ren\u00e9 Jacobs. (2007). Griselda. Harmonia Mundi HMC 901805.07. Dorothea R\u00f6schmann, Lawrence Zazzo, Veronica Cangemi, Bernarda Fink, Silvia Tro Santafe, Kobie van Rensburg.\nLe Consert de l'Hostel Dieu. (2006). Il martirio di Sant'Orsola. Ligia digital: 0202176-07\nLe parlement de musique. (2005). La Giuditta. Ambronay editions: AMY004\nEnsemble Europa Galante. (2004). Oratorio per la Santissima Trinit\u00e0. Virgin Classics: 5 45666 2\nAcademia Bizantina. (2004). Il Giardino di Rose. Decca: 470 650-2 DSA.\nOrqestra barocca di Sevilla . (2003). Colpa, Pentimento e Grazia. Harmonia Mundi: HMI 987045.46\nSeattle Baroque. (2001). Agar et Ismaele Esiliati. Centaur: CRC 2664\nCapella Palatina. (2000). Davidis pugna et victoria. Agora: AG 249.1\nAkademie f\u00fcr alten Musik Berlin, Ren\u00e9 Jacobs. (1998). Il Primo Omicidio. Harmonia Mundi Fr. Dorothea R\u00f6schmann, Graciela Oddone, Richard Croft, Ren\u00e9 Jacobs, Bernarda Fink, Antonio Abete\nEnsemble Europa Galante. (1995). Humanita e Lucifero. Opus 111: OPS 30\u2013129\nEnsemble Europa Galante. (1993). La Maddalena. Opus 111: OPS 30\u201396\nAllesandro Stradella Consort. (1992). Cantata natalizia Abramo, il tuo sembiante. Nuova era: 7117\nI Musici. (1991). Concerto Grosso. Philips Classics Productions: 434 160-2\nI Musici. William Bennett (Flute), Lenore Smith (Flute), Bernard Soustrot (Trumpet), Hans Elhorst (Oboe). (1961). 12 Sinfonie di concerto grosso Philips Box 6769 066 [9500 959 & 9500 960 \u2013 2 vinyl discs]\nEmma Kirkby, soprano and Daniel Taylor, countertenor, with the Theatre of Early Music. (2005). Stabat Mater. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2237\nFrancis Colpron, recorder, with Les Bor\u00e9ades. (2007). Concertos for flute. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2521\nNederlands Kamerkoor, with Harry van der Kamp, conductor. (2008). Vespro della Beata Vergine for 5 voices and continuo. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2533\n\n\n== See also ==\nMessa di Santa Cecilia\nIl Martirio di Santa Cecilia\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nAssociazione Domenico Scarlatti. Italian language (some material in English).\nFree scores by Alessandro Scarlatti at the International Music Score Library Project\nFree scores by Alessandro Scarlatti in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)\nThe Madrigals of Alessandro Scarlatti: A lecture/recital by Garrick Comeaux and Consortium Carissimi, with Kelley Harness, 12 February 2009. University of Minnesota Institute for Advanced Studies. Audio and video available.\nThe partimenti of Alessandro Scarlatti (D-Hs M/A 251)", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Alessandro_Scarlatti.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Alessandro_Scarlatti_2.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Scarlatti_-_Toccata_3.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Alessandro_Scarlatti_-_Griselda._%28BL_Add_MS_14168_f._5r%29_crop.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "Pietro Alessandro Gaspare Scarlatti (2 May 1660 \u2013 22 October 1725) was an Italian Baroque composer, known especially for his operas and chamber cantatas. He is considered the most important representative of the Neapolitan school of opera. He was the father of two other composers, Domenico Scarlatti and Pietro Filippo Scarlatti."}, "Neapolitan_school": {"links": ["Grupo de los cuatro", "Mannheim school", "New Jewish School", "Ars nova", "Francesco Provenzale", "Gian Francesco de Majo", "Les Six", "Neapolitan scale", "Giovanni Paisiello", "ISBN ", "Alessandro Scarlatti", "Don Michael Randel", "Leonardo Leo", "Darmstadt School", "Second New England School", "Domenico Cimarosa", "Giovanni Battista Pergolesi", "Francesco Durante", "Niccol\u00f2 Jommelli", "Composer", "Michael F. Robinson", "Saint Martial school", "Korvat auki", "Generaci\u00f3n del fifty-one", "Leonardo Vinci", "Giovane scuola", "Group of Eight ", "Grupo de renovaci\u00f3n musical", "New Music Manchester", "Bologna School of music", "American Five", "Grove Music Online", "Sonic Arts Union", "Khrennikov's Seven", "Boston School ", "New Simplicity", "Composition school", "Francesco Feo", "Franco-Flemish School", "Teatro di San Carlo", "Frankfurt Group", "Notre Dame school", "Cologne School ", "Grupo renovaci\u00f3n", "Oeldorf Group", "Ars antiqua", "Paul Henry Lang", "Tommaso Traetta", "Venetian School ", "New German School", "West Coast School", "Nicola Porpora", "English Madrigal School", "Burgundian School", "The Turkish Five", "New York School ", "Niccol\u00f2 Piccinni", "Monophony", "English Virginalist School", "English Pastoral School", "Neapolitan chord", "Second Viennese School", "The Five ", "Roman School", "Opera", "Oxford University Press", "Ars subtilior", "Naples", "Music history", "Polyphony", "Doi ", "First Viennese School"], "content": "In music history, the Neapolitan School is a group, associated with opera, of 17th and 18th-century composers who studied or worked in Naples, Italy, the best known of whom is Alessandro Scarlatti, with whom \"modern opera begins\". Francesco Provenzale is generally considered the school's founder.\nIt is with the Neapolitan school...that the History of Modern Music commences\u2014insofar as that music speaks the language of the feelings, emotions, and passions.\nThe Neapolitan School has been considered in between the Roman School and the Venetian School in importance.However, \"The concept of Neapolitan school, or more particularly Neapolitan opera, has been questioned by a number of scholars. That Naples was a significant musical center in the 18th century is beyond doubt. Whether the composers working in Naples at that time developed or partook of a distinct and characteristic musical style is less clear\" since so little is known about the repertory.\n\n\n== Members ==\nFrancesco Provenzale (1624\u20131704)\nAlessandro Scarlatti (1660\u20131725)\nFrancesco Durante (1684\u20131755)\nNicola Porpora (1686\u20131768)\nLeonardo Vinci (1690\u20131730)\nFrancesco Feo (1691\u20131761)\nLeonardo Leo (1694\u20131744)\nGiovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710\u20131736)\nNiccol\u00f2 Jommelli (1714\u20131774)\nTommaso Traetta (1727\u20131779)\nNiccol\u00f2 Piccinni (1728\u20131800)\nGian Francesco de Majo (1732\u20131770)\nGiovanni Paisiello (1740\u20131816)\nDomenico Cimarosa (1749\u20131801)\n\n\n== See also ==\nNeapolitan chord\nNeapolitan scale\nMonophony\nPolyphony\n\n\n== Sources ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Audio_a.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Eighth_notes_and_rest.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Mighty_Handful.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/San_carlo_panoram.JPG"], "summary": "In music history, the Neapolitan School is a group, associated with opera, of 17th and 18th-century composers who studied or worked in Naples, Italy, the best known of whom is Alessandro Scarlatti, with whom \"modern opera begins\". Francesco Provenzale is generally considered the school's founder.\nIt is with the Neapolitan school...that the History of Modern Music commences\u2014insofar as that music speaks the language of the feelings, emotions, and passions.\nThe Neapolitan School has been considered in between the Roman School and the Venetian School in importance.However, \"The concept of Neapolitan school, or more particularly Neapolitan opera, has been questioned by a number of scholars. That Naples was a significant musical center in the 18th century is beyond doubt. Whether the composers working in Naples at that time developed or partook of a distinct and characteristic musical style is less clear\" since so little is known about the repertory."}, "Polyphony": {"links": ["William Byrd", "Greece", "Dorze people", "Gusle", "Shopi", "Fuguing tune", "Cantu a tenore", "Antiphony", "Micropolyphony", "Baroque music", "Round ", "Serbia", "Mass for Five Voices", "Tom\u00e1s Luis de Victoria", "English cadence", "Ganga ", "Western Schism", "Thomas Tallis", "Plato", "Winchester Troper", "Consonance and dissonance", "Europe", "Daniel Albright", "Albanian iso-polyphony", "L\u00e9onin", "Papal bull", "San people", "Messe de Nostre Dame", "Kastoria", "Panpipe", "Dani people", "Bulgaria", "Catch ", "African Pygmies", "Bruno Nettl", "Melisma", "Missa Pange Lingua", "Counterpoint", "Subject ", "Rota ", "Skrapar", "Imitation ", "Ricercar", "Miserere ", "Polyphonic Era", "Musica enchiriadis", "Well-tempered Clavier", "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "Hugo Riemann", "Renaissance music", "Trope ", "Polynesians", "Music of Georgia ", "Second Vatican Council", "Hippocrates", "Josquin des Prez", "Picardy third", "Monophony", "Bantu peoples", "Venetian polychoral style", "Avignon", "Yodeling", "Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity", "Orlandus Lassus", "Corsica", "Polyphonic song of Epirus", "Guadalcanal", "Socrates", "Southern United States", "Margaret Bent", "Antipope", "West gallery music", "Sub-Saharan African music traditions", "Homophony", "Polyphony ", "Pirin", "Tetrachord", "The Sacred Harp", "Joseph Jordania", "Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony", "Zulus", "Sardinia", "Aka people", "Izvika", "Parallel interval", "Fugue", "Medieval music", "Why do People Sing? Music in Human Evolution", "West Africa", "Ison ", "Contrapuntal motion", "Oceania", "Shape-note", "Guillaume de Machaut", "New Guinea Highlands", "Ostinato", "Organum", "Pope Clement VI", "Pope John XXII", "Texture ", "Byzantine Empire", "Missa Papae Marcelli", "Gregorio Allegri", "Voice leading", "Croatia", "Scolica enchiriadis", "Docta Sanctorum Patrum", "J.S. Bach", "Ethnic Macedonians", "Maasai people", "Heterophony", "Greek language", "Wagogo", "Montenegro", "Moni people", "Geoffrey Chaucer", "Melismatic", "Manus Island", "Georgia ", "Pope Urban V", "The Southern Harmony", "Bistritsa Babi", "Drone ", "Homorhythm", "Mass ", "Solomon Islands", "Yali people", "False relation", "ISBN ", "BBC Radio three", "Chord ", "Ojkanje singing", "Music", "North Macedonia", "Jacob Obrecht", "OCLC ", "Qeleshe", "Part ", "Izaly Zemtsovsky", "Call and response ", "Jonathan Fruoco", "Fustanella", "Sumer is icumen in", "Canon ", "Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina", "Aromanians", "P\u00e9rotin"], "content": "Polyphony is a type of musical texture consisting of two or more simultaneous lines of independent melody, as opposed to a musical texture with just one voice, monophony, or a texture with one dominant melodic voice accompanied by chords, homophony.\nWithin the context of the Western musical tradition, the term polyphony is usually used to refer to music of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. Baroque forms such as fugue, which might be called polyphonic, are usually described instead as contrapuntal. Also, as opposed to the species terminology of counterpoint, polyphony was generally either \"pitch-against-pitch\" / \"point-against-point\" or \"sustained-pitch\" in one part with melismas of varying lengths in another. In all cases the conception was probably what Margaret Bent (1999) calls \"dyadic counterpoint\", with each part being written generally against one other part, with all parts modified if needed in the end. This point-against-point conception is opposed to \"successive composition\", where voices were written in an order with each new voice fitting into the whole so far constructed, which was previously assumed.\nThe term polyphony is also sometimes used more broadly, to describe any musical texture that is not monophonic. Such a perspective considers homophony as a sub-type of polyphony.\n\n\n== Origins ==\nTraditional (non-professional) polyphony has a wide, if uneven, distribution among the peoples of the world. Most polyphonic regions of the world are in sub-Saharan Africa, Europe and Oceania. It is believed that the origins of polyphony in traditional music vastly predate the emergence of polyphony in European professional music. Currently there are two contradictory approaches to the problem of the origins of vocal polyphony: the Cultural Model, and the Evolutionary Model. According to the Cultural Model, the origins of polyphony are connected to the development of human musical culture; polyphony came as the natural development of the primordial monophonic singing; therefore polyphonic traditions are bound to gradually replace monophonic traditions. According to the Evolutionary Model, the origins of polyphonic singing are much deeper, and are connected to the earlier stages of human evolution; polyphony was an important part of a defence system of the hominids, and traditions of polyphony are gradually disappearing all over the world.Although the exact origins of polyphony in the Western church traditions are unknown, the treatises Musica enchiriadis and Scolica enchiriadis, both dating from c. 900, are usually considered the oldest extant written examples of polyphony. These treatises provided examples of two-voice note-against-note embellishments of chants using parallel octaves, fifths, and fourths. Rather than being fixed works, they indicated ways of improvising polyphony during performance. The Winchester Troper, from c. 1000, is the oldest extant example of notated polyphony for chant performance, although the notation does not indicate precise pitch levels or durations.\n\n\n== European polyphony ==\n\n\n=== Historical context ===\nEuropean polyphony rose out of melismatic organum, the earliest harmonization of the chant. Twelfth-century composers, such as L\u00e9onin and P\u00e9rotin developed the organum that was introduced centuries earlier, and also added a third and fourth voice to the now homophonic chant. In the thirteenth century, the chant-based tenor was becoming altered, fragmented, and hidden beneath secular tunes, obscuring the sacred texts as composers continued to play with this new invention called polyphony. The lyrics of love poems might be sung above sacred texts in the form of a trope, or the sacred text might be placed within a familiar secular melody. The oldest surviving piece of six-part music is the English rota Sumer is icumen in (c. 1240).These musical innovations appeared in a greater context of societal change. After the first millennium, European monks decided to start translating the works of Greek philosophers into the vernacular. Western Europeans were aware of Plato, Socrates, and Hippocrates during the Middle Ages. However they had largely lost touch with the content of their surviving works because the use of Greek as a living language was restricted to the lands of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium). Once these ancient works started being translated thus becoming accessible, the philosophies had a great impact on the mind of Western Europe. This sparked a number of innovations in medicine, science, art, and music.\n\n\n=== Western Europe and Roman Catholicism ===\nEuropean polyphony rose prior to, and during the period of the Western Schism. Avignon, the seat of the antipopes, was a vigorous center of secular music-making, much of which influenced sacred polyphony.It was not merely polyphony that offended the medieval ears, but the notion of secular music merging with the sacred and making its way into the papal court. It gave church music more of a jocular performance quality removing the solemn worship they were accustomed to. The use of and attitude toward polyphony varied widely in the Avignon court from the beginning to the end of its religious importance in the fourteenth century. Harmony was not only considered frivolous, impious, and lascivious, but an obstruction to the audibility of the words. Instruments, as well as certain modes, were actually forbidden in the church because of their association with secular music and pagan rites. Dissonant clashes of notes give a creepy feeling that was labeled as evil, fueling their argument against polyphony as being the devil's music. After banishing polyphony from the Liturgy in 1322, Pope John XXII spoke in his 1324 bull Docta Sanctorum Patrum warning against the unbecoming elements of this musical innovation. Pope Clement VI, however, indulged in it.\nThe oldest extant polyphonic setting of the mass attributable to one composer is Guillaume de Machaut's Messe de Nostre Dame, dated to 1364, during the pontificate of Pope Urban V.\nMore recently, the Second Vatican Council (1962\u20131965) stated: \"Gregorian chant, other things being equal, should be given pride of place in liturgical services. But other kinds of sacred music, especially polyphony, are by no means excluded.... Religious singing by the people is to be skillfully fostered, so that in devotions and sacred exercises, as also during liturgical services, the voices of the faithful may ring out\".\n\n\n==== Notable works and artists ====\nTom\u00e1s Luis de Victoria\nWilliam Byrd, Mass for Five Voices\nThomas Tallis\nOrlandus Lassus, Missa super Bella'Amfitrit'altera\nGuillaume de Machaut, Messe de Nostre Dame\nGeoffrey Chaucer\nJacob Obrecht\nPalestrina, Missa Papae Marcelli\nJosquin des Prez, Missa Pange Lingua\nGregorio Allegri, Miserere\n\n\n=== Protestant Britain and the United States ===\nEnglish Protestant west gallery music included polyphonic multi-melodic harmony, including fuguing tunes, by the mid-18th century. This tradition passed with emigrants to North America, where it was proliferated in tunebooks, including shape-note books like The Southern Harmony and The Sacred Harp. While this style of singing has largely disappeared from British and North American sacred music, it survived in the rural Southern United States, until it again began to grow a following throughout the United States and even in places such as Ireland, the United Kingdom, Poland, Australia and New Zealand, among others.\n\n\n=== Balkan region ===\n\nPolyphonic singing in the Balkans is traditional folk singing of this part of southern Europe. It is also called ancient, archaic or old-style singing.\nByzantine chant\nOjkanje singing, in Croatia, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina\nGanga singing, in Croatia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina\nEpirote singing, in northern Greece and southern Albania (see below)\nIso-polyphony in southern Albania (see below)\nGusle singing, in Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Albania\nIzvika singing, in Serbia\nWoman choirs of Shopi (Bistritsa Babi) and Pirin, in Bulgaria and those in North MacedoniaIncipient polyphony (previously primitive polyphony) includes antiphony and call and response, drones, and parallel intervals.\nBalkan drone music is described as polyphonic due to Balkan musicians using a literal translation of the Greek polyph\u014dnos ('many voices'). In terms of Western classical music, it is not strictly polyphonic, due to the drone parts having no melodic role, and can better be described as multipart.The polyphonic singing tradition of Epirus is a form of traditional folk polyphony practiced among Aromanians, Albanians, Greeks, and ethnic Macedonians in southern Albania and northwestern Greece. This type of folk vocal tradition is also found in North Macedonia and Bulgaria.\nAlbanian polyphonic singing can be divided into two major stylistic groups as performed by the Tosks and Labs of southern Albania. The drone is performed in two ways: among the Tosks, it is always continuous and sung on the syllable 'e', using staggered breathing; while among the Labs, the drone is sometimes sung as a rhythmic tone, performed to the text of the song. It can be differentiated between two-, three- and four-voice polyphony.\nThe phenomenon of Albanian folk iso-polyphony (Albanian iso-polyphony) has been proclaimed by UNESCO a \"Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity\". The term iso refers to the drone, which accompanies the iso-polyphonic singing and is related to the ison of Byzantine church music, where the drone group accompanies the song.\n\n\n=== Corsica ===\nThe French island Corsica has a unique style of music called Paghjella that is known for its polyphony. Traditionally, Paghjella contains a staggered entrance and continues with the three singers carrying independent melodies. This music tends to contain much melisma and is sung in a nasal temperament. Additionally, many paghjella songs contain a picardy third. After paghjella's revival in the 1970s, it mutated. In the 1980s it had moved away from some of its more traditional features as it became much more heavily produced and tailored towards western tastes. There were now four singers, significantly less melisma, it was much more structured, and it exemplified more homophony. To the people of Corsica, the polyphony of paghjella represented freedom; it had been a source of cultural pride in Corsica and many felt that this movement away from the polyphonic style meant a movement away from paghjella's cultural ties. This resulted in a transition in the 1990s. Paghjella again had a strong polyphonic style and a less structured meter.\n\n\n=== Sardinia ===\nCantu a tenore is a traditional style of polyphonic singing in Sardinia.\n\n\n== Caucasus region ==\n\n\n=== Georgia ===\nPolyphony in the Republic of Georgia is arguably the oldest polyphony in the Christian world.  Georgian polyphony is traditionally sung in three parts with strong dissonances, parallel fifths, and a unique tuning system based on perfect fifths. Georgian polyphonic singing has been proclaimed by UNESCO an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Polyphony plays a crucial role in Abkhazian traditional music. Polyphony is present in all genres where the social environment provides more than one singer to \nsupport the melodic line. The ethnomusicologist Izaly Zemtsovsky reported witnessing an example of such an incident, in which an Abkhazian dozing at a bus stop started singing a drone to support a singer unknown to him. Abkhazian two and three-part polyphony is based on a drone (sometimes a double drone). Two part drone songs are considered by Abkhazian and Georgian scholars the most important indigenous style of Abkhazian polyphony. Two-part drone songs are dominating in Gudauta district, the core region of ethnic Abkhazians. Millennia of cultural, social and economic interactions between Abkhazians and Georgians on this territory resulted in reciprocal influences, and in particular, creation of a new, so-called \"Georgian style\" of three-part singing in Abkhazia, unknown among Adyghes. This style is based on two leading melodic lines (performed by soloists - akhkizkhuo) singing together with the drone or ostinato base (argizra). Indigenous Abkhazian style of three-part polyphony uses double drones (in fourths, fifths, or octaves) and one leading melodic line at one time. Abkhazians use a very specific cadence: tetrachordal downward movement, ending on the interval of a fourth.\n\n\n=== Chechens and Ingushes ===\nBoth Chechen and Ingush traditional music could be very much defined by their \ntradition of vocal polyphony. As in other North Caucasian musical cultures, Chechen and \nIngush polyphony is based on a drone. Unlike most of the other North Caucasian \npolyphonic traditions (where two-part polyphony is the leading type), Chechen and Ingush polyphony is mostly three-part. Middle part, the carrier of the main melody of \nsongs, is accompanied by the double drone, holding the interval of the fifth \"around\" the \nmain melody. Intervals and chords, used in Chechen and Ingush polyphony, are often \ndissonances (sevenths, seconds, fourths). This is quite usual in all North Caucasian \ntraditions of polyphony as well, but in Chechen and Ingush traditional songs more sharp \ndissonances are used. In particular, a specific cadence, where the final chord is a \ndissonant three-part chord, consisting of fourth and the second on top (c-f-g), is quite \nunique for North Caucasia. Only on the other side of Caucasian mountains, in western\nGeorgia, there are only few songs that finish on the same dissonant chord (c-f-g).\n\n\n== Oceania ==\nParts of Oceania maintain rich polyphonic traditions.\n\n\n=== Melanesia ===\nThe peoples of New Guinea Highlands including the Moni, Dani, and Yali use vocal polyphony, as do the people of Manus Island. Many of these styles are drone-based or feature close, secondal harmonies dissonant to western ears. Guadalcanal and the Solomon Islands are host to instrumental polyphony, in the form of bamboo panpipe ensembles.\n\n\n=== Polynesia ===\nEarly European encounters with Polynesians were surprised to find polyphonic singing there, which was likely drone-based and dissonant, like Melanesian polyphony. However, Polynesian traditions became strongly influenced by Western choral church music, which brought counterpoint into Polynesian musical practice.\n\n\n== Africa ==\nSee Also Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony\nNumerous Sub-Saharan African music traditions host polyphonic singing, typically moving in parallel motion.\n\n\n=== East Africa ===\nWhile the Maasai people traditionally sing with drone polyphony, other East African groups use more elaborate techniques. The Dorze people, for example, sing with as many as six parts, and the Wagogo use counterpoint.\n\n\n=== Central Africa ===\nThe music of African Pygmies (e.g. that of the Aka people) is typically ostinato and contrapuntal, featuring yodeling. Other Central African peoples tend to sing with parallel lines rather than counterpoint.\n\n\n=== Southern Africa ===\nThe singing of the San people, like that of the pygmies, features melodic repetition, yodeling, and counterpoint. The singing of neighboring Bantu peoples, like the Zulu, is more typically parallel.\n\n\n=== West Africa ===\nThe peoples of tropical West Africa traditionally use parallel harmonies rather than counterpoint.\n\n\n== See also ==\nMicropolyphony\nPolyphonic Era\nVenetian polychoral style\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nThirteenth-Century Polyphony\nTuning and Intonation in Fifteenth and Sixteenth Century Polyphony\nWorld Routes in Albania \u2013 Iso-Polyphony in Southern Albania on BBC Radio 3\nWorld Routes in Georgia \u2013 Ancient polyphony from the Caucasus region on BBC Radio 3\nAka Pygmy Polyphony African Pygmy music, with photos and soundscapes", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/A_traditional_male_folk_group_from_Skrapar.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/BachFugueBar.mid", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/BachFugueBar.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Stuber-Musique.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "Polyphony is a type of musical texture consisting of two or more simultaneous lines of independent melody, as opposed to a musical texture with just one voice, monophony, or a texture with one dominant melodic voice accompanied by chords, homophony.\nWithin the context of the Western musical tradition, the term polyphony is usually used to refer to music of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. Baroque forms such as fugue, which might be called polyphonic, are usually described instead as contrapuntal. Also, as opposed to the species terminology of counterpoint, polyphony was generally either \"pitch-against-pitch\" / \"point-against-point\" or \"sustained-pitch\" in one part with melismas of varying lengths in another. In all cases the conception was probably what Margaret Bent (1999) calls \"dyadic counterpoint\", with each part being written generally against one other part, with all parts modified if needed in the end. This point-against-point conception is opposed to \"successive composition\", where voices were written in an order with each new voice fitting into the whole so far constructed, which was previously assumed.\nThe term polyphony is also sometimes used more broadly, to describe any musical texture that is not monophonic. Such a perspective considers homophony as a sub-type of polyphony.\n\n"}, "Antonio_Salieri": {"links": ["List of concert arias, songs and canons by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "Mozart's Berlin journey", "Sophie Weber", "The Magic Flute", "Milo\u0161 Forman", "Pietro Metastasio", "American English", "Schw\u00e4bische Zeitung", "Metastasio", "Florent Mothe", "Rita Steblin", "La follia di Spagna", "Sacred music", "Ignaz Fr\u00e4nzl", "Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor", "Marco Coltellini", "Beethoven\u2013Haydn\u2013Mozart Memorial", "Toronto", "Giovanni Battista Martini", "Karl Thomas Mozart", "Venice", "Classical economics", "A cappella", "Schubert's symphonies", "Horn Concertos ", "Franz Schubert", "Flute", "RISM ", "List of solo piano compositions by Franz Schubert", "Franz Schubert ", "Cicero", "Mozart, l'op\u00e9ra rock", "Adler Fellowship", "Organ ", "Legnago", "Tarare ", "Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau", "Don Chisciotte alle nozze di Gamace", "Verona", "Mozart and scatology", "Trag\u00e9die lyrique", "Antonio Sacchini", "Lisa Simpson", "Carl Maria von Weber", "Eusebius Mandyczewski", "William Shakespeare", "Josef Myslive\u010dek", "Antonio Casimir Cartellieri", "Johann Baptist Wanhal", "Mocenigo family", "Giovanni Gastone Boccherini", "Wellington's Victory", "MBA ", "Johann Nepomuk Fuchs ", "Maria Theresa", "Stanley Sadie", "List of compositions by Antonio Salieri", "Classical physics", "Mozart and Salieri ", "Il mondo alla rovescia", "Moli\u00e8re", "Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica", "Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor", "Adalbert Gyrowetz", "Salieri", "Beethoven and Mozart", "Orchestra", "List of operas by Antonio Salieri", "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and the Catholic Church", "Classical period ", "Leopold Ko\u017eeluch", "Patron saint", "Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart", "Symphony No. forty ", "Notes in\u00e9gales", "Lucius Sergius Catilina", "Giuseppe Sarti", "Joe Moore ", "Richard Wagner", "Max Friedlaender ", "ISBN ", "Muzio Clementi", "Europa riconosciuta", "Franz Liszt", "Poison", "C\u00e4cilia Weber", "Die Neger", "British English", "Alexander Wheelock Thayer", "Vicente Mart\u00edn y Soler", "Johann Christian Bach", "Josepha Weber", "Hector Berlioz", "Das Dreim\u00e4derlhaus", "F. 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Rice ", "Les Horaces", "Schubert's song cycles", "Schubert opus/Deutsch number concordance", "Don Giovanni", "IMDb", "Folia", "Oboe", "Johann Fux", "Ludwig van Beethoven", "Leopold Auenbrugger", "Dementia", "Johann Stamitz", "Giambattista Casti", "Piano concertos by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "La grotta di Trofonio", "Chamber music", "Iago", "List of masses by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "Pierre Beaumarchais", "Giuseppe Bonno", "Johann Georg Mozart", "Ludlamsh\u00f6hle", "Thoroughbass", "Giovanni Paisiello"], "content": "Antonio Salieri (18 August 1750 \u2013 7 May 1825) was an Italian classical composer, conductor, and teacher. He was born in Legnago, south of Verona, in the Republic of Venice, and spent his adult life and career as a subject of the Habsburg Monarchy.\nSalieri was a pivotal figure in the development of late 18th-century opera. As a student of Florian Leopold Gassmann, and a prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of Christoph Willibald Gluck, Salieri was a cosmopolitan composer who wrote operas in three languages. Salieri helped to develop and shape many of the features of operatic compositional vocabulary, and his music was a powerful influence on contemporary composers.\nAppointed the director of the Italian opera by the Habsburg court, a post he held from 1774 until 1792, Salieri dominated Italian-language opera in Vienna. During his career he also spent time writing works for opera houses in Paris, Rome, and Venice, and his dramatic works were widely performed throughout Europe during his lifetime. As the Austrian imperial Kapellmeister from 1788 to 1824, he was responsible for music at the court chapel and attached school. Even as his works dropped from performance, and he wrote no new operas after 1804, he still remained one of the most important and sought-after teachers of his generation, and his influence was felt in every aspect of Vienna's musical life. Franz Liszt, Franz Schubert, Ludwig van Beethoven, Johann Nepomuk Hummel and Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart were among the most famous of his pupils.\nSalieri's music slowly disappeared from the repertoire between 1800 and 1868 and was rarely heard after that period until the revival of his fame in the late 20th century. This revival was due to the fictionalized depiction of Salieri in Peter Shaffer's play Amadeus (1979) and its 1984 film version. The death of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in 1791 at the age of 35 was followed by rumors that he and Salieri had been bitter rivals, and that Salieri had poisoned the younger composer, yet this has been proven false, and it is likely that they were, at least, mutually respectful peers.\n\n\n== Life and career ==\n\n\n=== Early life (1750\u20131770) ===\nAntonio Salieri was born on August 18, 1750 to Antonio Salieri and his wife, Anna Maria. Salieri started his musical studies in his native town of Legnago; he was first taught at home by his older brother Francesco Salieri (a former student of the violinist and composer Giuseppe Tartini), and he received further lessons from the organist of the Legnago Cathedral, Giuseppe Simoni, a pupil of Padre Giovanni Battista Martini. Salieri remembered little from his childhood in later years except passions for sugar, reading, and music. He twice ran away from home without permission to hear his elder brother play violin concertos in neighboring churches on festival days (resulting in the loss of his beloved sugar), and he recounted being chastised by his father after failing to greet a local priest with proper respect. Salieri responded to the reprimand by saying the priest's organ playing displeased him because it was in an inappropriately theatrical style. Sometime between 1763 and 1764, both of Salieri's parents died, and he was briefly taken in by an anonymous brother, a monk in Padua, and then for unknown reasons in 1765 or 1766, he became the ward of a Venetian nobleman named Giovanni Mocenigo (which Giovanni is at this time unknown), a member of the powerful and well connected Mocenigo family. It is possible that Salieri's father and Mocenigo were friends or business associates, but this is obscure. While living in Venice, Salieri continued his musical studies with the organist and opera composer Giovanni Battista Pescetti, then following Pescetti's sudden death he studied with the opera singer Ferdinando Pacini (or Pasini). It was through Pacini that Salieri gained the attention of the composer Florian Leopold Gassmann, who, impressed with his protege's talents and concerned for the boy's future, took the young orphan to Vienna, where he personally directed and paid for the remainder of Salieri's musical education.Salieri and Gassmann arrived in Vienna on 15 June 1766. Gassmann's first act was to take Salieri to the Italian Church to consecrate his teaching and service to God, an event that left a deep impression on Salieri for the rest of his life. Salieri's education included instruction in Latin and Italian poetry by Fr. Don Pietro Tommasi, instruction in the German language, and European literature. His music studies revolved around vocal composition and thoroughbass. His musical theory training in harmony and counterpoint was rooted in Johann Fux's Gradus ad Parnassum, which Salieri translated during each Latin lesson. As a result, Salieri continued to live with Gassmann even after Gassmann's marriage, an arrangement that lasted until the year of Gassmann's death and Salieri's own marriage in 1774. Few of Salieri's compositions have survived from this early period. In his old age Salieri hinted that these works were either purposely destroyed or had been lost, with the exception of a few works for the church. Among these sacred works there survives a Mass in C major written without a \"Gloria\" and in the antique a cappella style (presumably for one of the church's penitential seasons) and dated 2 August 1767. A complete opera composed in 1769 (presumably as a culminating study) La vestale (The Vestal Virgin) has also been lost.Beginning in 1766 Gassmann introduced Salieri to the daily chamber music performances held during Emperor Joseph II's evening meal. Salieri quickly impressed the Emperor, and Gassmann was instructed to bring his pupil as often as he wished. This was the beginning of a relationship between monarch and musician that lasted until Joseph's death in 1790. Salieri met Pietro Antonio Domenico Trapassi, better known as Metastasio, and Christoph Willibald Gluck during this period at the Sunday morning salons held at the home of the Martinez family. Metastasio had an apartment there and participated in the weekly gatherings. Over the next several years Metastasio gave Salieri informal instruction in prosody and the declamation of Italian poetry, and Gluck became an informal advisor, friend and confidante. It was toward the end of this extended period of study that Gassmann was called away on a new opera commission and a gap in the theater's program allowed for Salieri to make his debut as a composer of a completely original opera buffa. Salieri's first full opera was composed during the winter and carnival season of 1770; Le donne letterate and was based on Moli\u00e8re's Les Femmes Savantes (The Learned Ladies) with a libretto by Giovanni Gastone Boccherini, a dancer in the court ballet and a brother of the composer Luigi Boccherini. The modest success of this opera launched Salieri's 34-year operatic career as a composer of over 35 original dramas.\n\n\n=== Early Viennese period and operas (1770\u20131778) ===\nFollowing the modest success of Le donne letterate Salieri received new commissions writing two additional operas in 1770, both with libretti by Giovanni Boccherini. The first, a pastoral opera, L'amore innocente (Innocent Love), was a light-hearted comedy set in the Austrian mountains. The second was based on an episode from Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote \u2013 Don Chisciotte alle nozze di Gamace (Don Quixote at the marriage of Camacho). In these first works, drawn mostly from the traditions of mid-century opera buffa, Salieri showed a penchant for experimentation and for mixing the established characteristics of specific operatic genres. Don Chisciotte was a mix of ballet and opera buffa, and the lead female roles in L'amore innocente were designed to contrast and highlight the different traditions of operatic writing for soprano, even borrowing stylistic flourishes from opera seria in the use of coloratura in what was a short pastoral comedy more in keeping with a Roman Intermezzo. The mixing and pushing against the boundaries of established operatic genres was a continuing hallmark of Salieri's own personal style, and in his choice of material for the plot (as in his first opera), he manifested a lifelong interest in subjects drawn from classic drama and literature.\nSalieri's first great success was in the realm of serious opera. Commissioned for an unknown occasion, Salieri's Armida was based on Torquato Tasso's epic poem La Gerusalemme liberata (Jerusalem Delivered); it premiered on 2 June 1771. Armida is a tale of love and duty in conflict and is saturated in magic. The opera is set during the First Crusade and features a dramatic mix of ballet, aria, ensemble, and choral writing, combining theatricality, scenic splendor, and high emotionalism. The work clearly followed in Gluck's footsteps and embraced his reform of serious opera begun with Orfeo ed Euridice and Alceste. The libretto to Armida was by Marco Coltellini, the house poet for the imperial theaters. While Salieri followed the precepts set forth by Gluck and his librettist Ranieri de' Calzabigi in the preface to Alceste, Salieri also drew on some musical ideas from the more traditional opera seria and even opera buffa, creating a new synthesis in the process. Armida was translated into German and widely performed, especially in the northern German states, where it helped to establish Salieri's reputation as an important and innovative modern composer. It was also the first opera to receive a serious preparation in a piano and vocal reduction by Carl Friedrich Cramer in 1783.Armida was soon followed by Salieri's first truly popular success, a commedia per musica in the style of Carlo Goldoni La fiera di Venezia (The Fair of Venice). La fiera was written for Carnival in 1772 and premiered on 29 January. Here Salieri returned to his collaboration with the young Giovanni Boccherini, who crafted an original plot. La fiera featured characters singing in three languages, a bustling portrayal of the Ascension-tide Fair and Carnival in Venice, and large and lengthy ensembles and choruses. It also included an innovative scene that combined a series of on-stage dances with singing from both solo protagonists and the chorus. This was a pattern imitated by later composers, most famously and successfully by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in Don Giovanni. Salieri also wrote several bravura arias for a soprano playing the part of a middle-class character that combined coloratura and concertante woodwind solos, another innovation for comic opera that was widely imitated.Salieri's next two operas were not particular or lasting successes. La secchia rapita (The Stolen Bucket) is a parody of the high flown and emotive arias found in Metastasian opera seria. It also contains innovative orchestrations, including the first known use of three tympani. Again a classic of Renaissance literature was the basis of the libretto by Boccherini, in this case a comic mock-epic by Tassoni, in which a war between Modena and Bologna follows the theft of a bucket. This uneven work was followed by a popular comedic success La locandiera (The Mistress of the Inn), an adaptation of the classic and popular spoken stage comedy La locandiera by Carlo Goldoni, with the libretto prepared by Domenico Poggi.\nThe majority of Salieri's modest number of instrumental works also date from this time. Salieri's instrumental works have been judged by various critics and scholars to lack the inspiration and innovation found in his writing for the stage. These orchestral works are mainly in the galant style, and although they show some development toward the late classical, they reflect a general weakness in comparison to his operatic works of the same and later periods. These works were written for mostly unknown occasions and artists. They include two concertos for pianoforte, one in C major and one in B flat major (both 1773); a concerto for organ in C Major in two movements (the middle movement is missing from the autograph score, or perhaps, it was an improvised organ solo) (also 1773); and two concertante works: a concerto for oboe, violin and cello in D major (1770), and a flute and oboe concerto in C major (1774). These works are among the most frequently recorded of Salieri's compositions.\nUpon Gassmann's death on 21 January, most likely due to complications from an accident with a carriage some years earlier, Salieri succeeded him as assistant director of the Italian opera in early 1774. On 10 October 1775 Salieri married Therese Helferstorfer, the daughter of a recently deceased financier and official of the court treasury. Sacred music was not a high priority for the composer during this stage of his career, but he did compose an Alleluia for chorus and orchestra in 1774.\nDuring the next three years Salieri was primarily concerned with rehearsing and conducting the Italian opera company in Vienna and with teaching. His three complete operas written during this time show the development of his compositional skills, but included no great success, either commercially or artistically. His most important compositions during this period were a symphony in D major, performed in the summer of 1776, and the oratorio La passione di Ges\u00f9 Cristo with a text by Metastasio, performed during Advent of 1776.\nAfter the financial collapse of the Italian opera company in 1777 due to financial mismanagement, Joseph II decided to end the performance of Italian opera, French spoken drama, and ballet. Instead, the two court-owned theaters would be reopened under new management, and partly subsidized by the Imperial Court, as a new National Theater. The re-launched theaters would promote German-language plays and musical productions that reflected Austrian (or as Joseph II would have said) German values, traditions and outlook. The Italian opera buffa company was therefore replaced by a German-language Singspiel troupe. Joseph and his supporters of Imperial reform wanted to encourage pan-national pride that would unite his multi-lingual and ethnic subjects under one common language, and hoped to save a considerable amount of money in the process. Beginning in 1778 the Emperor wished to have new works, in German, composed by his own subjects and brought on the stage with clear Imperial support. This in effect left Salieri's role as assistant court composer in a much-reduced position. Salieri also had never truly mastered the German language, and he now felt no longer competent to continue as assistant opera director. A further blow to his career was when the spoken drama and musical Singspiel were placed on an equal footing. For the young composer there would be few, if any, new compositional commissions to receive from the court. Salieri was left with few financial options and he began casting about for new opportunities.\n\n\n=== Italian tour (1778\u20131780) ===\nIn 1778 Gluck turned down an offer to compose the inaugural opera for La Scala in Milan. Upon the suggestion of Joseph II and with the approval of Gluck, Salieri was offered the commission, which he gratefully accepted. Joseph II granted Salieri permission to take a year-long leave of absence (later extended), enabling him to write for La Scala and to undertake a tour of Italy. Salieri's Italian tour of 1778\u201380 began with the production of Europa riconosciuta (Europa Recognized) for La Scala (revived in 2004 for the same opera house's re-opening following extensive renovations). From Milan, Salieri included stops in Venice and Rome before returning to Milan. During this tour he wrote three new comic operas and he collaborated with Giacomo Rust on one opera, Il talismano (The Talisman). Of his Italian works one, La scuola de' gelosi (The School for Jealousy), a witty study of amorous intrigue and emotion, proved a popular and lasting international success.\n\n\n=== Middle Viennese period and Parisian operas (1780\u20131788) ===\nUpon his return at imperial behest to Vienna in 1780, Salieri wrote one German Singspiel, Der Rauchfangkehrer (The Chimney Sweep), which premiered in 1781. Salieri's Chimney Sweep and Mozart's work for the same company in 1782, Die Entf\u00fchrung aus dem Serail (The Abduction from the Seraglio), were the only two major successes to emerge from the German Singspiel experiment, and only Mozart's opera survived on the stage beyond the close of the 18th century. In 1783 the Italian opera company was revived with singers partly chosen and vetted by Salieri during his Italian tour; the new season opened with a slightly re-worked version of Salieri's recent success La scuola de' gelosi. Salieri then returned to his rounds of rehearsing, composition and teaching. However, his time at home in Vienna quickly ended when an opportunity to write an opera for Paris arose, again through the patronage of Gluck. Salieri traveled abroad to fulfill an important commission.\nThe opera Les Dana\u00efdes (The Danaids) is a five-act trag\u00e9die lyrique. The plot was based on an ancient Greek legend that had been the basis for the first play in a trilogy by Aeschylus, entitled The Suppliants. The original commission that reached Salieri in 1783\u201384 was to assist Gluck in finishing a work for Paris that had been all but completed; in reality, Gluck had failed to notate any of the score for the new opera and gave the entire project over to his young friend. Gluck feared that the Parisian critics would denounce the opera by a young composer known mostly for comic pieces and so the opera was originally billed in the press as being a new work by Gluck with some assistance from Salieri, then shortly before the premiere of the opera the Parisian press reported that the work was to be partly by Gluck and partly by Salieri, and finally after popular and critical success on stage, the opera was acknowledged in a letter to the public by Gluck as being wholly by the young Salieri. Les Dana\u00efdes was received with great acclaim and its popularity with audiences and critics alike produced several further requests for new works for Paris audiences by Salieri. Les Dana\u00efdes followed in the tradition of reform that Gluck had begun in the 1760s and that Salieri had emulated in his earlier opera Armida. Salieri's first French opera contained scenes of great solemnity and festivity, but overshadowing it all was darkness and revenge. The opera depicted politically motivated murder, filial duty and love in conflict, tyrannicide, and finally eternal damnation. The opera, with its dark overture, lavish choral writing, many ballet scenes, and electrifying finale depicting a glimpse of hellish torture, kept the opera on the stage in Paris for over forty years. A young Hector Berlioz recorded the deep impression this work made on him in his M\u00e9moires.Upon returning to Vienna following his success in Paris, Salieri met and befriended Lorenzo Da Ponte and had his first professional encounters with Mozart. Da Ponte wrote his first opera libretto for Salieri, Il ricco d'un giorno (A rich man for a day) in 1784, which was not a success. Salieri next turned to Giambattista Casti as a librettist; a more successful set of collaboration flowed from this pairing. In the meantime Da Ponte began working with Mozart on Le nozze di Figaro (The Marriage of Figaro). In 1785 Salieri produced one of his greatest works with the text by Casti, La grotta di Trofonio (The cave of Trophonius), the first opera buffa published in full score by Artaria. Shortly after this success Joseph II had Mozart and Salieri each contribute a one-act opera and/or Singspiel for production at a banquet in 1786. Salieri collaborated with Casti to produce a parody of the relationship between poet and composer in Prima la musica e poi le parole (First the music and then the words). This short work also highlighted the typical backstage antics of two high flown sopranos. Salieri then returned to Paris for the premiere of his trag\u00e9die lyrique Les Horaces (The Horatii), which proved a failure, which was more than made up for with his next Parisian opera Tarare, with a libretto by Beaumarchais. This was intended to be the nec plus ultra of reform opera, a completely new synthesis of poetry and music that was an 18th-century anticipation of the ideals of Richard Wagner. Salieri also created a sacred cantata Le Jugement dernier (The Last Judgement). The success of his opera Tarare was such that it was soon translated into Italian at Joseph II's behest by Lorenzo Da Ponte as Axur, re d'Ormus (Axur, king of Hormuz) and staged at the royal wedding of Franz II in 1788.\n\n\n=== Late Viennese operas (1788\u20131804) ===\nIn 1788 Salieri returned to Vienna, where he remained for the rest of his life. In that year he became Kapellmeister of the Imperial Chapel upon the death of Giuseppe Bonno; as Kapellmeister he conducted the music and musical school connected with the chapel until shortly before his death, being officially retired from the post in 1824.\nHis Italian adaptation of Tarare, Axur proved to be his greatest international success. Axur was widely produced throughout Europe and it even reached South America with the exiled royal house of Portugal in 1824. Axur and his other new compositions completed by 1792 marked the height of Salieri's popularity and his influence. Just as his apogee of fame was being reached abroad, his influence in Vienna began to diminish with the death of Joseph II in 1790. Joseph's death deprived Salieri of his greatest patron and protector. During this period of imperial change in Vienna and revolutionary ferment in France, Salieri composed two additional extremely innovative musical dramas to libretti by Giovanni Casti. Due, however, to their satiric and overtly liberal political inclinations, both operas were seen as unsuitable for public performance in the politically reactive cultures of Leopold II and later Francis II. This resulted in two of his most original operas being consigned to his desk drawer, namely Cublai, gran kan de' Tartari (Kublai Grand Kahn of Tartary) a satire on the autocracy and court intrigues at the court of the Russian Tsarina, Catherine the Great, and Catilina a semi-comic/semi-tragic account of the Catiline conspiracy that attempted to overthrow the Roman republic during the consulship of Cicero. These operas were composed in 1787 and 1792 respectively. Two other operas of little success and long term importance were composed in 1789, and one great popular success La cifra (The Cipher).\n\nAs Salieri's political position became insecure he was retired as director of the Italian opera in 1792. He continued to write new operas per imperial contract until 1804, when he voluntarily withdrew from the stage. Of his late works for the stage only two works gained wide popular esteem during his life, Palmira, regina di Persia (Palmira, queen of Persia) 1795 and Cesare in Farmacusa (Caesar on Pharmacusa), both drawing on the heroic and exotic success established with Axur. His late opera based on William Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor, Falstaff ossia Le tre burle (Falstaff, or the three tricks) (1799) has found a wider audience in modern times than its original reception promised. His last opera was a German-language Singspiel Die Neger (The negroes), a melodrama set in colonial Virginia with a text by Georg Friedrich Treitschke (the author of the libretto for Beethoven's Fidelio); it was performed in 1804 and was a complete failure.\n\n\n=== Life after opera (1804\u20131825) ===\nWhen Salieri retired from the stage, he recognized that artistic styles had changed and he felt that he no longer had the creative capacity to adapt or the emotional desire to continue. Also as Salieri aged he moved slowly away from his more liberal political stances as he saw the enlightened reform of Joseph II's reign, and the hoped-for reforms of the French revolution, replaced with more radical revolutionary ideas. As the political situation threatened and eventually overwhelmed Austria, which was repeatedly crushed by French political forces, Salieri's first and most important biographer Ignaz von Mosel described the emotional effect that this political, social, and cultural upheaval had on the composer. Mosel noted that these radical changes, especially the invasion and defeat of Austria, and the occupation of Vienna intertwined with the personal losses that struck Salieri in the same period led to his withdrawal from operatic work. Related to this Mosel quotes the aged composer concerning the radical changes in musical taste that were underway in the age of Beethoven, \"From that period [circa 1800] I realized that musical taste was gradually changing in a manner completely contrary to that of my own times. Eccentricity and confusion of genres replaced reasoned and masterful simplicity.\"As his teaching and work with the imperial chapel continued, his duties required the composition of a large number of sacred works, and in his last years it was almost exclusively in religious works and teaching that Salieri occupied himself. Among his compositions written for the chapel were two complete sets of vespers, many graduals, offertories, and four orchestral masses. During this period he lost his only son in 1805 and his wife in 1807.\nSalieri continued to conduct publicly, including the performance on 18 March 1808 of Haydn's The Creation during which Haydn collapsed, and several premieres by Beethoven including the 1st and 2nd Piano Concertos and Wellington's Victory. He also continued to help administer several charities and organize their musical events.\nHis remaining secular works in this late period fall into three categories: first, large scale cantatas and one oratorio Habsburg written on patriotic themes or in response to the international political situation, pedagogical works written to aid his students in voice, and finally simple songs, rounds or canons written for home entertainment; many with original poetry by the composer. He also composed one large scale instrumental work in 1815 intended as a study in late classical orchestration: Twenty-Six Variations for the Orchestra on a Theme called La Folia di Spagna. The theme is likely folk derived and is known as La Fol\u00eda. This simple melodic and harmonic progression had served as an inspiration for many baroque composers, and would be used by later romantic and post-romantic composers. Salieri's setting is a brooding work in the minor key, which rarely moves far from the original melodic material, its main interest lies in the deft and varied handling of orchestral colors. La Folia was the most monumental set of orchestral variations before Brahms' Variations on a Theme by Haydn.\nHis teaching of budding young musicians continued, and among his pupils in composition (usually vocal) were Ludwig van Beethoven, Antonio Casimir Cartellieri, Franz Liszt and Franz Schubert. See: List of music students by teacher: R to S#Antonio Salieri. He also instructed many prominent singers throughout his career, including Caterina Canzi. All but the wealthiest of his pupils received their lessons for free, a tribute to the kindness Gassmann had shown Salieri as a penniless orphan.\nSalieri was committed to medical care and suffered dementia for the last year and a half of his life. He died in Vienna on 7 May 1825, aged 74 and was buried in the Matzleinsdorfer Friedhof on 10 May. At his memorial service on 22 June 1825, his own Requiem in C minor \u2013 composed in 1804 \u2013 was performed for the first time. His remains were later transferred to the Zentralfriedhof. His monument is adorned by a poem written by Joseph Weigl, one of his pupils:\n\n\n== Works ==\n\n\n=== Opera ===\nDuring his time in Vienna, Salieri acquired great prestige as a composer and conductor, particularly of opera, but also of chamber and sacred music. Among the most successful of his 37 operas staged during his lifetime were Armida (1771), La fiera di Venezia (1772), La scuola de' gelosi (1778), Der Rauchfangkehrer (1781), Les Dana\u00efdes (1784), which was first presented as a work of Gluck's, La grotta di Trofonio (1785), Tarare (1787) (Tarare was reworked and revised several times as was Les Dana\u00efdes ), Axur, re d'Ormus (1788), La cifra (1789), Palmira, regina di Persia (1795), Il mondo alla rovescia (1795), Falstaff (1799), and Cesare in Farmacusa (1800).\n\n\n=== Sacred works ===\nSalieri's earliest surviving work is a Mass in C major. He would write four major orchestral masses, a requiem, and many offertories, graduals, vesper settings, and sacred cantatas and oratorios. Much of his sacred music dates from after his appointment as Hofkapellmeister in 1788.\n\n\n=== Instrumental works ===\nHis small instrumental output includes two piano concerti, a concerto for organ written in 1773, a concerto for flute, oboe and orchestra (1774), a triple concerto for oboe, violin and cello, and a set of twenty-six variations on \"La follia di Spagna\" (1815).\n\n\n== Relationship with Mozart ==\nIn the 1780s, while Mozart lived and worked in Vienna, he and his father Leopold wrote in their letters that several \"cabals\" of Italians led by Salieri were actively putting obstacles in the way of Mozart's obtaining certain posts or staging his operas. For example, Mozart wrote in December 1781 to his father that \"the only one who counts in [the Emperor's] eyes is Salieri\". Their letters suggest that both Mozart and his father, being Austrians who resented the special place that Italian composers had in the courts of the Austrian nobility, blamed the Italians in general and Salieri in particular for all of Mozart's difficulties in establishing himself in Vienna. Mozart wrote to his father in May 1783 about Salieri and Lorenzo Da Ponte, the court poet: \"You know those Italian gentlemen; they are very nice to your face! Enough, we all know about them. And if [Da Ponte] is in league with Salieri, I'll never get a text from him, and I would love to show him what I can really do with an Italian opera.\" In July 1783, he again wrote to his father of \"a trick of Salieri's\", one of several letters in which Mozart accused Salieri of trickery.\nDecades after Mozart's death, a rumour began to circulate that Mozart had been poisoned by Salieri. This rumour has been attributed by some to a rivalry between the German and the Italian schools of music. Carl Maria von Weber, a relative of Mozart by marriage whom Wagner has characterized as the most German of German composers, is said to have refused to join the Ludlamsh\u00f6hle (Ludlam's cave), a social club of which Salieri was a member, and avoided having anything to do with him. These rumours then made their way into popular culture. Albert Lortzing's Singspiel Szenen aus Mozarts Leben LoWV28 (1832) uses the clich\u00e9 of the jealous Salieri trying to hinder Mozart's career.\nIronically, Salieri's music was much more in the tradition of Gluck and Gassmann than of the Italians like Paisiello or Cimarosa. In 1772, Empress Maria Theresa commented on her preference of Italian composers over Germans like Gassmann, Salieri or Gluck. While Italian by birth, Salieri had lived in imperial Vienna for almost 60 years and was regarded by such people as the music critic Friedrich Rochlitz as a German composer.The biographer Alexander Wheelock Thayer believes that Mozart's rivalry with Salieri could have originated with an incident in 1781, when Mozart applied to be the music teacher of Princess Elisabeth of W\u00fcrttemberg, and Salieri was selected instead because of his reputation as a singing teacher.  The following year Mozart once again failed to be selected as the princess's piano teacher. \"Salieri and his tribe will move heaven and earth to put it down\", Leopold Mozart wrote to his daughter Nannerl. But at the time of the premiere of Figaro, Salieri was busy with his new French opera Les Horaces. In addition, when Lorenzo Da Ponte was in Prague preparing the production of Mozart's setting of his Don Giovanni, the poet was ordered back to Vienna for a royal wedding for which Salieri's Axur, re d'Ormus would be performed. Obviously, Mozart was not pleased by this.\nThe rivalry between Salieri and Mozart became publicly visible as well as audible during the opera composition competition held by Emperor Joseph II in 1786 in the Orangery at Sch\u00f6nbrunn. Mozart was considered the loser of this competition. Mozart's 1791 opera The Magic Flute echoes that competition because the Papageno\u2013Papagena duet is similar to the Cucuzze cavatina in Salieri's Prima la musica e poi le parole. The Magic Flute also echoes Salieri's music in that Papageno's whistle is based on a motif borrowed from Salieri's Concerto for Clavicembalo in B-flat major.However, there is also evidence attesting to the fact that Mozart and Salieri sometimes appeared to support each other's work. For example, when Salieri was appointed Kapellmeister in 1788, he chose to revive Figaro instead of introducing a new opera of his own, and when he attended the coronation festivities for Leopold II in 1790, Salieri had no fewer than three Mozart masses in his luggage. Salieri and Mozart even jointly composed a cantata for voice and piano, Per la ricuperata salute di Ofelia, which celebrated the return to the stage of the singer Nancy Storace. This work, although it had been printed by Artaria in 1785, was considered lost until 10 January 2016, when the Schw\u00e4bische Zeitung reported on the discovery by musicologist and composer Timo Jouko Herrmann of a copy of its text and music while doing research on Antonio Salieri in the collections of the Czech Museum of Music. Mozart's Davide penitente (1785), his Piano Concerto KV 482 (1785), the Clarinet Quintet (1789) and the 40th Symphony (1788) had been premiered on the suggestion of Salieri, who supposedly conducted a performance of it in 1791. In his last surviving letter from 14 October 1791, Mozart told his wife that he had picked up Salieri and Caterina Cavalieri in his carriage and driven them both to the opera; about Salieri's attendance at his opera The Magic Flute, speaking enthusiastically: \"He heard and saw with all his attention, and from the overture to the last choir there was not a piece that didn't elicit a 'Bravo!' or 'Bello!' out of him [...].\"Salieri, along with Mozart's prot\u00e9g\u00e9 J. N. Hummel, educated Mozart's younger son Franz Xaver Mozart, who was born about four months before his father's death.\n\n\n== Legacy ==\nSalieri and his music were largely forgotten from the 19th century until the late 20th century. This revival was due to the dramatic and highly fictionalized depiction of Salieri in Peter Shaffer's play Amadeus (1979), which was given its greatest exposure in its 1984 film version, directed by Milo\u0161 Forman. His music today has regained some modest popularity via recordings. It is also the subject of increasing academic study, and a small number of his operas have returned to the stage. In addition, there is now a Salieri Opera Festival sponsored by the Fondazione Culturale Antonio Salieri and dedicated to rediscovering his work and those of his contemporaries. It is developing as an annual autumn event in his native town of Legnago, where a theatre has been renamed in his honour.\n\n\n=== Modern performances of Salieri's work ===\nIn 2003, mezzo-soprano Cecilia Bartoli released The Salieri Album, a CD with 13 arias from Salieri's operas, most of which had never been recorded before. Patrice Michaels sang a number of his arias on the CD Divas of Mozart's Day. In 2008, another female opera star, Diana Damrau, released a CD with seven Salieri coloratura arias. Since 2000, there have also been complete recordings issued or re-issued of the operas Axur Re d'Ormus, Falstaff, Les Dana\u00efdes, La Locandiera, La grotta di Trofonio, Prima la musica e poi le parole and Il mondo alla rovescia. Salieri has yet to fully re-enter the general repertory, but performances of his works are progressively becoming more regular.\nHis operas Falstaff (1995 production from the Schwetzingen Festival) and Tarare (1987 production, also from the Schwetzingen Festival) have been released on DVD. In 2004, the opera Europa riconosciuta was staged in Milan for the reopening of La Scala in Milan, with soprano Diana Damrau in the title role. This production was also broadcast on television.\nIn November 2009, Il mondo alla rovescia was given its first staging in modern times at the Teatro Salieri in Legnago in a co-production between the Fondazione Culturale Antonio Salieri and the Fondazione Arena di Verona for the Salieri Opera Festival. \nFrom 2009 to 2011 Antonio Giarola directed the Festival. From 2009 to 2012 Antonio Giarola also directed the Varietas Delectat, a contemporary dance show inspired by the music of Antonio Salieri.On 14 November 2011 in Graz, Austria, the hometown of the librettist Leopold Auenbrugger, Salieri's Der Rauchfangkehrer was given its first modern production. In July 2014 there was another modern production of this Salieri opera. This time it was the Pinchgut Opera of Sydney, Australia, performing it as The Chimneysweep. The Sydney Morning Herald referred to it as the discovery of \"a long-forgotten treasure\".\n\n\n=== Use of music by Salieri in films ===\nSalieri has even begun to attract some attention from Hollywood. In 2001, his triple concerto was used in the soundtrack of The Last Castle, featuring Robert Redford and James Gandolfini. It is a story that builds on the rivalry between a meticulous but untested officer (Gandolfini) serving as the warden of a military prison and an imprisoned but much admired and highly decorated general (Redford). The Salieri piece is used as the warden's theme music, seemingly to invoke the image of jealousy of the inferior for his superior. In 2006, the movie Copying Beethoven referred to Salieri in a more positive light. In this movie a young female music student hired by Beethoven to copy out his Ninth Symphony is staying at a monastery. The abbess tries to discourage her from working with the irreverent Beethoven. She notes that she too once had dreams, having come to Vienna to study opera singing with Salieri. The 2008 film Iron Man used the Larghetto movement from Salieri's Piano Concerto in C major. The scene where Obadiah Stane, the archrival of Tony Stark, the wealthy industrialist turned Iron Man, tells Tony that he is being ousted from his company by the board, Obadiah plays the opening few bars of the Salieri concerto on a piano in Stark's suite.\n\n\n=== Fictional treatments ===\nSalieri's life, and especially his relationship with Mozart, has been a subject of many stories, in a variety of media.\n\nWithin a few years of Salieri's death in 1825, Alexander Pushkin wrote his \"little tragedy\" Mozart and Salieri (1831), as a dramatic study of the sin of envy.\nIn 1898, Russian composer Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov adapted Pushkin's play, Mozart and Salieri (1831), as an opera of the same name.\nA hugely popular yet heavily fictionalized perpetuation of the story came in Peter Shaffer's play Amadeus (1979) and its Oscar-winning 1984 film adaptation directed by Milo\u0161 Forman. Salieri was portrayed in the award-winning play at London's National Theatre by Paul Scofield, on Broadway by Ian McKellen, and in the film by F. Murray Abraham (who won the Academy Award for Best Actor for the part). Abraham depicts Salieri as a Machiavellian, Iago-esque character, who uses his connections to keep Mozart as the underdog and slowly destroy Mozart's career. The play does not portray Salieri as a murderer but rather has him hastening Mozart's demise through a series of plots, leaving him destitute. Salieri is characterized as both in awe of and insanely envious of Mozart, going so far as to renounce God for blessing his adversary; \"Amadeus\" means love of God, or God's love, and the play can be said to be about God-given talent, or the lack thereof: Salieri is hospitalized in a mental institution, where he announces himself as \"the patron saint of mediocrity\".\nSalieri's supposed hatred for Mozart is also alluded to in a spoof opera titled A Little Nightmare Music (1982), by P. D. Q. Bach. In the opera, Salieri attempts to poison an anachronistic Shaffer but is bumped by a \"clumsy oaf\", which causes him to inadvertently poison Mozart instead and spill wine on his favorite coat.\nPatrick Stewart played Salieri in the 1985 production The Mozart Inquest.\nFlorent Mothe portrays Salieri in the French musical Mozart, l'op\u00e9ra rock (2009).\nC. Ian Kyer's first work of fiction is the historical novel Damaging Winds: Rumours that Salieri Murdered Mozart Swirl in the Vienna of Beethoven and Schubert (2013).\nKyer was also the co-author, with Bruce Salvatore, of the singspiel Setting the Record Straight: Mozart and Salieri Redux, first performed by the Adler Fellows of the San Francisco Opera Center in April 2016 under the direction of Erin Neff.\nThe HBO period drama telemovie, Virtuoso (2015), directed by Alan Ball, is largely centred around the early life of Salieri.\nThe episode \"Margical History Tour\" of The Simpsons presents a spoof of Mozart's life in which Lisa plays the part of Salieri (\"Sally\" for short). She and Mozart are portrayed as siblings, and she ultimately goes mad after unsuccessfully trying to ruin his reputation. At the end of the story, the real Lisa points out its inaccuracies, particularly the exaggeration of the conflict between the two composers.\nThe Hawaii Public Radio docudrama Maligned Master: the Glory of Salieri (2016), written and directed by Joe Moore and starring F. Murray Abraham, was inspired by Kyer's novel Damaging Winds. In it the ghost of Salieri attends a concert of Salieri overtures in Hawaii and sets the record straight.\nIn the mobile role-playing game Fate/Grand Order, Salieri is depicted as a Rare Avenger-Class Servant. He is portrayed as having been a friend and mentor to Mozart, but that posthumous legends twisted Salieri into a man full of hatred and jealousy.\n\n\n== Notes, references, sources ==\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nCited sources\n\nBerlioz, Hector (2002). The Memoirs of Hector Berlioz. trans. and ed. David Cairns. New York: Everyman.\nBraunbehrens, Volkmar (1992). Maligned Master \u2013 The Real Story of Antonio Salieri. Translated by Eveline L. Kanes. New York.\nLorenz, Michael (2013). \"Antonio Salieri's Early Years in Vienna\".\nRice, John A. (1998). Antonio Salieri and Viennese Opera. Chicago. ISBN 978-0-226-71125-6.\nSadie, Stanley, ed. (1988). \"Mozart\". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-23111-1. OCLC 611992375.\nSolomon, Maynard (1995). Mozart: A Life (1st ed.). New York City: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-019046-0. OCLC 31435799.\nSpaethling, Robert (2000). Mozart's Letters, Mozart's Life. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 9780393047196.\nThayer, Alexander Wheelock (1989).  Theodore Albrecht (ed.). Salieri: Rival of Mozart. The Philharmonia of Greater Kansas City. ISBN 978-0-932845-37-5.\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nRudolph Angerm\u00fcller, Antonio Salieri 3 Vol. (M\u00fcnchen 1971\u201374)\nRudolph Angerm\u00fcller, Antonio Salieri. Fatti e Documenti (Legnago 1985)\nA. Della Corte, Un italiano all'estero: Antonio Salieri (Torino 1936)\nV. Della Croce/F. Blanchetti, Il caso Salieri (Torino 1994)\nBiggi Parodi, Elena, Catalogo tematico delle opere teatrali di Antonio Salieri, Lim, Lucca 2005, (Gli strumenti della ricerca musicale, collana della Societ\u00e0 Italiana di Musicologia), p. CLVIII, 957. ISBN 978-88-7096-307-6.\nBiggi Parodi, Elena, \"Preliminary observations on the \u00abBallo primo\u00bb of \u00abEuropa riconosciuta\u00bb by Antonio Salieri: Milan, The Scala Theatre, 1778, \u00abRecercare\u00bb, XVI 2004 (giugno 2005), pp. 263-303. ISSN 1120-5741.\nBiggi Parodi, Elena, \"Mozart und Salieri \u2013 ein unvermeidlicher Konflikt\" in Mozart, Experiment Aufkl\u00e4rung, in Wien des Ausgehenden 18. Jahrhunderts, ed. Herbert Lachmayer, essays for Mozart exhibition, pp. 495\u2013501. (Da Ponte Institut Wien, Katje Cantz Verlag, Ostfildern, 2006). ISBN 978-3-7757-1689-5.\nBiggi Parodi, Elena, \"Il Fastaff, o sia le tre burle di Salieri: osservazioni preliminari\" in Quaderni di musicologia dell'Universit\u00e0 degli studi Verona, Francesco Bissoli and Elisa Grossato, editors. vol. 2, II, pp. 119\u2013138 (Verona, 2008).\nHerrmann, Timo Jouko, Antonio Salieri und seine deutschsprachigen Werke f\u00fcr das Musiktheater (Leipzig 2015) ISBN 978-3-87350-053-2.\nKyer, C. Ian, \"Salieri as Portrayed in the Arts\", (2012) 24 Intellectual Property Journal, 179\u2013194.\nI. F. Edler v. Mosel, \u00dcber das Leben und die Werke des Anton Salieri (Vienna 1827)\nSalieri, Antonio. La Passione di Ges\u00f9 Cristo, critical edition by Elena Biggi Parodi, Suvini Zerboni, Milano 2000, XLIV, 222 pages. OCLC 48150359, 165002056\n\n\n== External links ==\nFree scores by Antonio Salieri in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)\nFree scores by Antonio Salieri at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)\nTeatro Salieri, Legnago, Italy (in Italian)\nPodcast interview about Salieri, National Arts Centre, Ottawa\nSecond podcast interview about Salieri, National Arts Centre, Ottawa\nKyer, C. Ian, Damaging Winds, 2013 novel about Salieri, 279 pp., incl. historial notes, further reading list, suggested listening list\nMozart vs. Salieri: a Factual or Fictional Feud? about relationship with Mozart\nHufford, Bob. \"Antonio Salieri monument, Legnago\". Find a Grave. Retrieved 24 September 2013.", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Antonio_Salieri_painted_by_Joseph_Willibrord_M%C3%A4hler.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Antonio_Salieri_signature.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Audio_a.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Mozart_%28unfinished%29_by_Lange_1782.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Operalogo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Palmira%2C_regina_di_Persia.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/P_vip.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg"], "summary": "Antonio Salieri (18 August 1750 \u2013 7 May 1825) was an Italian classical composer, conductor, and teacher. He was born in Legnago, south of Verona, in the Republic of Venice, and spent his adult life and career as a subject of the Habsburg Monarchy.\nSalieri was a pivotal figure in the development of late 18th-century opera. As a student of Florian Leopold Gassmann, and a prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of Christoph Willibald Gluck, Salieri was a cosmopolitan composer who wrote operas in three languages. Salieri helped to develop and shape many of the features of operatic compositional vocabulary, and his music was a powerful influence on contemporary composers.\nAppointed the director of the Italian opera by the Habsburg court, a post he held from 1774 until 1792, Salieri dominated Italian-language opera in Vienna. During his career he also spent time writing works for opera houses in Paris, Rome, and Venice, and his dramatic works were widely performed throughout Europe during his lifetime. As the Austrian imperial Kapellmeister from 1788 to 1824, he was responsible for music at the court chapel and attached school. Even as his works dropped from performance, and he wrote no new operas after 1804, he still remained one of the most important and sought-after teachers of his generation, and his influence was felt in every aspect of Vienna's musical life. Franz Liszt, Franz Schubert, Ludwig van Beethoven, Johann Nepomuk Hummel and Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart were among the most famous of his pupils.\nSalieri's music slowly disappeared from the repertoire between 1800 and 1868 and was rarely heard after that period until the revival of his fame in the late 20th century. This revival was due to the fictionalized depiction of Salieri in Peter Shaffer's play Amadeus (1979) and its 1984 film version. The death of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in 1791 at the age of 35 was followed by rumors that he and Salieri had been bitter rivals, and that Salieri had poisoned the younger composer, yet this has been proven false, and it is likely that they were, at least, mutually respectful peers."}, "Cancer": {"links": ["New York City", "Welfare state", "Environmental impact", "Sure We Can", "ISSN ", "Waste picker", "ISBN ", "Plastic", "Aluminium", "New York City Department of Sanitation", "Beverage containers", "Litter", "Recycling", "Income", "Poverty line", "Low-wage job", "Canner", "Canner ", "Glass", "Container-deposit legislation", "OCLC "], "content": "A canner participates in canning, the collection and redemption of deposit-marked beverage containers for recycling. Canning is an activity undertaken by individuals or small teams, typically to earn an income. Canning is only possible in nations, states, or municipalities which have enacted container-deposit legislation.\n\n\n== Container deposits ==\nThe primary aim of container-deposit legislation is mitigation of the environmental impact of materials used in the creation of the containers, especially plastic. Another purpose is to facilitate the recycling of container materials such as glass and aluminum, as well as plastic. As there is a wide variety across different political entities which operate container-deposit programs, in terms of infrastructural support and deposit amount, the economic viability of canning as an income-generating activity varies from municipality to municipality. In some places, container-deposit programs have resulted in drastic reductions in street litter and increases in recycling. In 2012, the German Federal Environment Agency reported that 96% of deposit-market containers were returned via their program.\n\n\n== Sociology ==\nCanners, or those who collect and redeem deposit-marked beverage containers, are a familiar sight in many cities, whether combing areas following major events, searching through trash containers, or transporting their collected bottles and cans to redemption sites.Sociologists have made several observations about canning. In a 2014 dissertation, Sebastian J. Moser stated that it is not poverty that unites the \"otherwise very heterogeneous group of bottle collectors, but the longing for a fixed daily structure and a task that is reminiscent of work.\" Canning activity can also be a source of community in a group often characterized by solitary experiences and disconnection. Income from canning varies widely between individuals. In New York City, canning can often bring in over 100 to 200 dollars a day for the canner. In New York City, as many as 8,000 people support themselves through canning. In Germany, canners earn an average of 100 to 150 euros each month. Another study indicated German canners earn around 3 to 10 euros each day. In addition to income, canners have stated that the activity can be a hobby, for pleasure or productivity, as well as done for the purpose of improving the environment.The sociologist Stefan Sell sees lack of income as the primary motivation for canning. In particular, he notes the sharp rise in low-wage jobs, the fall in collective bargaining in many industries and the devaluation of the welfare state model since the early 1990s as causes for the emergence of this employment. In Germany, canners have become symbols of an increasingly poor society.According to the social scientists Catterfeld and Knecht, it is not only expected yields in terms of income which give insight into the phenomenon of canning. Another factor is availability of materials, or the readiness of consumers to leave bottles and cans in places accessible by canners. In Germany, shifts in public perception over time resulted in more material being offered by consumers specifically to canners, and a shift in perceived social stigma of canning as an occupation. These shifts have been attributed to shifts in legislation, as well as the cultural impact of increased canner visibility during the 2006 World Cup.\n\n\n== Demographic of canners ==\nIn New York City, canners are an ethnically diverse community, with the vast majority of them living below the poverty line. Among canners at Sure We Can, a redemption center in Brooklyn, around 25 percent of the canners are over the age of 60, 7 percent are physically disabled, and 5 percent experience chronic homelessness. In Brooklyn, the canners are largely immigrants. About 75 percent of canners at Sure We Can were born outside the United States, with 54 percent of all the canners identifying as Latinx/Hispanic.In Germany, 80-85% of canners are male, and a majority are over the age of 65. The second largest group is young immigrants. Many experience poverty, but homelessness is relatively uncommon.\n\n\n== Canning in the United States ==\n\n\n=== New York City ===\nNew York City is a hotbed of canning activity largely due to the city's high population density mixed with New York state's current deposit laws. Canning remains a contentious issue in NYC with the canners often facing pushback from the city government, the New York City Department of Sanitation, and other recycling collection companies.  Sure We Can, a redemption center co-founded by nun Ana Martinez de Luco, is the only canner friendly redemption center in the city, providing lockers and communal space for the canners to sort their collections of redeemables.\n\n\n== Images of canning ==\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/14_06_29_Recycle_Location_Sign_Dunedin_FL_01.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/A_man_caring_used_plastic_bottle_%2Cready_to_sell_to_recycling_company.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Bottles_and_cans_%284540275628%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Bottles_to_recycle.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Compressed_aluminium_cans.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Disadvantage_of_capitalism.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/GIs_volunteer_and_recycle_cans_at_Guantanamo.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Guy_sadly_dumpster_diving_outside_my_window.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Looking_in_bin.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Nusa-Dua_Bali_Indonesia_Plastic-collector-01.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Pfandring_in_K%C3%B6ln-1037.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Stoppt_Die_Kriegshetze_Gegen_Russland_%2872051043%29.jpeg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Sure_We_Can_redemption_center_-_Bushwick%2C_Brooklyn_-_Bottles_%26_Cans.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/THE_ALAMEDA_ELEMENTARY_SCHOOL_COLLECTED_8%2C000_POUNDS_OF_TIN_CANS_TO_RAISE_MONEY_TO_SEND_8TH_GRADERS_TO_WASHINGTON%2C_D.C_-_NARA_-_545136.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/USMC-100428-M-2360J-008.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/%E8%B3%87%E6%BA%90%E5%9B%9E%E5%8F%8E_%288181406846%29.jpg"], "summary": "A canner participates in canning, the collection and redemption of deposit-marked beverage containers for recycling. Canning is an activity undertaken by individuals or small teams, typically to earn an income. Canning is only possible in nations, states, or municipalities which have enacted container-deposit legislation.\n\n"}, "Aluminium": {"links": ["Native aluminium", "JSTOR ", "Astringent", "Ore", "StwoCID ", "Greenhouse gas emissions", "Van der Waals radius", "Redox", "Waterproofing", "Yield ", "Spanish language", "Trace radioisotope", "Aluminium\u2013air battery", "Isopropyl", "Vaccine", "Sputnik one", "Friedrich Hoffmann", "Paramagnetic", "CAS Registry Number", "Crusades", "Pnictogen", "Water", "Potassium", "United States Department of Health and Human Services", "Aluminium monoxide", "Fluorine", "Primordial nuclide", "Hemolymph", "South China Sea", "Neon", "Wood pulp", "Chemical bond", "Real price", "Methylaluminoxane", "Halogen", "RUSAL", "Picometer", "Galvanic cell", "Compounds of aluminium", "Gallium", "Zinc", "Boron group", "Niobium", "Shear modulus", "Group eleven element", "Aluminium antimonide", "Pascal ", "Door", "Gemstone", "Holmium", "Heavy metals", "Alkali metals", "Organoaluminium compound", "Quasicrystal", "Chemical formula", "III-V semiconductor", "Recycling", "Thomas Young ", "John Emsley", "Estrogen", "Acid rain", "Flerovium", "British Geological Survey", "Protein", "Bauxite tailings", "Lithium", "Lewis acid", "Hydrogen burning", "Standard atomic weight", "Rubidium", "Aluminium hydroxide", "Beryl", "Scanning transmission electron microscopy", "Surface roughness", "Dimer ", "Lead", "Triethylamine", "Herodotus", "Butterworth-Heinemann", "American Chemical Society", "Cladosporium", "Cosmetics", "Barium", "Erythropoietin", "Kilojoule per mole", "Aluminium monofluoride", "Encyclopedia Britannica", "Octahedron", "Period seven element", "Enthalpy of fusion", "Liquid oxygen", "Period four element", "Yttrium", "List of data references for chemical elements", "Propene", "Electron configuration", "Western Oregon University", "Pnictide", "Berkelium", "Alkaline earth metal", "Triethylaluminium", "Crystal structure", "Period one element", "Halide", "Bayerite", "Latin script", "Molybdenum", "Cubic crystal system", "Period two element", "Truck", "Hydrogen fluoride", "Californium", "Machining", "Mass number", "Period six element", "Dross", "Hans Christian \u00d8rsted", "Precipitation", "Young's modulus", "Angewandte Chemie International Edition", "Reflectance", "Paracellular", "Osmium", "Indium", "Amalgam ", "Geotrichum candidum", "Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters", "Cement", "Ytterbium", "Automobile", "Darmstadtium", "Passivation ", "Francium", "Aluminium acetylacetonate", "World Health Organization", "IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry two thousand and five", "Asteroids", "Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry", "Aqua regia", "Palladium", "Group six element", "Aluminium silicate", "Solid", "Spallation", "Aluminium sulfide", "Chemical element", "Hoopes process", "Potassium alum", "Radioactive decay", "Ductility", "Iodine", "Smelting", "Metabolically", "Dubnium", "Silver ", "Polymorphism ", "Natural abundance", "Furniture", "Iron oxide", "Nickel", "Rhenium", "Solar System", "Casting ", "Gold", "Asphalt", "Marcel Dekker", "Ammonia", "Splinter", "Magnesium", "Equilibrium constant", "Italian language", "Duralumin", "Chlorides", "Deferoxamine mesylate", "Concrete", "Solar radiation", "Dysprosium", "Aluminium carbide", "Chalcogenide", "Electrical resistivity and conductivity", "Gill", "Iron", "ISSN ", "Aluminium dodecaboride", "Strontium", "Avgas", "Camelford water pollution incident", "Bayer process", "Moscovium", "Stable isotope", "Promethium", "Boron", "Wikisource", "Period ", "Cobalt", "Annalen der Physik und Chemie", "Carl Josef Bayer", "International Resource Panel", "Alum", "Reducing agent", "Aluminium molybdate", "Stellar nucleosynthesis", "Rhodium", "Tempering ", "Suspension ", "Aluminium alloys", "Radium", "Gauss ", "Diffuse reflection", "Diethylaluminium chloride", "Ligand", "American English", "Krypton", "Mantle ", "Aluminium alloy", "Leaching ", "Austin Aforty Sports", "Anthracite", "Angew. 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"Terbium", "Cadmium", "MacBook Air", "Hafnium", "Symbol ", "Aluminium nitride", "Polonium", "Lithium hydride", "Varnish", "Cations", "Lutetium", "Speed of sound", "Chelates", "Nature ", "Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult process", "Food and Chemical Toxicology", "Cation", "Selenium", "Magnesium-twenty-six", "Karl Ziegler", "Aluminium oxide", "Proto-Indo-European language", "Superconductor", "Pure and Applied Chemistry", "Organic chemistry", "Maltol", "Cold seep", "Fugacity", "Gibbsite", "Aluminium diboride", "Covalent bond", "Siding ", "Textile", "Henri \u00c9tienne Sainte-Claire Deville", "The Astrophysical Journal", "Fluorocarbon", "Gene expression", "Aluminium dross recycling"], "content": "Aluminium (aluminum in American and Canadian English) is a chemical element with the symbol Al and atomic number 13. Aluminium has a density lower than those of other common metals, at approximately one third that of steel. It has a great affinity towards oxygen, and forms a protective layer of oxide on the surface when exposed to air. Aluminium visually resembles silver, both in its color and in its great ability to reflect light. It is soft, non-magnetic and ductile. It has one stable isotope, 27Al; this isotope is very common, making aluminium the twelfth most common element in the Universe. The radioactivity of 26Al is used in radiodating.\nChemically, aluminium is a weak metal in the boron group; as it is common for the group, aluminium forms compounds primarily in the +3 oxidation state. The aluminium cation Al3+ is small and highly charged; as such, it is polarizing, and bonds aluminium forms tend towards covalency. The strong affinity towards oxygen leads to aluminium's common association with oxygen in nature in the form of oxides; for this reason, aluminium is found on Earth primarily in rocks in the crust, where it is the third most abundant element after oxygen and silicon, rather than in the mantle, and virtually never as the free metal.\nThe discovery of aluminium was announced in 1825 by Danish physicist Hans Christian \u00d8rsted. The first industrial production of aluminium was initiated by French chemist Henri \u00c9tienne Sainte-Claire Deville in 1856. Aluminium became much more available to the public with the Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult process developed independently by French engineer Paul H\u00e9roult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall in 1886, and the mass production of aluminium led to its extensive use in industry and everyday life. In World Wars I and II, aluminium was a crucial strategic resource for aviation. In 1954, aluminium became the most produced non-ferrous metal, surpassing copper. In the 21st century, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan.\nDespite its prevalence in the environment, no living organism is known to use aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of the abundance of these salts, the potential for a biological role for them is of continuing interest, and studies continue.\n\n\n== Physical characteristics ==\n\n\n=== Isotopes ===\n\nOf aluminium isotopes, only 27Al is stable. This situation is common for elements with an odd atomic number. It is the only primordial aluminium isotope, i.e. the only one that has existed on Earth in its current form since the formation of the planet. Nearly all aluminium on Earth is present as this isotope, which makes it a mononuclidic element and means that its standard atomic weight is virtually the same as that of the isotope. This makes aluminium very useful in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), as its single stable isotope has a high NMR sensitivity. The standard atomic weight of aluminium is low in comparison with many other metals, which has consequences for the element's properties (see below).\nAll other isotopes of aluminium are radioactive. The most stable of these is 26Al: while it was present along with stable 27Al in the interstellar medium from which the Solar System formed, having been produced by stellar nucleosynthesis as well, its half-life is only 717,000 years and therefore a detectable amount has not survived since the formation of the planet. However, minute traces of 26Al are produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic ray protons. The ratio of 26Al to 10Be has been used for radiodating of geological processes over 105 to 106 year time scales, in particular transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial times, and erosion. Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.The remaining isotopes of aluminium, with mass numbers ranging from 22 to 43, all have half-lives well under an hour. Three metastable states are known, all with half-lives under a minute.\n\n\n=== Electron shell ===\nAn aluminium atom has 13 electrons, arranged in an electron configuration of [Ne] 3s2 3p1, with three electrons beyond a stable noble gas configuration. Accordingly, the combined first three ionization energies of aluminium are far lower than the fourth ionization energy alone. Such an electron configuration is shared with the other well-characterized members of its group, boron, gallium, indium, and thallium; it is also expected for nihonium. Aluminium can relatively easily surrender its three outermost electrons in many chemical reactions (see below). The electronegativity of aluminium is 1.61 (Pauling scale).\n\nA free aluminium atom has a radius of 143 pm. With the three outermost electrons removed, the radius shrinks to 39 pm for a 4-coordinated atom or 53.5 pm for a 6-coordinated atom. At standard temperature and pressure, aluminium atoms (when not affected by atoms of other elements) form a face-centered cubic crystal system bound by metallic bonding provided by atoms' outermost electrons; hence aluminium (at these conditions) is a metal. This crystal system is shared by many other metals, such as lead and copper; the size of a unit cell of aluminium is comparable to that of those other metals. The system, however, is not shared by the other members of its group; boron has ionization energies too high to allow metallization, thallium has a hexagonal close-packed structure, and gallium and indium have unusual structures that are not close-packed like those of aluminium and thallium. The few electrons are available for metallic bonding in aluminium metal are a probably cause for it being soft with a low melting point and low electrical resistivity.\n\n\n=== Bulk ===\nAluminium metal has an appearance ranging from silvery white to dull gray, depending on the surface roughness. A fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector (approximately 92%) of visible light and an excellent reflector (as much as 98%) of medium and far infrared radiation. Aluminium mirrors are the most reflective of all metal mirrors for the near ultraviolet and far infrared light, and one of the most reflective in the visible spectrum, nearly on par with silver, and the two therefore look similar. Aluminium is also good at reflecting solar radiation, although prolonged exposure to sunlight in air add wear to the surface of the metal; this may be prevented if aluminium is anodized, which adds a protective layer of oxide on the surface.The density of aluminium is 2.70 g/cm3, about 1/3 that of steel, much lower than other commonly encountered metals, making aluminium parts easily identifiable through their lightness. Aluminium's low density compared to most other metals arises from the fact that its nuclei are much lighter, while difference in the unit cell size does not compensate for this difference. The only lighter metals are the metals of groups 1 and 2, which apart from beryllium and magnesium are too reactive for structural use (and beryllium is very toxic). Aluminium is not as strong or stiff as steel, but the low density makes up for this in the aerospace industry and for many other applications where light weight and relatively high strength are crucial.Pure aluminium is quite soft and lacking in strength. In most applications various aluminium alloys are used instead because of their higher strength and hardness. The yield strength of pure aluminium is 7\u201311 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium is ductile, with a percent elongation of 50-70%, and malleable allowing it to be easily drawn and extruded. It is also easily machined and cast.Aluminium is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor, having around 60% the conductivity of copper, both thermal and electrical, while having only 30% of copper's density. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin and a critical magnetic field of about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas). It is paramagnetic and thus essentially unaffected by static magnetic fields. The high electrical conductivity, however, means that it is strongly affected by alternating magnetic fields through the induction of eddy currents.\n\n\n== Chemistry ==\n\nAluminium combines characteristics of pre- and post-transition metals. Since it has few available electrons for metallic bonding, like its heavier group 13 congeners, it has the characteristic physical properties of a post-transition metal, with longer-than-expected interatomic distances. Furthermore, as Al3+ is a small and highly charged cation, it is strongly polarizing and bonding in aluminium compounds tends towards covalency; this behavior is similar to that of beryllium (Be2+), and the two display an example of a diagonal relationship.The underlying core under aluminium's valence shell is that of the preceding noble gas, whereas those of its heavier congeners gallium, indium, thallium, and nihonium also include a filled d-subshell and in some cases a filled f-subshell. Hence, the inner electrons of aluminium shield the valence electrons almost completely, unlike those of aluminium's heavier congeners. As such, aluminium is the most electropositive metal in its group, and its hydroxide is in fact more basic than that of gallium. Aluminium also bears minor similarities to the metalloid boron in the same group: AlX3 compounds are valence isoelectronic to BX3 compounds (they have the same valence electronic structure), and both behave as Lewis acids and readily form adducts. Additionally, one of the main motifs of boron chemistry is regular icosahedral structures, and aluminium forms an important part of many icosahedral quasicrystal alloys, including the Al\u2013Zn\u2013Mg class.Aluminium has a high chemical affinity to oxygen, which renders it suitable for use as a reducing agent in the thermite reaction. A fine powder of aluminium metal reacts explosively on contact with liquid oxygen; under normal conditions, however, aluminium forms a thin oxide layer (~5 nm at room temperature) that protects the metal from further corrosion by oxygen, water, or dilute acid, a process termed passivation. Because of its general resistance to corrosion, aluminium is one of the few metals that retains silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an important component of silver-colored paints. Aluminium is not attacked by oxidizing acids because of its passivation. This allows aluminium to be used to store reagents such as nitric acid, concentrated sulfuric acid, and some organic acids.In hot concentrated hydrochloric acid, aluminium reacts with water with evolution of hydrogen, and in aqueous sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide at room temperature to form aluminates\u2014protective passivation under these conditions is negligible. Aqua regia also dissolves aluminium. Aluminium is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, which is why household plumbing is never made from aluminium. The oxide layer on aluminium is also destroyed by contact with mercury due to amalgamation or with salts of some electropositive metals. As such, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion-resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper, and aluminium's corrosion resistance is greatly reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals.Aluminium reacts with most nonmetals upon heating, forming compounds such as aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium sulfide (Al2S3), and the aluminium halides (AlX3). It also forms a wide range of intermetallic compounds involving metals from every group on the periodic table.\n\n\n=== Inorganic compounds ===\nThe vast majority of compounds, including all aluminium-containing minerals and all commercially significant aluminium compounds, feature aluminium in the oxidation state 3+. The coordination number of such compounds varies, but generally Al3+ is either six- or four-coordinate. Almost all compounds of aluminium(III) are colorless. \n\nIn aqueous solution, Al3+ exists as the hexaaqua cation [Al(H2O)6]3+, which has an approximate Ka of 10\u22125. Such solutions are acidic as this cation can act as a proton donor and progressively hydrolyze until a precipitate of aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, forms. This is useful for clarification of water, as the precipitate nucleates on suspended particles in the water, hence removing them. Increasing the pH even further leads to the hydroxide dissolving again as aluminate, [Al(H2O)2(OH)4]\u2212, is formed.\nAluminium hydroxide forms both salts and aluminates and dissolves in acid and alkali, as well as on fusion with acidic and basic oxides. This behavior of Al(OH)3 is termed amphoterism and is characteristic of weakly basic cations that form insoluble hydroxides and whose hydrated species can also donate their protons. One effect of this is that aluminium salts with weak acids are hydrolyzed in water to the aquated hydroxide and the corresponding nonmetal hydride: for example, aluminium sulfide yields hydrogen sulfide. However, some salts like aluminium carbonate exist in aqueous solution but are unstable as such; and only incomplete hydrolysis takes place for salts with strong acids, such as the halides, nitrate, and sulfate. For similar reasons, anhydrous aluminium salts cannot be made by heating their \"hydrates\": hydrated aluminium chloride is in fact not AlCl3\u00b76H2O but [Al(H2O)6]Cl3, and the Al\u2013O bonds are so strong that heating is not sufficient to break them and form Al\u2013Cl bonds instead:\n2[Al(H2O)6]Cl3 heat\u2192  Al2O3 + 6 HCl + 9 H2OAll four trihalides are well known. Unlike the structures of the three heavier trihalides, aluminium fluoride (AlF3) features six-coordinate aluminium, which explains its involatility and insolubility as well as high heat of formation. Each aluminium atom is surrounded by six fluorine atoms in a distorted octahedral arrangement, with each fluorine atom being shared between the corners of two octahedra. Such {AlF6} units also exist in complex fluorides such as cryolite, Na3AlF6. AlF3 melts at 1,290 \u00b0C (2,354 \u00b0F) and is made by reaction of aluminium oxide with hydrogen fluoride gas at 700 \u00b0C (1,300 \u00b0F).With heavier halides, the coordination numbers are lower. The other trihalides are dimeric or polymeric with tetrahedral four-coordinate aluminium centers. Aluminium trichloride (AlCl3) has a layered polymeric structure below its melting point of 192.4 \u00b0C (378 \u00b0F) but transforms on melting to Al2Cl6 dimers. At higher temperatures those increasingly dissociate into trigonal planar AlCl3 monomers similar to the structure of BCl3. Aluminium tribromide and aluminium triiodide form Al2X6 dimers in all three phases and hence do not show such significant changes of properties upon phase change. These materials are prepared by treating aluminium metal with the halogen. The aluminium trihalides form many addition compounds or complexes; their Lewis acidic nature makes them useful as catalysts for the Friedel\u2013Crafts reactions. Aluminium trichloride has major industrial uses involving this reaction, such as in the manufacture of anthraquinones and styrene; it is also often used as the precursor for many other aluminium compounds and as a reagent for converting nonmetal fluorides into the corresponding chlorides (a transhalogenation reaction).Aluminium forms one stable oxide with the chemical formula Al2O3, commonly called alumina. It can be found in nature in the mineral corundum, \u03b1-alumina; there is also a \u03b3-alumina phase. Its crystalline form, corundum, is very hard (Mohs hardness 9), has a high melting point of 2,045 \u00b0C (3,713 \u00b0F), has very low volatility, is chemically inert, and a good electrical insulator, it is often used in abrasives (such as toothpaste), as a refractory material, and in ceramics, as well as being the starting material for the electrolytic production of aluminium metal. Sapphire and ruby are impure corundum contaminated with trace amounts of other metals. The two main oxide-hydroxides, AlO(OH), are boehmite and diaspore. There are three main trihydroxides: bayerite, gibbsite, and nordstrandite, which differ in their crystalline structure (polymorphs). Many other intermediate and related structures are also known. Most are produced from ores by a variety of wet processes using acid and base. Heating the hydroxides leads to formation of corundum. These materials are of central importance to the production of aluminium and are themselves extremely useful. Some mixed oxide phases are also very useful, such as spinel (MgAl2O4), Na-\u03b2-alumina (NaAl11O17), and tricalcium aluminate (Ca3Al2O6, an important mineral phase in Portland cement).The only stable chalcogenides under normal conditions are aluminium sulfide (Al2S3), selenide (Al2Se3), and telluride (Al2Te3). All three are prepared by direct reaction of their elements at about 1,000 \u00b0C (1,800 \u00b0F) and quickly hydrolyze completely in water to yield aluminium hydroxide and the respective hydrogen chalcogenide. As aluminium is a small atom relative to these chalcogens, these have four-coordinate tetrahedral aluminium with various polymorphs having structures related to wurtzite, with two-thirds of the possible metal sites occupied either in an orderly (\u03b1) or random (\u03b2) fashion; the sulfide also has a \u03b3 form related to \u03b3-alumina, and an unusual high-temperature hexagonal form where half the aluminium atoms have tetrahedral four-coordination and the other half have trigonal bipyramidal five-coordination. Four pnictides \u2013 aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium phosphide (AlP), aluminium arsenide (AlAs), and aluminium antimonide (AlSb) \u2013 are known. They are all III-V semiconductors isoelectronic to silicon and germanium, all of which but AlN have the zinc blende structure. All four can be made by high-temperature (and possibly high-pressure) direct reaction of their component elements.Aluminium alloys well with most other metals (with the exception of most alkali metals and group 13 metals) and over 150 intermetallics with other metals are known. Preparation involves heating fixed metals together in certain proportion, followed by gradual cooling and annealing. Bonding in them is predominantly metallic and the crystal structure primarily depends on efficiency of packing.There are few compounds with lower oxidation states. A few aluminium(I) compounds exist: AlF, AlCl, AlBr, and AlI exist in the gaseous phase when the respective trihalide is heated with aluminium, and at cryogenic temperatures. A stable derivative of aluminium monoiodide is the cyclic adduct formed with triethylamine, Al4I4(NEt3)4. Al2O and Al2S also exist but are very unstable. Very simple aluminium(II) compounds are invoked or observed in the reactions of Al metal with oxidants. For example, aluminium monoxide, AlO, has been detected in the gas phase after explosion and in stellar absorption spectra. More thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula R4Al2 which contain an Al\u2013Al bond and where R is a large organic ligand.\n\n\n=== Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides ===\n\nA variety of compounds of empirical formula AlR3 and AlR1.5Cl1.5 exist. The aluminium trialkyls and triaryls are reactive, volatile, and colorless liquids or low-melting solids. They catch fire spontaneously in air and react with water, thus necessitating precautions when handling them. They often form dimers, unlike their boron analogues, but this tendency diminishes for branched-chain alkyls (e.g. Pri, Bui, Me3CCH2); for example, triisobutylaluminium exists as an equilibrium mixture of the monomer and dimer. These dimers, such as trimethylaluminium (Al2Me6), usually feature tetrahedral Al centers formed by dimerization with some alkyl group bridging between both aluminium atoms. They are hard acids and react readily with ligands, forming adducts. In industry, they are mostly used in alkene insertion reactions, as discovered by Karl Ziegler, most importantly in \"growth reactions\" that form long-chain unbranched primary alkenes and alcohols, and in the low-pressure polymerization of ethene and propene. There are also some heterocyclic and cluster organoaluminium compounds involving Al\u2013N bonds.The industrially most important aluminium hydride is lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4), which is used in as a reducing agent in organic chemistry. It can be produced from lithium hydride and aluminium trichloride. The simplest hydride, aluminium hydride or alane, is not as important. It is a polymer with the formula (AlH3)n, in contrast to the corresponding boron hydride that is a dimer with the formula (BH3)2.\n\n\n== Natural occurrence ==\n\n\n=== Space ===\nAluminium's per-particle abundance in the Solar System is 3.15 ppm (parts per million). It is the twelfth most abundant of all elements and third most abundant among the elements that have odd atomic numbers, after hydrogen and nitrogen. The only stable isotope of aluminium, 27Al, is the eighteenth most abundant nucleus in the Universe. It is created almost entirely after fusion of carbon in massive stars that will later become Type II supernovas: this fusion creates 26Mg, which, upon capturing free protons and neutrons becomes aluminium. Some smaller quantities of 27Al are created in hydrogen burning shells of evolved stars, where 26Mg can capture free protons. Essentially all aluminium now in existence is 27Al. 26Al was present in the early Solar System with abundance of 0.005% relative to 27Al but its half-life of 728,000 years is too short for any original nuclei to survive; 26Al is therefore extinct. Unlike for 27Al, hydrogen burning is the primary source of 26Al, with the nuclide emerging after a nucleus of 25Mg catches a free proton. However, the trace quantities of 26Al that do exist are the most common gamma ray emitter in the interstellar gas; if the original 26Al were still present, gamma ray maps of the Milky Way would be brighter.\n\n\n=== Earth ===\n\nOverall, the Earth is about 1.59% aluminium by mass (seventh in abundance by mass). Aluminium occurs in greater proportion in the Earth's crust than in the Universe at large, because aluminium easily forms the oxide and becomes bound into rocks and stays in the Earth's crust, while less reactive metals sink to the core. In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant metallic element (8.23% by mass) and the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon). A large number of silicates in the Earth's crust contain aluminium. In contrast, the Earth's mantle is only 2.38% aluminium by mass. Aluminium also occurs in seawater at a concentration of 2 \u03bcg/kg.Because of its strong affinity for oxygen, aluminium is almost never found in the elemental state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. Aluminium also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel, and turquoise. Impurities in Al2O3, such as chromium and iron, yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire, respectively. Native aluminium metal is extremely rare and can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes. Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea. It is possible that these deposits resulted from bacterial reduction of tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH)4\u2212.Although aluminium is a common and widespread element, not all aluminium minerals are economically viable sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the ore bauxite (AlOx(OH)3\u20132x). Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions. In 2017, most bauxite was mined in Australia, China, Guinea, and India.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nThe history of aluminium has been shaped by usage of alum. The first written record of alum, made by Greek historian Herodotus, dates back to the 5th century BCE. The ancients are known to have used alum as a dyeing mordant and for city defense. After the Crusades, alum, an indispensable good in the European fabric industry, was a subject of international commerce; it was imported to Europe from the eastern Mediterranean until the mid-15th century.The nature of alum remained unknown. Around 1530, Swiss physician Paracelsus suggested alum was a salt of an earth of alum. In 1595, German doctor and chemist Andreas Libavius experimentally confirmed this. In 1722, German chemist Friedrich Hoffmann announced his belief that the base of alum was a distinct earth. In 1754, German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf synthesized alumina by boiling clay in sulfuric acid and subsequently adding potash.Attempts to produce aluminium metal date back to 1760. The first successful attempt, however, was completed in 1824 by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian \u00d8rsted. He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin. He presented his results and demonstrated a sample of the new metal in 1825. In 1827, German chemist Friedrich W\u00f6hler repeated \u00d8rsted's experiments but did not identify any aluminium. (The reason for this inconsistency was only discovered in 1921.) He conducted a similar experiment in the same year by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and produced a powder of aluminium. In 1845, he was able to produce small pieces of the metal and described some physical properties of this metal. For many years thereafter, W\u00f6hler was credited as the discoverer of aluminium.\n\nAs W\u00f6hler's method could not yield great quantities of aluminium, the metal remained rare; its cost exceeded that of gold. The first industrial production of aluminium was established in 1856 by French chemist Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville and companions. Deville had discovered that aluminium trichloride could be reduced by sodium, which was more convenient and less expensive than potassium, which W\u00f6hler had used. Even then, aluminium was still not of great purity and produced aluminium differed in properties by sample.The first industrial large-scale production method was independently developed in 1886 by French engineer Paul H\u00e9roult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall; it is now known as the Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult process. The Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult process converts alumina into metal. Austrian chemist Carl Joseph Bayer discovered a way of purifying bauxite to yield alumina, now known as the Bayer process, in 1889. Modern production of the aluminium metal is based on the Bayer and Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult processes.Prices of aluminium dropped and aluminium became widely used in jewelry, everyday items, eyeglass frames, optical instruments, tableware, and foil in the 1890s and early 20th century. Aluminium's ability to form hard yet light alloys with other metals provided the metal with many uses at the time. During World War I, major governments demanded large shipments of aluminium for light strong airframes; during World War II, demand by major governments for aviation was even higher.By the mid-20th century, aluminium had become a part of everyday life and an essential component of housewares. In 1954, production of aluminium surpassed that of copper, historically second in production only to iron, making it the most produced non-ferrous metal. During the mid-20th century, aluminium emerged as a civil engineering material, with building applications in both basic construction and interior finish work, and increasingly being used in military engineering, for both airplanes and land armor vehicle engines. Earth's first artificial satellite, launched in 1957, consisted of two separate aluminium semi-spheres joined together and all subsequent space vehicles have used aluminium to some extent. The aluminium can was invented in 1956 and employed as a storage for drinks in 1958.\n\nThroughout the 20th century, the production of aluminium rose rapidly: while the world production of aluminium in 1900 was 6,800 metric tons, the annual production first exceeded 100,000 metric tons in 1916; 1,000,000 tons in 1941; 10,000,000 tons in 1971. In the 1970s, the increased demand for aluminium made it an exchange commodity; it entered the London Metal Exchange, the oldest industrial metal exchange in the world, in 1978. The output continued to grow: the annual production of aluminium exceeded 50,000,000 metric tons in 2013.The real price for aluminium declined from $14,000 per metric ton in 1900 to $2,340 in 1948 (in 1998 United States dollars). Extraction and processing costs were lowered over technological progress and the scale of the economies. However, the need to exploit lower-grade poorer quality deposits and the use of fast increasing input costs (above all, energy) increased the net cost of aluminium; the real price began to grow in the 1970s with the rise of energy cost. Production moved from the industrialized countries to countries where production was cheaper. Production costs in the late 20th century changed because of advances in technology, lower energy prices, exchange rates of the United States dollar, and alumina prices. The BRIC countries' combined share in primary production and primary consumption grew substantially in the first decade of the 21st century. China is accumulating an especially large share of the world's production thanks to an abundance of resources, cheap energy, and governmental stimuli; it also increased its consumption share from 2% in 1972 to 40% in 2010. In the United States, Western Europe, and Japan, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging.\n\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe names aluminium and aluminum are derived from the word alumine, an obsolete term for alumina, a naturally occurring oxide of aluminium. Alumine was borrowed from French, which in turn derived it from alumen, the classical Latin name for alum, the mineral from which it was collected. The Latin word alumen stems from the Proto-Indo-European root *alu- meaning \"bitter\" or \"beer\".\n\n\n=== Coinage ===\nBritish chemist Humphry Davy, who performed a number of experiments aimed to isolate the metal, is credited as the person who named the element. The first name proposed for the metal to be isolated from alum was alumium, which Davy suggested in an 1808 article on his electrochemical research, published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. It appeared that the name was coined from the English word alum and the Latin suffix -ium; however, it was customary at the time that the elements should have names originating in the Latin language, and as such, this name was not adopted universally. This name was criticized by contemporary chemists from France, Germany, and Sweden, who insisted the metal should be named for the oxide, alumina, from which it would be isolated. The English word name alum does not directly reference the Latin language, whereas alumine/alumina easily references the Latin word alumen (upon declension, alumen changes to alumin-).\nOne example was a writing in French by Swedish chemist J\u00f6ns Jacob Berzelius titled Essai sur la Nomenclature chimique, published in July 1811; in this essay, among other things, Berzelius used the name aluminium for the element that would be synthesized from alum. (Another article in the same journal issue also refers to the metal whose oxide forms the basis of sapphire as to aluminium.)  A January 1811 summary of one of Davy's lectures at the Royal Society mentioned the name aluminium as a possibility. The following year, Davy published a chemistry textbook in which he used the spelling aluminum. Both spellings have coexisted since; however, their usage has split by region: aluminum is the primary spelling in the United States and Canada while aluminium is in the rest of the English-speaking world.\n\n\n=== Spelling ===\nIn 1812, British scientist Thomas Young wrote an anonymous review of Davy's book, in which he proposed the name aluminium instead of aluminum, which he felt had a \"less classical sound\". This name did catch on: while the -um spelling was occasionally used in Britain, the American scientific language used -ium from the start. Most scientists used -ium throughout the world in the 19th century, and it was entrenched in many other European languages, such as French, German, or Dutch. In 1828, American lexicographer Noah Webster used exclusively the aluminum spelling in his American Dictionary of the English Language. In the 1830s, the -um spelling started to gain usage in the United States; by the 1860s, it had become the more common spelling there outside science. In 1892, Hall used the -um spelling in his advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal, despite his constant use of the -ium spelling in all the patents he filed between 1886 and 1903. It remains unknown whether this spelling was introduced by mistake or intentionally; however, Hall preferred aluminum since its introduction because it resembled platinum, the name of a prestigious metal. By 1890, both spellings had been common in the U.S. overall, the -ium spelling being slightly more common; by 1895, the situation had reversed; by 1900, aluminum had become twice as common as aluminium; during the following decade, the -um spelling dominated American usage. In 1925, the American Chemical Society adopted this spelling.The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in 1990. In 1993, they recognized aluminum as an acceptable variant; the most recent 2005 edition of the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry acknowledges this spelling as well. IUPAC official publications use the -ium spelling as primary but list both where appropriate.\n\n\n== Production and refinement ==\n\nThe production of aluminium starts with the extraction of bauxite rock from the ground. The bauxite is processed and transformed using the Bayer process into alumina, which is then processed using the Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult process, resulting in the final aluminium metal.\nAluminium production is highly energy-consuming, and so the producers tend to locate smelters in places where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensive. As of 2019, the world's largest smelters of aluminium are located in China, India, Russia, Canada, and the United Arab Emirates, while China is by far the top producer of aluminium with a world share of fifty-five percent.\nAccording to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the global per capita stock of aluminium in use in society (i.e. in cars, buildings, electronics, etc.) is 80 kg (180 lb). Much of this is in more-developed countries (350\u2013500 kg (770\u20131,100 lb) per capita) rather than less-developed countries (35 kg (77 lb) per capita).\n\n\n=== Bayer process ===\n\nBauxite is converted to alumina by the Bayer process. Bauxite is blended for uniform composition and then is ground. The resulting slurry is mixed with a hot solution of sodium hydroxide; the mixture is then treated in a digester vessel at a pressure well above atmospheric, dissolving the aluminium hydroxide in bauxite while converting impurities into relatively insoluble compounds:\n\nAfter this reaction, the slurry is at a temperature above its atmospheric boiling point. It is cooled by removing steam as pressure is reduced. The bauxite residue is separated from the solution and discarded. The solution, free of solids, is seeded with small crystals of aluminium hydroxide; this causes decomposition of the [Al(OH)4]\u2212 ions to aluminium hydroxide. After about half of aluminium has precipitated, the mixture is sent to classifiers. Small crystals of aluminium hydroxide are collected to serve as seeding agents; coarse particles are converted to alumina by heating; the excess solution is removed by evaporation, (if needed) purified, and recycled.\n\n\n=== Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult process ===\n\nThe conversion of alumina to aluminium metal is achieved by the Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult process. In this energy-intensive process, a solution of alumina in a molten (950 and 980 \u00b0C (1,740 and 1,800 \u00b0F)) mixture of cryolite (Na3AlF6) with calcium fluoride is electrolyzed to produce metallic aluminium. The liquid aluminium metal sinks to the bottom of the solution and is tapped off, and usually cast into large blocks called aluminium billets for further processing.Anodes of the electrolysis cell are made of carbon\u2014the most resistant material against fluoride corrosion\u2014and either bake at the process or are prebaked. The former, also called S\u00f6derberg anodes, are less power-efficient and fumes released during baking are costly to collect, which is why they are being replaced by prebaked anodes even though they save the power, energy, and labor to prebake the cathodes. Carbon for anodes should be preferably pure so that neither aluminium nor the electrolyte is contaminated with ash. Despite carbon's resistivity against corrosion, it is still consumed at a rate of 0.4\u20130.5 kg per each kilogram of produced aluminium. Cathodes are made of anthracite; high purity for them is not required because impurities leach only very slowly. The cathode is consumed at a rate of 0.02\u20130.04 kg per each kilogram of produced aluminium. A cell is usually terminated after 2\u20136 years following a failure of the cathode.The Hall\u2013Heroult process produces aluminium with a purity of above 99%. Further purification can be done by the Hoopes process. This process involves the electrolysis of molten aluminium with a sodium, barium, and aluminium fluoride electrolyte. The resulting aluminium has a purity of 99.99%.Electric power represents about 20 to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the smelter. Aluminium production consumes roughly 5% of electricity generated in the United States. Because of this, alternatives to the Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult process have been researched, but none has turned out to be economically feasible.\n\n\n=== Recycling ===\n\nRecovery of the metal through recycling has become an important task of the aluminium industry. Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing use of aluminium beverage cans brought it to public awareness. Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only 5% of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore, though a significant part (up to 15% of the input material) is lost as dross (ash-like oxide). An aluminium stack melter produces significantly less dross, with values reported below 1%.White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful quantities of aluminium that can be extracted industrially. The process produces aluminium billets, together with a highly complex waste material. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases (including, among others, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia), which spontaneously ignites on contact with air; contact with damp air results in the release of copious quantities of ammonia gas. Despite these difficulties, the waste is used as a filler in asphalt and concrete.\n\n\n== Applications ==\n\n\n=== Metal ===\n\nThe global production of aluminium in 2016 was 58.8 million metric tons. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (1,231 million metric tons).Aluminium is almost always alloyed, which markedly improves its mechanical properties, especially when tempered. For example, the common aluminium foils and beverage cans are alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium. The main alloying agents are copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and silicon (e.g., duralumin) with the levels of other metals in a few percent by weight. Aluminum, both wrought and cast, has been alloyed with: manganese, silicon, magnesium, copper and zinc amongst others. For example, the Kynal family of alloys was developed by the British chemical manufacturer Imperial Chemical Industries.\n\nThe major uses for aluminium metal are in:\nTransportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles, spacecraft, etc.). Aluminium is used because of its low density;\nPackaging (cans, foil, frame etc.). Aluminium is used because it is non-toxic (see below), non-adsorptive, and splinter-proof;\nBuilding and construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, sheathing, roofing, etc.). Since steel is cheaper, aluminium is used when lightness, corrosion resistance, or engineering features are important;\nElectricity-related uses (conductor alloys, motors, and generators, transformers, capacitors, etc.). Aluminium is used because it is relatively cheap, highly conductive, has adequate mechanical strength and low density, and resists corrosion;\nA wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to furniture. Low density, good appearance, ease of fabrication, and durability are the key factors of aluminium usage;\nMachinery and equipment (processing equipment, pipes, tools). Aluminium is used because of its corrosion resistance, non-pyrophoricity, and mechanical strength.\nPortable computer cases. Currently rarely used without alloying, but aluminum can be recycled and clean aluminum has residual market value: for example, the used beverage can (UBC) material was used to encase the electronic components of MacBook Air laptop, Pixel 5 smartphone or Summit Lite smartwatch.\n\n\n=== Compounds ===\nThe great majority (about 90%) of aluminium oxide is converted to metallic aluminium. Being a very hard material (Mohs hardness 9), alumina is widely used as an abrasive; being extraordinarily chemically inert, it is useful in highly reactive environments such as high pressure sodium lamps. Aluminium oxide is commonly used as a catalyst for industrial processes; e.g. the Claus process to convert hydrogen sulfide to sulfur in refineries and to alkylate amines. Many industrial catalysts are supported by alumina, meaning that the expensive catalyst material is dispersed over a surface of the inert alumina. Another principal use is as a drying agent or absorbent.\n\nSeveral sulfates of aluminium have industrial and commercial application. Aluminium sulfate (in its hydrate form) is produced on the annual scale of several millions of metric tons. About two-thirds is consumed in water treatment. The next major application is in the manufacture of paper. It is also used as a mordant in dyeing, in pickling seeds, deodorizing of mineral oils, in leather tanning, and in production of other aluminium compounds. Two kinds of alum, ammonium alum and potassium alum, were formerly used as mordants and in leather tanning, but their use has significantly declined following availability of high-purity aluminium sulfate. Anhydrous aluminium chloride is used as a catalyst in chemical and petrochemical industries, the dyeing industry, and in synthesis of various inorganic and organic compounds. Aluminium hydroxychlorides are used in purifying water, in the paper industry, and as antiperspirants. Sodium aluminate is used in treating water and as an accelerator of solidification of cement.Many aluminium compounds have niche applications, for example:\n\nAluminium acetate in solution is used as an astringent.\nAluminium phosphate is used in the manufacture of glass, ceramic, pulp and paper products, cosmetics, paints, varnishes, and in dental cement.\nAluminium hydroxide is used as an antacid, and mordant; it is used also in water purification, the manufacture of glass and ceramics, and in the waterproofing of fabrics.\nLithium aluminium hydride is a powerful reducing agent used in organic chemistry.\nOrganoaluminiums are used as Lewis acids and co-catalysts.\nMethylaluminoxane is a co-catalyst for Ziegler\u2013Natta olefin polymerization to produce vinyl polymers such as polyethene.\nAqueous aluminium ions (such as aqueous aluminium sulfate) are used to treat against fish parasites such as Gyrodactylus salaris.\nIn many vaccines, certain aluminium salts serve as an immune adjuvant (immune response booster) to allow the protein in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency as an immune stimulant.\n\n\n== Biology ==\n\nDespite its widespread occurrence in the Earth's crust, aluminium has no known function in biology. At pH 6\u20139 (relevant for most natural waters), aluminium precipitates out of water as the hydroxide and is hence not available; most elements behaving this way have no biological role or are toxic. Aluminium salts are nontoxic. Aluminium sulfate has an LD50 of 6207 mg/kg (oral, mouse), which corresponds to 435 grams for an 70 kg (150 lb) person, though lethality and neurotoxicity differ in their implications. Andr\u00e1si et al discovered \"significantly higher Aluminum\" content in some brain regions when necroscopies of subjects with Alzheimer disease were compared to subjects without. Aluminum chelates with glyphosate.\n\n\n=== Toxicity ===\nIn most people, aluminium is not as toxic as heavy metals. Aluminium is classified as a non-carcinogen by the United States Department of Health and Human Services. A review published in 1988 said that there was little evidence that normal exposure to aluminium presents a risk to healthy adult, and a 2014 multi-element toxicology review was unable to find deleterious effects of aluminium consumed in amounts not greater than 40 mg/day per kg of body mass. Most aluminium consumed will leave the body in feces; most of the small part of it that enters the bloodstream, will be excreted via urine; nevertheless some aluminium does pass the blood-brain barrier and is lodged preferentially in the brains of Alzheimer's patients. Evidence published in 2015 seems to indicate that for Alzheimer's patients aluminium may act by electrostatically crosslinking proteins thus down regulating genes in the superior temporal gyrus.\n\n\n=== Effects ===\nAluminium, although rarely, can cause vitamin D-resistant osteomalacia, erythropoietin-resistant microcytic anemia, and central nervous system alterations. People with kidney insufficiency are especially at a risk. Chronic ingestion of hydrated aluminium silicates (for excess gastric acidity control) may result in aluminium binding to intestinal contents and increased elimination of other metals, such as iron or zinc; sufficiently high doses (>50 g/day) can cause anemia.\n\nDuring the 1988 Camelford water pollution incident people in Camelford had their drinking water contaminated with aluminium sulfate for several weeks. A final report into the incident in 2013 concluded it was unlikely that this had caused long-term health problems.Aluminium has been suspected of being a possible cause of Alzheimer's disease, but research into this for over 40 years has found, as of 2018, no good evidence of causal effect.Aluminium increases estrogen-related gene expression in human breast cancer cells cultured in the laboratory. In very high doses, aluminium is associated with altered function of the blood\u2013brain barrier. A small percentage of people have contact allergies to aluminium and experience itchy red rashes, headache, muscle pain, joint pain, poor memory, insomnia, depression, asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, or other symptoms upon contact with products containing aluminium.Exposure to powdered aluminium or aluminium welding fumes can cause pulmonary fibrosis. Fine aluminium powder can ignite or explode, posing another workplace hazard.\n\n\n=== Exposure routes ===\nFood is the main source of aluminium. Drinking water contains more aluminium than solid food; however, aluminium in food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water. Major sources of human oral exposure to aluminium include food (due to its use in food additives, food and beverage packaging, and cooking utensils), drinking water (due to its use in municipal water treatment), and aluminium-containing medications (particularly antacid/antiulcer and buffered aspirin formulations). Dietary exposure in Europeans averages to 0.2\u20131.5 mg/kg/week but can be as high as 2.3 mg/kg/week. Higher exposure levels of aluminium are mostly limited to miners, aluminium production workers, and dialysis patients.Consumption of antacids, antiperspirants, vaccines, and cosmetics provide possible routes of exposure. Consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium enhances aluminium absorption, and maltol has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nerve and bone tissues.\n\n\n=== Treatment ===\nIn case of suspected sudden intake of a large amount of aluminium, the only treatment is deferoxamine mesylate which may be given to help eliminate aluminium from the body by chelation. However, this should be applied with caution as this reduces not only aluminium body levels, but also those of other metals such as copper or iron.\n\n\n== Environmental effects ==\nHigh levels of aluminium occur near mining sites; small amounts of aluminium are released to the environment at the coal-fired power plants or incinerators. Aluminium in the air is washed out by the rain or normally settles down but small particles of aluminium remain in the air for a long time.Acidic precipitation is the main natural factor to mobilize aluminium from natural sources and the main reason for the environmental effects of aluminium; however, the main factor of presence of aluminium in salt and freshwater are the industrial processes that also release aluminium into air.In water, aluminium acts as a toxi\u0441 agent on gill-breathing animals such as fish when the water is acidic, in which aluminium may precipitate on gills, which causes loss of plasma- and hemolymph ions leading to osmoregulatory failure. Organic complexes of aluminium may be easily absorbed and interfere with metabolism in mammals and birds, even though this rarely happens in practice.Aluminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acidic soils. Although it is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils, in acid soils the concentration of toxic Al3+ cations increases and disturbs root growth and function. Wheat has developed a tolerance to aluminium, releasing organic compounds that bind to harmful aluminium cations. Sorghum is believed to have the same tolerance mechanism.Aluminium production possesses its own challenges to the environment on each step of the production process. The major challenge is the greenhouse gas emissions. These gases result from electrical consumption of the smelters and the byproducts of processing. The most potent of these gases are perfluorocarbons from the smelting process. Released sulfur dioxide is one of the primary precursors of acid rain.A Spanish scientific report from 2001 claimed that the fungus Geotrichum candidum consumes the aluminium in compact discs. Other reports all refer back to that report and there is no supporting original research. Better documented, the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the fungus Cladosporium resinae are commonly detected in aircraft fuel tanks that use kerosene-based fuels (not avgas), and laboratory cultures can degrade aluminium. However, these life forms do not directly attack or consume the aluminium; rather, the metal is corroded by microbe waste products.\n\n\n== See also ==\nAluminium granules\nAluminium joining\nAluminium\u2013air battery\nPanel edge staining\nQuantum clock\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nDavis, J. R. (1999). Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys. ASM International. ISBN 978-1-61503-238-9.\nDean, J. A. (1999). Lange's handbook of chemistry (15 ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-016384-3. OCLC 40213725.\nDrozdov, A. (2007). Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element. RUSAL Library. ISBN 978-5-91523-002-5.\nGreenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.\nKing, R. B. (1995). Inorganic Chemistry of Main Group Elements. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-0-471-18602-1.\nLide, D. R., ed. (2004). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (84 ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0566-5.\nNappi, C. (2013). The global aluminium industry 40 years from 1972 (PDF) (Report). International Aluminium Institute. Retrieved 10 November 2017.\nRichards, J. W. (1896). Aluminium: Its history, occurrence, properties, metallurgy and applications, including its alloys (3 ed.). Henry Carey Baird & Co.\nSchmitz, C. (2006). Handbook of Aluminium Recycling. Vulkan-Verlag GmbH. ISBN 978-3-8027-2936-2.\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nMimi Sheller, Aluminum Dream: The Making of Light Modernity. Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 2014.\n\n\n== External links ==\nAluminium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)\nToxic Substances Portal \u2013 Aluminum \u2013 from the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, United States Department of Health and Human Services\nCDC \u2013 NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards \u2013 Aluminum\nWorld production of primary aluminium, by country\nPrice history of aluminum, according to the IMF\nHistory of Aluminium \u2013 from the website of the International Aluminium Institute\nEmedicine \u2013 Aluminium\nThe short film Aluminum(1941) is available for free download at the Internet Archive", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Al_absorption_by_skin.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Al_transport_across_human_cells.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Aluminium-4.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Aluminium_-_world_production_trend.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Aluminium_Atomic_lattice.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Aluminium_spectrum_visible.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Austin_A40_Roadster_ca_1951.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Bauxite_h%C3%A9rault.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Cubic-face-centered.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Drinking_can_ring-pull_tab.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/En-uk-aluminium.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/En-us-aluminum.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Eros-piccadilly-circus.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Litho.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Luftaufnahmen_Nordseekueste_2012-05-by-RaBoe-478.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Pulsed_Laser_Deposition_in_Action.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/The_Turner_Brass_Works_ad_1897.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Tovarna_glinice_in_aluminija_Kidri%C4%8Devo_-_kupi_aluminija_1968.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Trimethylaluminium-from-xtal-3D-bs-17-25.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Waste_bins_recyclable.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/83/AlHydrolysis.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"], "summary": "Aluminium (aluminum in American and Canadian English) is a chemical element with the symbol Al and atomic number 13. Aluminium has a density lower than those of other common metals, at approximately one third that of steel. It has a great affinity towards oxygen, and forms a protective layer of oxide on the surface when exposed to air. Aluminium visually resembles silver, both in its color and in its great ability to reflect light. It is soft, non-magnetic and ductile. It has one stable isotope, 27Al; this isotope is very common, making aluminium the twelfth most common element in the Universe. The radioactivity of 26Al is used in radiodating.\nChemically, aluminium is a weak metal in the boron group; as it is common for the group, aluminium forms compounds primarily in the +3 oxidation state. The aluminium cation Al3+ is small and highly charged; as such, it is polarizing, and bonds aluminium forms tend towards covalency. The strong affinity towards oxygen leads to aluminium's common association with oxygen in nature in the form of oxides; for this reason, aluminium is found on Earth primarily in rocks in the crust, where it is the third most abundant element after oxygen and silicon, rather than in the mantle, and virtually never as the free metal.\nThe discovery of aluminium was announced in 1825 by Danish physicist Hans Christian \u00d8rsted. The first industrial production of aluminium was initiated by French chemist Henri \u00c9tienne Sainte-Claire Deville in 1856. Aluminium became much more available to the public with the Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult process developed independently by French engineer Paul H\u00e9roult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall in 1886, and the mass production of aluminium led to its extensive use in industry and everyday life. In World Wars I and II, aluminium was a crucial strategic resource for aviation. In 1954, aluminium became the most produced non-ferrous metal, surpassing copper. In the 21st century, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan.\nDespite its prevalence in the environment, no living organism is known to use aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of the abundance of these salts, the potential for a biological role for them is of continuing interest, and studies continue."}, "Meitnerium": {"links": ["Livermorium", "Caesium", "Bohrium-two seventy-two", "Isotope", "OSTI ", "Ytterbium", "Helium", "Polonium", "Aaldert Wapstra", "Oxidation state", "Decay product", "Vanadium", "Titanium", "Osmium tetroxide", "Rhodium", "StwoCID ", "Period six element", "Natural abundance", "Carbon group", "Systematic element name", "Period four element", "Aluminium", "Neutron", "Lawrencium", "Lutetium", "Introduction to the heaviest elements", "Strong interaction", "Ionic radius", "Dysprosium", "Thulium", "Electron", "Strontium", "Standard electrode potential", "Fermium", "Superheavy element", "IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party", "Terbium", "Congener ", "Barium", "Mass number", "Period three element", "Francium", "Period seven element", "Alkali metal", "Zirconium", "Darleane C. 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Seaborg", "Coulomb's law", "Boron group", "Isotopes of meitnerium", "Wayback Machine", "Flerovium", "Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory"], "content": "Meitnerium is a synthetic chemical element with the symbol Mt and atomic number 109. It is an extremely radioactive synthetic element (an element not found in nature, but can be created in a laboratory). The most stable known isotope, meitnerium-278, has a half-life of 4.5 seconds, although the unconfirmed meitnerium-282 may have a longer half-life of 67 seconds. The GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research near Darmstadt, Germany, first created this element in 1982. It is named after Lise Meitner.\nIn the periodic table, meitnerium is a d-block transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in the group 9 elements, although no chemical experiments have yet been carried out to confirm that it behaves as the heavier homologue to iridium in group 9 as the seventh member of the 6d series of transition metals. Meitnerium is calculated to have similar properties to its lighter homologues, cobalt, rhodium, and iridium.\n\n\n== Introduction ==\n\n \n\nThe heaviest atomic nuclei are created in nuclear reactions that combine two other nuclei of unequal size into one; roughly, the more unequal the two nuclei in terms of mass, the greater the possibility that the two react. The material made of the heavier nuclei is made into a target, which is then bombarded by the beam of lighter nuclei. Two nuclei can only fuse into one if they approach each other closely enough; normally, nuclei (all positively charged) repel each other due to electrostatic repulsion. The strong interaction can overcome this repulsion but only within a very short distance from a nucleus; beam nuclei are thus greatly accelerated in order to make such repulsion insignificant compared to the velocity of the beam nucleus. Coming close alone is not enough for two nuclei to fuse: when two nuclei approach each other, they usually remain together for approximately 10\u221220 seconds and then part ways (not necessarily in the same composition as before the reaction) rather than form a single nucleus. If fusion does occur, the temporary merger\u2014termed a compound nucleus\u2014is an excited state. To lose its excitation energy and reach a more stable state, a compound nucleus either fissions or ejects one or several neutrons, which carry away the energy. This occurs in approximately 10\u221216 seconds after the initial collision.The beam passes through the target and reaches the next chamber, the separator; if a new nucleus is produced, it is carried with this beam. In the separator, the newly produced nucleus is separated from other nuclides (that of the original beam and any other reaction products) and transferred to a surface-barrier detector, which stops the nucleus. The exact location of the upcoming impact on the detector is marked; also marked are its energy and the time of the arrival. The transfer takes about 10\u22126 seconds; in order to be detected, the nucleus must survive this long. The nucleus is recorded again once its decay is registered, and the location, the energy, and the time of the decay are measured.Stability of a nucleus is provided by the strong interaction. However, its range is very short; as nuclei become larger, its influence on the outermost nucleons (protons and neutrons) weakens. At the same time, the nucleus is torn apart by electrostatic repulsion between protons, as it has unlimited range. Nuclei of the heaviest elements are thus theoretically predicted and have so far been observed to primarily decay via decay modes that are caused by such repulsion: alpha decay and spontaneous fission; these modes are predominant for nuclei of superheavy elements. Alpha decays are registered by the emitted alpha particles, and the decay products are easy to determine before the actual decay; if such a decay or a series of consecutive decays produces a known nucleus, the original product of a reaction can be determined arithmetically. Spontaneous fission, however, produces various nuclei as products, so the original nuclide cannot be determined from its daughters.The information available to physicists aiming to synthesize one of the heaviest elements is thus the information collected at the detectors: location, energy, and time of arrival of a particle to the detector, and those of its decay. The physicists analyze this data and seek to conclude that it was indeed caused by a new element and could not have been caused by a different nuclide than the one claimed. Often, provided data is insufficient for a conclusion that a new element was definitely created and there is no other explanation for the observed effects; errors in interpreting data have been made.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Discovery ===\nMeitnerium was first synthesized on August 29, 1982 by a German research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried M\u00fcnzenberg at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research (Gesellschaft f\u00fcr Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt. The team bombarded a target of bismuth-209 with accelerated nuclei of iron-58 and detected a single atom of the isotope meitnerium-266:\n20983Bi + 5826Fe \u2192 266109Mt + nThis work was confirmed three years later at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at Dubna (then in the Soviet Union).\n\n\n=== Naming ===\nUsing Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements, meitnerium should be known as eka-iridium. In 1979, during the Transfermium Wars (but before the synthesis of meitnerium), IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called unnilennium (with the corresponding symbol of Une), a systematic element name as a placeholder, until the element was discovered (and the discovery then confirmed) and a permanent name was decided on. Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels, from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks, the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field, who either called it \"element 109\", with the symbol of E109, (109) or even simply 109, or used the proposed name \"meitnerium\".The naming of meitnerium was discussed in the element naming controversy regarding the names of elements 104 to 109, but meitnerium was the only proposal and thus was never disputed. The name meitnerium (Mt) was suggested by the GSI team in September 1992 in honor of the Austrian physicist Lise Meitner, a co-discoverer of protactinium (with Otto Hahn), and one of the discoverers of nuclear fission. In 1994 the name was recommended by IUPAC, and was officially adopted in 1997. It is thus the only element named specifically after a non-mythological woman (curium being named for both Pierre and Marie Curie).\n\n\n== Isotopes ==\n\nMeitnerium has no stable or naturally occurring isotopes. Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory, either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements. Eight different isotopes of meitnerium have been reported with atomic masses 266, 268, 270, and 274\u2013278, two of which, meitnerium-268 and meitnerium-270, have known but unconfirmed metastable states. A ninth isotope with atomic mass 282 is unconfirmed. Most of these decay predominantly through alpha decay, although some undergo spontaneous fission.\n\n\n=== Stability and half-lives ===\nAll meitnerium isotopes are extremely unstable and radioactive; in general, heavier isotopes are more stable than the lighter. The most stable known meitnerium isotope, 278Mt, is also the heaviest known; it has a half-life of 4.5 seconds. The unconfirmed 282Mt is even heavier and appears to have a longer half-life of 67 seconds. The isotopes 276Mt and 274Mt have half-lives of 0.45 and 0.44 seconds respectively. The remaining five isotopes have half-lives between 1 and 20 milliseconds.The isotope 277Mt, created as the final decay product of 293Ts for the first time in 2012, was observed to undergo spontaneous fission with a half-life of 5 milliseconds. Preliminary data analysis considered the possibility of this fission event instead originating from 277Hs, for it also has a half-life of a few milliseconds, and could be populated following undetected electron capture somewhere along the decay chain. This possibility was later deemed very unlikely based on observed decay energies of 281Ds and 281Rg and the short half-life of 277Mt, although there is still some uncertainty of the assignment. Regardless, the rapid fission of 277Mt and 277Hs is strongly suggestive of a region of instability for superheavy nuclei with N = 168\u2013170. The existence of this region, characterized by a decrease in fission barrier height between the deformed shell closure at N = 162 and spherical shell closure at N = 184, is consistent with theoretical models.\n\n\n== Predicted properties ==\nOther than nuclear properties, no properties of meitnerium or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production and the fact that meitnerium and its parents decay very quickly. Properties of meitnerium metal remain unknown and only predictions are available.\n\n\n=== Chemical ===\nMeitnerium is the seventh member of the 6d series of transition metals, and should be much like the platinum group metals. Calculations on its ionization potentials and atomic and ionic radii are similar to that of its lighter homologue iridium, thus implying that meitnerium's basic properties will resemble those of the other group 9 elements, cobalt, rhodium, and iridium.Prediction of the probable chemical properties of meitnerium has not received much attention recently. Meitnerium is expected to be a noble metal. The standard electrode potential for the Mt3+/Mt couple is expected to be 0.8 V. Based on the most stable oxidation states of the lighter group 9 elements, the most stable oxidation states of meitnerium are predicted to be the +6, +3, and +1 states, with the +3 state being the most stable in aqueous solutions. In comparison, rhodium and iridium show a maximum oxidation state of +6, while the most stable states are +4 and +3 for iridium and +3 for rhodium. The oxidation state +9, represented only by iridium in [IrO4]+, might be possible for its congener meitnerium in the nonafluoride (MtF9) and the [MtO4]+ cation, although [IrO4]+ is expected to be more stable than these meitnerium compounds. The tetrahalides of meitnerium have also been predicted to have similar stabilities to those of iridium, thus also allowing a stable +4 state. It is further expected that the maximum oxidation states of elements from bohrium (element 107) to darmstadtium (element 110) may be stable in the gas phase but not in aqueous solution.\n\n\n=== Physical and atomic ===\nMeitnerium is expected to be a solid under normal conditions and assume a face-centered cubic crystal structure, similarly to its lighter congener iridium. It should be a very heavy metal with a density of around 27\u201328 g/cm3, which would be among the highest of any of the 118 known elements. Meitnerium is also predicted to be paramagnetic.Theoreticians have predicted the covalent radius of meitnerium to be 6 to 10 pm larger than that of iridium. The atomic radius of meitnerium is expected to be around 128 pm.\n\n\n== Experimental chemistry ==\nMeitnerium is the first element on the periodic table whose chemistry has not yet been investigated. Unambiguous determination of the chemical characteristics of meitnerium has yet to have been established due to the short half-lives of meitnerium isotopes and a limited number of likely volatile compounds that could be studied on a very small scale. One of the few meitnerium compounds that are likely to be sufficiently volatile is meitnerium hexafluoride (MtF6), as its lighter homologue iridium hexafluoride (IrF6) is volatile above 60 \u00b0C and therefore the analogous compound of meitnerium might also be sufficiently volatile; a volatile octafluoride (MtF8) might also be possible. For chemical studies to be carried out on a transactinide, at least four atoms must be produced, the half-life of the isotope used must be at least 1 second, and the rate of production must be at least one atom per week. Even though the half-life of 278Mt, the most stable confirmed meitnerium isotope, is 4.5 seconds, long enough to perform chemical studies, another obstacle is the need to increase the rate of production of meitnerium isotopes and allow experiments to carry on for weeks or months so that statistically significant results can be obtained. Separation and detection must be carried out continuously to separate out the meitnerium isotopes and have automated systems experiment on the gas-phase and solution chemistry of meitnerium, as the yields for heavier elements are predicted to be smaller than those for lighter elements; some of the separation techniques used for bohrium and hassium could be reused. However, the experimental chemistry of meitnerium has not received as much attention as that of the heavier elements from copernicium to livermorium.The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory attempted to synthesize the isotope 271Mt in 2002\u20132003 for a possible chemical investigation of meitnerium because it was expected that it might be more stable than the isotopes around it as it has 162 neutrons, a magic number for deformed nuclei; its half-life was predicted to be a few seconds, long enough for a chemical investigation. However, no atoms of 271Mt were detected, and this isotope of meitnerium is currently unknown.An experiment determining the chemical properties of a transactinide would need to compare a compound of that transactinide with analogous compounds of some of its lighter homologues: for example, in the chemical characterization of hassium, hassium tetroxide (HsO4) was compared with the analogous osmium compound, osmium tetroxide (OsO4). In a preliminary step towards determining the chemical properties of meitnerium, the GSI attempted sublimation of the rhodium compounds rhodium(III) oxide (Rh2O3) and rhodium(III) chloride (RhCl3). However, macroscopic amounts of the oxide would not sublimate until 1000 \u00b0C and the chloride would not until 780 \u00b0C, and then only in the presence of carbon aerosol particles: these temperatures are far too high for such procedures to be used on meitnerium, as most of the current methods used for the investigation of the chemistry of superheavy elements do not work above 500 \u00b0C.Following the 2014 successful synthesis of seaborgium hexacarbonyl, Sg(CO)6, studies were conducted with the stable transition metals of groups 7 through 9, suggesting that carbonyl formation could be extended to further probe the chemistries of the early 6d transition metals from rutherfordium to meitnerium inclusive. Nevertheless, the challenges of low half-lives and difficult production reactions make meitnerium difficult to access for radiochemists, though the isotopes 278Mt and 276Mt are long-lived enough for chemical research and may be produced in the decay chains of 294Ts and 288Mc respectively. 276Mt is likely more suitable, since producing tennessine requires a rare and rather short-lived berkelium target. The isotope 270Mt, observed in the decay chain of 278Nh with a half-life of 0.69 seconds, may also be sufficiently long-lived for chemical investigations, though a direct synthesis route leading to this isotope and more precise measurements of its decay properties would be required.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nAudi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.;  et al. (2017). \"The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties\". Chinese Physics C. 41 (3): 030001. Bibcode:2017ChPhC..41c0001A. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001.\nBeiser, A. (2003). Concepts of modern physics (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-244848-1. OCLC 48965418.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)\nHoffman, D. C.; Ghiorso, A.; Seaborg, G. T. (2000). The Transuranium People: The Inside Story. World Scientific. ISBN 978-1-78-326244-1.\nKragh, H. (2018). From Transuranic to Superheavy Elements: A Story of Dispute and Creation. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-75813-8.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)\nZagrebaev, V.; Karpov, A.; Greiner, W. (2013). \"Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years?\". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 420 (1): 012001. arXiv:1207.5700. Bibcode:2013JPhCS.420a2001Z. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/420/1/012001. ISSN 1742-6588. S2CID 55434734.\n\n\n== External links ==\n Media related to Meitnerium at Wikimedia Commons\nMeitnerium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Cubic-face-centered.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Deuterium-tritium_fusion.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Lise_Meitner_%281878-1968%29%2C_lecturing_at_Catholic_University%2C_Washington%2C_D.C.%2C_1946.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg"], "summary": "Meitnerium is a synthetic chemical element with the symbol Mt and atomic number 109. It is an extremely radioactive synthetic element (an element not found in nature, but can be created in a laboratory). The most stable known isotope, meitnerium-278, has a half-life of 4.5 seconds, although the unconfirmed meitnerium-282 may have a longer half-life of 67 seconds. The GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research near Darmstadt, Germany, first created this element in 1982. It is named after Lise Meitner.\nIn the periodic table, meitnerium is a d-block transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in the group 9 elements, although no chemical experiments have yet been carried out to confirm that it behaves as the heavier homologue to iridium in group 9 as the seventh member of the 6d series of transition metals. Meitnerium is calculated to have similar properties to its lighter homologues, cobalt, rhodium, and iridium."}, "Transactinide_element": {"links": ["Niobium", "Bohrium", "Group eleven element", "Atomic nucleus", "Term symbol", "Greenland ice sheet", "University of North Texas", "List of elements by stability of isotopes", "Pyykk\u00f6 model", "Tungsten", "Melting points of the elements ", "Nikolaus Copernicus", "List of chemical elements", "Polarizability", "Period one element", "Chemical nomenclature", "Rectangular potential barrier", "Unbiunium", "World Scientific", "Native metal", "Coulomb's law", "Manganese", "Hassium", "Thorium", "Beta decay", "Minor actinide", "Cosmic rays", "Cadmium", "Erbium", "Chemical symbol", "Strong interaction", "Zirconium", "Francium", "Tellurium", "Nuclear fission", "List of metalloid lists", "Silver", "Nucleosynthesis", "Curium", "Quantum tunnelling", "G-block", "Protactinium", "Period seven element", "Period three element", "Darmstadt", "Fluorine", "Sodium", "Stockholm", "Barium", "Darmstadtium", "Electron configurations of the elements ", "Picobarn", "Period ", "Iron meteorites", "Dubnium", "List of world production chemical elements", "Noble gases", "Platinum", "Chemical elements in East Asian languages", "Neutron", "GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research", "Goldschmidt classification", "Dysprosium", "Refractory metals", "List of people whose names are used in chemical element names", "Palladium", "The Conversation", "Magnetic dipole", "Rhodium", "Rare-earth element", "Picometre", "Actinide concept", "Alkali metal", "Group five element", "IUPAC", "Plutonium", "Radioactive decay", "Beryllium", "Journal of Physics: Conference Series", "Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions", "Electrical resistivities of the elements ", "Gadolinium", "List of oxidation states of the elements", "Bohr unit", "Thermal conductivities of the elements ", "Promethium", "Aaldert Wapstra", "Niels Bohr", "John Wiley & Sons", "Wilhelm Conrad R\u00f6ntgen", "Speeds of sound of the elements ", "John Wiley & Sons, Inc.", "Halogen", "OSTI ", "Noble metal", "Coinage metals", "Einsteinium", "Sulfur", "Group nine element", "Silicon", "Metalloid", "Platinum group", "History of the periodic table", "Iridium", "Heats of vaporization of the elements ", "Nuclear reactions", "Timeline of chemical element discoveries", "Dmitri Mendeleev", "Atomic number", "Gaseous ionization detector", "Physical Review C", "Relativistic quantum chemistry", "Ruthenium", "Rhenium", "Period six element", "European Physical Journal WOC", "Strontium", "Copernicium", "Hardnesses of the elements ", "Alternative periodic tables", "Neodymium", "Lanthanide", "Precious metal", "Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory", "Bismuth", "Georgy Flyorov", "Heat capacities of the elements ", "Sweden", "Vapor pressures of the elements ", "Albert Ghiorso", "Transition metal", "Periodic table ", "Helge Kragh", "Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory", "Potassium", "Lead", "P-block", "Group four element", "Flerovium", "Arsenic", "Dividing line between metals and nonmetals", "Magnesium", "Pnictogen", "Terbium", "Metal", "D-block", "Actinium", "Group ", "Radium", "Indium", "List of chemical elements naming controversies", "Phosphorus", "Peter Armbruster", "Bromine", "Samanth Subramanian", "Noble gas", "Lithium", "Titanium", "Osmium", "Tennessine", "Atomic mass unit", "Fission barrier", "Naming of chemical elements", "Heavy element", "Lise Meitner", "Bose\u2013Einstein condensate", "Nuclear shell model", "IUPAP", "Doi ", "Elastic properties of the elements ", "Calcium", "Periodic table", "Particle accelerator", "Kinetic energy", "Spin-orbit coupling", "Aluminium", "Group ten element", "Heavy metals", "Group eight element", "Fricke model", "Mendeleev's predicted elements", "Hafnium", "Momentum", "Vanadium", "Nihonium", "Abundances of the elements ", "Atomic radii of the elements ", "Time-of-flight mass spectrometry", "S-block", "Major actinide", "Earth's core", "Excited state", "Scandium", "Carbon group", "Livermorium", "Samarium", "Holmium", "Rubidium", "Europium", "Reactive nonmetal", "Neptunium", "Period five element", "Gallium", "Cerium", "Group twelve element", "Wayback Machine", "ISSN ", "Decay energy", "F-block", "Gottfried M\u00fcnzenberg", "Yuri Oganessian", "Georgy Flerov", "Particle beam", "Electronegativities of the elements ", "Oak Ridge National Laboratory", "Iron", "Bloomberg Businessweek", "Darleane C. Hoffman", "Ernest Lawrence", "Chemical element", "Superactinide", "Group three element", "Joint Institute for Nuclear Research", "Xenon", "Helium", "Technetium", "Astatine", "Chalcogen", "Period two element", "Half-life", "Properties of metals, metalloids and nonmetals", "Inert pair effect", "Nitrogen", "Praseodymium", "Scientific American", "List of places used in the names of chemical elements", "Thallium", "Moscovium", "Nonmetal", "Antimony", "Royal Society of Chemistry", "Nuclear physics", "Actinide", "Australian National University", "Names for sets of chemical elements", "Group seven element", "Tantalum", "Alkaline earth metal", "Actinide series", "Lawrencium", "Bibcode ", "Atomic mass", "Ionic radius", "Semiconductor detector", "Stockholm County", "Boron group", "Weak interaction", "Distillations ", "Polonium", "Pure and Applied Chemistry", "Germanium", "Nauka ", "Physics World", "Tennessee", "Hydrogen", "Berkelium", "Radon", "Dubna", "Period four element", "ISBN ", "Trivial name", "Iodine", "Moscow", "Aufbau principle", "Nobelium", "Carbon", "Post-transition metal", "Physics Today", "Proton", "Chemistry World", "Nuclear binding energy", "Tin", "OCLC ", "Krypton", "Speed of light", "Glenn T. Seaborg", "Mass number", "Ionization energies of the elements ", "Chlorine", "Richard Swinne", "Spontaneous fission", "Electronegativity", "List of chemical element name etymologies", "Unbibium", "Fermium", "Meitnerium", "Zinc", "Caesium", "Lanthanum", "Roentgenium", "Alpha decay", "International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry", "Extended periodic table", "RIKEN", "Uranium", "Mercury ", "Group six element", "Island of stability", "Gamma ray", "Critical points of the elements ", "Nucleon", "Yttrium", "Selenium", "Unbinilium", "Ununennium", "Abundance of the chemical elements", "Transfermium Wars", "Argon", "Electron affinity ", "IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party", "Mendelevium", "Nickel", "Heats of fusion of the elements ", "Japan", "Springer Science+Business Media", "Transuranium element", "Ernest Rutherford", "Lutetium", "Superactinide series", "Oxygen", "Americium", "Julius Thomsen", "Universit\u00e9 libre de Bruxelles", "Cobalt", "Liquid drop model", "Ytterbium", "Rutherfordium", "Californium", "Chemical & Engineering News", "Chromium", "Transactinide element", "Copper", "Composition of the human body", "Thermal expansion coefficients of the elements ", "Gold", "Cross section ", "Czech Technical University in Prague", "Nuclear reaction", "Boron", "Block ", "Systematic element name", "Electron", "Boiling points of the elements ", "Neon", "Johannes Rydberg", "Quadrupole magnet", "StwoCID ", "Nuclear fusion", "Molybdenum", "Oganesson", "Densities of the elements ", "List of elements by atomic properties", "Seaborgium", "Thulium", "PMID "], "content": "Superheavy elements, also known as transactinide elements, transactinides, or super-heavy elements, are the chemical elements with atomic numbers greater than 103. The superheavy elements are immediately beyond the actinides in the periodic table; the heaviest actinide is lawrencium (atomic number 103). By definition, superheavy elements are also transuranic elements, i.e. having atomic numbers greater than that of uranium (92).\nGlenn T. Seaborg first proposed the actinide concept, which led to the acceptance of the actinide series. He also proposed a transactinide series ranging from element 104 to 121 and a superactinide series approximately spanning elements 122 to 153 (although more recent work suggests the end of the superactinide series to occur at element 157 instead). The transactinide seaborgium was named in his honor.Superheavy elements are radioactive and have only been obtained synthetically in laboratories. None of these elements have ever been collected in a macroscopic sample. Superheavy elements are all named after physicists and chemists or important locations involved in the synthesis of the elements.\nIUPAC defines an element to exist if its lifetime is longer than 10\u221214 seconds, which is the time it takes for the nucleus to form an electron cloud.The known superheavy elements form part of the 6d and 7p series in the periodic table. Except for rutherfordium and dubnium, even the longest-lasting isotopes of superheavy elements have short half-lives of minutes or less. The element naming controversy involved elements 102\u2013109. Some of these elements thus used systematic names for many years after their discovery had been confirmed. (Usually the systematic names are replaced with permanent names proposed by the discoverers relatively shortly after a discovery has been confirmed.)\n\n\n== Introduction ==\n\n\n=== Synthesis of superheavy nuclei ===\n\nA superheavy atomic nucleus is created in a nuclear reaction that combines two other nuclei of unequal size into one; roughly, the more unequal the two nuclei in terms of mass, the greater the possibility that the two react. The material made of the heavier nuclei is made into a target, which is then bombarded by the beam of lighter nuclei. Two nuclei can only fuse into one if they approach each other closely enough; normally, nuclei (all positively charged) repel each other due to electrostatic repulsion. The strong interaction can overcome this repulsion but only within a very short distance from a nucleus; beam nuclei are thus greatly accelerated in order to make such repulsion insignificant compared to the velocity of the beam nucleus. The energy applied to the beam nuclei to accelerate them can cause them to reach speeds as high as one-tenth of the speed of light. However, if too much energy is applied, the beam nucleus can fall apart.Coming close enough alone is not enough for two nuclei to fuse: when two nuclei approach each other, they usually remain together for approximately 10\u221220 seconds and then part ways (not necessarily in the same composition as before the reaction) rather than form a single nucleus. This happens because during the attempted formation of a single nucleus, electrostatic repulsion tears apart the nucleus that is being formed. Each pair of a target and a beam is characterized by its cross section\u2014the probability that fusion will occur if two nuclei approach one another expressed in terms of the transverse area that the incident particle must hit in order for the fusion to occur. This fusion may occur as a result of the quantum effect in which nuclei can tunnel through electrostatic repulsion. If the two nuclei can stay close for past that phase, multiple nuclear interactions result in redistribution of energy and an energy equilibrium.\nThe resulting merger is an excited state\u2014termed a compound nucleus\u2014and thus it is very unstable. To reach a more stable state, the temporary merger may fission without formation of a more stable nucleus. Alternatively, the compound nucleus may eject a few neutrons, which would carry away the excitation energy; if the latter is not sufficient for a neutron expulsion, the merger would produce a gamma ray. This happens in approximately 10\u221216 seconds after the initial nuclear collision and results in creation of a more stable nucleus. The definition by the IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party (JWP) states that a chemical element can only be recognized as discovered if a nucleus of it has not decayed within 10\u221214 seconds. This value was chosen as an estimate of how long it takes a nucleus to acquire its outer electrons and thus display its chemical properties.\n\n\n=== Decay and detection ===\n\nThe beam passes through the target and reaches the next chamber, the separator; if a new nucleus is produced, it is carried with this beam. In the separator, the newly produced nucleus is separated from other nuclides (that of the original beam and any other reaction products) and transferred to a surface-barrier detector, which stops the nucleus. The exact location of the upcoming impact on the detector is marked; also marked are its energy and the time of the arrival. The transfer takes about 10\u22126 seconds; in order to be detected, the nucleus must survive this long. The nucleus is recorded again once its decay is registered, and the location, the energy, and the time of the decay are measured.Stability of a nucleus is provided by the strong interaction. However, its range is very short; as nuclei become larger, its influence on the outermost nucleons (protons and neutrons) weakens. At the same time, the nucleus is torn apart by electrostatic repulsion between protons, and its range is not limited. Total binding energy provided by the strong interaction increases linearly with the number of nucleons, whereas electrostatic repulsion increases with the square of the atomic number, i.e. the latter grows faster and becomes increasingly important for heavy and superheavy nuclei. Superheavy nuclei are thus theoretically predicted and have so far been observed to predominantly decay via decay modes that are caused by such repulsion: alpha decay and spontaneous fission. Almost all alpha emitters have over 210 nucleons, and the lightest nuclide primarily undergoing spontaneous fission has 238. In both decay modes, nuclei are inhibited from decaying by corresponding energy barriers for each mode, but they can be tunnelled through.\n\nAlpha particles are commonly produced in radioactive decays because mass of an alpha particle per nucleon is small enough to leave some energy for the alpha particle to be used as kinetic energy to leave the nucleus. Spontaneous fission is caused by electrostatic repulsion tearing the nucleus apart and produces various nuclei in different instances of identical nuclei fissioning. As the atomic number increases, spontaneous fission rapidly becomes more important: spontaneous fission partial half-lives decrease by 23 orders of magnitude from uranium (element 92) to nobelium (element 102), and by 30 orders of magnitude from thorium (element 90) to fermium (element 100). The earlier liquid drop model thus suggested that spontaneous fission would occur nearly instantly due to disappearance of the fission barrier for nuclei with about 280 nucleons. The later nuclear shell model suggested that nuclei with about 300 nucleons would form an island of stability in which nuclei will be more resistant to spontaneous fission and will primarily undergo alpha decay with longer half-lives. Subsequent discoveries suggested that the predicted island might be further than originally anticipated; they also showed that nuclei intermediate between the long-lived actinides and the predicted island are deformed, and gain additional stability from shell effects. Experiments on lighter superheavy nuclei, as well as those closer to the expected island, have shown greater than previously anticipated stability against spontaneous fission, showing the importance of shell effects on nuclei.Alpha decays are registered by the emitted alpha particles, and the decay products are easy to determine before the actual decay; if such a decay or a series of consecutive decays produces a known nucleus, the original product of a reaction can be easily determined. (That all decays within a decay chain were indeed related to each other is established by the location of these decays, which must be in the same place.) The known nucleus can be recognized by the specific characteristics of decay it undergoes such as decay energy (or more specifically, the kinetic energy of the emitted particle). Spontaneous fission, however, produces various nuclei as products, so the original nuclide cannot be determined from its daughters.The information available to physicists aiming to synthesize a superheavy element is thus the information collected at the detectors: location, energy, and time of arrival of a particle to the detector, and those of its decay. The physicists analyze this data and seek to conclude that it was indeed caused by a new element and could not have been caused by a different nuclide than the one claimed. Often, provided data is insufficient for a conclusion that a new element was definitely created and there is no other explanation for the observed effects; errors in interpreting data have been made.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Early predictions ===\nThe heaviest element known at the end of the 19th century was uranium, with an atomic mass of approximately 240 (now known to be 238) amu. Accordingly, it was placed in the last row of the periodic table; this fueled speculation about the possible existence of elements heavier than uranium and why A = 240 seemed to be the limit. Following the discovery of the noble gases, beginning with that of argon in 1895, the possibility of heavier members of the group was considered. Danish chemist Julius Thomsen proposed in 1895 the existence of a sixth noble gas with Z = 86, A = 212 and a seventh with Z = 118, A = 292, the last closing a 32-element period containing thorium and uranium. In 1913, Swedish physicist Johannes Rydberg extended Thomsen's extrapolation of the periodic table to include even heavier elements with atomic numbers up to 460, but he did not believe that these superheavy elements existed or occurred in nature.In 1914, German physicist Richard Swinne proposed that elements heavier than uranium, such as those around Z = 108, could be found in cosmic rays. He suggested that these elements may not necessarily have decreasing half-lives with increasing atomic number, leading to speculation about the possibility of some longer-lived elements at Z = 98\u2013102 and Z = 108\u2013110 (though separated by short-lived elements). Swinne published these predictions in 1926, believing that such elements might exist in the Earth's core, in iron meteorites, or in the ice caps of Greenland where they had been locked up from their supposed cosmic origin.\n\n\n=== Discoveries ===\nWork performed from 1964 to 2013 at four laboratories \u2013 the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in the US, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in the USSR (later Russia), the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Germany, and RIKEN in Japan \u2013 identified and confirmed the elements from rutherfordium to oganesson according to the criteria of the IUPAC\u2013IUPAP Transfermium Working Groups and subsequent Joint Working Parties. These discoveries complete the seventh row of the periodic table. The remaining two transactinides, ununennium (element 119) and unbinilium (element 120), have not yet been synthesized. They would begin an eighth period.\n\n\n=== List of elements ===\n103 Lawrencium, Lr (formerly Lw) (named for Ernest Lawrence)\n104 Rutherfordium, Rf (for Ernest Rutherford)\n105 Dubnium, Db (for the town of Dubna, near Moscow)\n106 Seaborgium, Sg (for Glenn T. Seaborg)\n107 Bohrium, Bh (for Niels Bohr)\n108 Hassium, Hs (for Hassia, where Darmstadt is located)\n109 Meitnerium, Mt (for Lise Meitner)\n110 Darmstadtium, Ds (for Darmstadt)\n111 Roentgenium, Rg (for Wilhelm Conrad R\u00f6ntgen)\n112 Copernicium, Cn (for Nikolaus Copernicus)\n113 Nihonium, Nh (for Nihon, Japan, where the RIKEN-Institute is located)\n114 Flerovium, Fl (for Russian physicist Georgy Flyorov)\n115 Moscovium, Mc (for Moscow)\n116 Livermorium, Lv (for Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory)\n117 Tennessine, Ts (for Tennessee, location of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory)\n118 Oganesson, Og (for physicist Yuri Oganessian)\n\n\n== Characteristics ==\nDue to their short half-lives (for example, the most stable known isotope of seaborgium has a half-life of 14 minutes, and half-lives decrease gradually going to the right of the group) and the low yield of the nuclear reactions that produce them, new methods have had to be created to determine their gas-phase and solution chemistry based on very small samples of a few atoms each. Relativistic effects become very important in this region of the periodic table, causing the filled 7s orbitals, empty 7p orbitals, and filling 6d orbitals to all contract inwards toward the atomic nucleus. This causes a relativistic stabilization of the 7s electrons and makes the 7p orbitals accessible in low excitation states.Elements 103 to 112, lawrencium through copernicium, may be taken to form the 6d series of transition elements. Experimental evidence shows that elements 103\u2013108 behave as expected for their position in the periodic table, as heavier homologues of lutetium through osmium. They are expected to have ionic radii between those of their 5d transition metal homologs and their actinide pseudohomologs: for example, Rf4+ is calculated to have ionic radius 76 pm, between the values for Hf4+ (71 pm) and Th4+ (94 pm). Their ions should also be less polarizable than those of their 5d homologs. Relativistic effects are expected to reach a maximum at the end of this series, at roentgenium (element 111) and copernicium (element 112). Nevertheless, many important properties of the transactinides are still not yet known experimentally, though theoretical calculations have been performed.Elements 113 to 118, nihonium through oganesson, should form a 7p series, completing the seventh period in the periodic table. Their chemistry will be greatly influenced by the very strong relativistic stabilization of the 7s electrons and a strong spin-orbit coupling effect \"tearing\" the 7p subshell apart into two sections, one more stabilized (7p1/2, holding two electrons) and one more destabilized (7p3/2, holding four electrons). Additionally, the 6d electrons are still destabilized in this region and hence may be able to contribute some transition metal character to the first few 7p elements. Lower oxidation states should be stabilized here, continuing group trends, as both the 7s and 7p1/2 electrons exhibit the inert pair effect. These elements are expected to largely continue to follow group trends, though with relativistic effects playing an increasingly larger role. In particular, the large 7p splitting results in an effective shell closure at flerovium (element 114) and a hence much higher than expected chemical activity for oganesson (element 118).Element 118 is the last element that has been synthesized. The next two elements, elements 119 and 120, should form an 8s series and be an alkali and alkaline earth metal respectively. The 8s electrons are expected to be relativistically stabilized, so that the trend towards higher reactivity down these groups will reverse direction and the elements will behave more like their period 5 homologs, rubidium and strontium. Nevertheless, the 7p3/2 orbital is still relativistically destabilized, potentially giving these elements larger ionic radii and perhaps even being able to participate chemically. In this region, the 8p electrons are also relativistically stabilized, resulting in a ground-state 8s28p1 valence electron configuration for element 121. Large changes are expected to occur in the subshell structure in going from element 120 to element 121: for example, the radius of the 5g orbitals should drop drastically, from 25 Bohr units in element 120 in the excited [Og] 5g1 8s1 configuration to 0.8 Bohr units in element 121 in the excited [Og] 5g1 7d1 8s1 configuration, in a phenomenon called \"radial collapse\". Element 122 should add either a further 7d or a further 8p electron to element 121's electron configuration. Elements 121 and 122 should be similar to actinium and thorium, respectively.At element 121, the superactinide series is expected to begin, when the 8s electrons and the filling 8p1/2, 7d3/2, 6f5/2, and 5g7/2 subshells determine the chemistry of these elements. Complete and accurate calculations are not available for elements beyond 123 because of the extreme complexity of the situation: the 5g, 6f, and 7d orbitals should have about the same energy level, and in the region of element 160 the 9s, 8p3/2, and 9p1/2 orbitals should also be about equal in energy. This will cause the electron shells to mix so that the block concept no longer applies very well, and will also result in novel chemical properties that will make positioning these elements in a periodic table very difficult; element 164 is expected to mix characteristics of the elements of group 10, 12, and 18.\n\n\n== Superheavy elements ==\nIt has been suggested that elements beyond Z = 126 be called beyond superheavy elements.\n\n\n== See also ==\nBose\u2013Einstein condensate (also known as Superatom)\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\nAudi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.;  et al. (2017). \"The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties\". Chinese Physics C. 41 (3). 030001. Bibcode:2017ChPhC..41c0001A. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001.     pp. 030001-1\u2013030001-17, pp. 030001-18\u2013030001-138, Table I. The NUBASE2016 table of nuclear and decay properties\nBeiser, A. (2003). Concepts of modern physics (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-244848-1. OCLC 48965418.\nHoffman, D. C.; Ghiorso, A.; Seaborg, G. T. (2000). The Transuranium People: The Inside Story. World Scientific. ISBN 978-1-78-326244-1.\nKragh, H. (2018). From Transuranic to Superheavy Elements: A Story of Dispute and Creation. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-75813-8.\nZagrebaev, V.; Karpov, A.; Greiner, W. (2013). \"Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years?\". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 420. 012001. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/420/1/012001. ISSN 1742-6588.", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Apparatus_for_creation_of_superheavy_elements_en.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Deuterium-tritium_fusion.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "Superheavy elements, also known as transactinide elements, transactinides, or super-heavy elements, are the chemical elements with atomic numbers greater than 103. The superheavy elements are immediately beyond the actinides in the periodic table; the heaviest actinide is lawrencium (atomic number 103). By definition, superheavy elements are also transuranic elements, i.e. having atomic numbers greater than that of uranium (92).\nGlenn T. Seaborg first proposed the actinide concept, which led to the acceptance of the actinide series. He also proposed a transactinide series ranging from element 104 to 121 and a superactinide series approximately spanning elements 122 to 153 (although more recent work suggests the end of the superactinide series to occur at element 157 instead). The transactinide seaborgium was named in his honor.Superheavy elements are radioactive and have only been obtained synthetically in laboratories. None of these elements have ever been collected in a macroscopic sample. Superheavy elements are all named after physicists and chemists or important locations involved in the synthesis of the elements.\nIUPAC defines an element to exist if its lifetime is longer than 10\u221214 seconds, which is the time it takes for the nucleus to form an electron cloud.The known superheavy elements form part of the 6d and 7p series in the periodic table. Except for rutherfordium and dubnium, even the longest-lasting isotopes of superheavy elements have short half-lives of minutes or less. The element naming controversy involved elements 102\u2013109. Some of these elements thus used systematic names for many years after their discovery had been confirmed. (Usually the systematic names are replaced with permanent names proposed by the discoverers relatively shortly after a discovery has been confirmed.)\n\n"}, "Native_metal": {"links": ["Kondyor Massif", "Systematic element name", "Aufbau principle", "Refractory metals", "Group nine element", "Lunar regolith", "Chromium", "Nonmetal", "Zinc", "Iron Age", "Thermal conductivities of the elements ", "Copper Country", "Chemical element", "Electronegativity", "Metal", "Elastic properties of the elements ", "Period six element", "Group eleven element", "Copper Age", "Copper mining in Michigan", "Block ", "German silver", "Chemical nomenclature", "Chemical elements in East Asian languages", "Native element mineral", "Vilyuy River", "Actinide", "Transition metal", "Ontario", "History of the periodic table", "Arsenic", "Hydrothermal alteration", "Tellurium", "Greenland", "Antimony", "Manganese", "Timiskaming District", "Ultramafic intrusion", "Densities of the elements ", "Electron affinity ", "Aluminium", "Extended periodic table", "Period three element", "D-block", "Trivial name", "Transuranium element", "Nickel", "Rhodium", "List of metalloid lists", "International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry", "Niobium", "Density", "Heats of vaporization of the elements ", "Lead", "Silicon", "Tungsten", "Carbon", "Iridium", "List of world production chemical elements", "Naming of chemical elements", "Platinum group metal", "Pewter", "Alkali metal", "List of people whose names are used in chemical element names", "Osmium", "Group eight element", "Placer mining", "Composition of the human body", "Kamchatka Oblast", "Group ten element", "Chemical symbol", "Cobalt-Gowganda region", "Rhenium", "Abundance of the chemical elements", "List of places used in the names of chemical elements", "Urals", "Heavy metals", "Mendeleev's predicted elements", "Kamacite", "Hardnesses of the elements ", "Selenium", "Tantalum", "Smelting", "Group seven element", "F-block", "Major actinide", "Molybdenum", "Ionization energies of the elements ", "Periodic table ", "S-block", "Osmiridium", "Platinum", "Precious metal", "Term symbol", "List of chemical elements", "Vanadium", "Group twelve element", "List of oxidation states of the elements", "Pyykk\u00f6 model", "Noble gas", "Lake Superior", "Pnictogen", "Group five element", "Titanium", "Ruthenium", "Bismuth", "List of chemical element name etymologies", "Group six element", "Metalloid", "Thermal expansion coefficients of the elements ", "Disko Island", "Electronegativities of the elements ", "Dendrite ", "List of elements by atomic properties", "Period one element", "Heat capacities of the elements ", "Khabarovsk Krai", "Names for sets of chemical elements", "Oxford University Press", "Periodic table", "Vapor pressures of the elements ", "Platinum group", "Rutheniridosmine", "Dividing line between metals and nonmetals", "Lanthanide", "Orenburg Oblast", "Period seven element", "Dmitri Mendeleev", "Period five element", "Boiling points of the elements ", "Electrum", "Native copper", "List of elements by stability of isotopes", "Sulfide mineral", "Timeline of chemical element discoveries", "Electrical resistivities of the elements ", "Noble metal", "Sulfosalt", "Critical points of the elements ", "Palladium", "Minor actinide", "Post-transition metal", "Native element minerals", "Sulfur", "Taenite", "G-block", "Electron configurations of the elements ", "Reactive nonmetal", "Abundances of the elements ", "Bronze", "Chalcogen", "Iron", "Serpentinite", "Isle Royale", "Period two element", "List of chemical elements naming controversies", "Ultramafic", "Period ", "Speeds of sound of the elements ", "Placer deposit", "Koryaksky", "Properties of metals, metalloids and nonmetals", "Brass", "Copper", "Oxidation", "Meteoric iron", "Siberia", "Cobalt", "Old Copper Complex", "Halogen", "Group three element", "P-block", "Silver", "Alternative periodic tables", "Boron group", "Gold", "Telluric iron", "Eugenite", "Fricke model", "Tin", "Indium", "New Caledonia", "Nickel iron meteorite", "Period four element", "Iron-nickel alloy", "Keweenaw Peninsula", "Amalgam ", "Group ", "Rare-earth element", "Group four element", "Atomic radii of the elements ", "Gangue", "Goldschmidt classification", "Heats of fusion of the elements ", "Coinage metals", "Alkaline earth metal", "Carbon group", "Iron meteorite", "Mercury ", "Superheavy element", "Russia", "White gold", "Melting points of the elements ", "Cadmium"], "content": "A native metal is any metal that is found pure in its metallic form in nature. Metals that can be found as native deposits singly or in alloys include aluminium, antimony, arsenic, bismuth, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, indium, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, niobium, rhenium, selenium, tantalum, tellurium, tin, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, and zinc, as well as the gold group (gold, copper, lead, aluminium, mercury, silver) and the platinum group (platinum, iridium, osmium, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium). Among the alloys found in native state have been brass, bronze, pewter, German silver, osmiridium, electrum, white gold, silver-mercury amalgam, and gold-mercury amalgam.\nOnly gold, silver, copper and the platinum group occur native in large amounts. Over geological time scales, very few metals can resist natural weathering processes like oxidation, so mainly the less reactive metals such as gold and platinum are found as native metals. The others usually occur as isolated pockets where a natural chemical process reduces a common compound or ore of the metal, leaving the pure metal behind as small flakes or inclusions.\nNon-metallic elements occurring in the native state include carbon and sulfur. Silicon, a semi-metal, has rarely been found in the native state as small inclusions in gold.Native metals were prehistoric man's only access to metal, since the process of extracting metals from their ores (smelting) is thought to have been discovered around 6500 BC. However, native metals could be found only in impractically small amounts, so while copper and iron were known well before the Copper Age and Iron Age, they did not have a large impact until smelting appeared.\n\n\n== Occurrence ==\n\n\n=== Gold ===\nGold is the most well known of the native metals. Most gold is mined as native metal and can be found as nuggets, veins or wires of gold in a rock matrix, or fine grains of gold, mixed in with sediments or bound within rock. The iconic image of gold mining for many is gold panning, which is a method of separating flakes and nuggets of pure gold from river sediments due to their great density.  Native gold is the predominant gold mineral on the earth.  It is sometimes found alloyed with silver and/or other metals but true gold compound minerals are uncommon, mainly a handful of selenides and tellurides.\n\n\n=== Silver ===\n\nNative silver occurs as elongated dendritic coatings or irregular masses. It may also occur as cubic, octahedral, or dodecahedral crystals.  It may occur alloyed with gold as electrum. It often occurs with silver sulfide and sulfosalt minerals.  Various amalgams of silver and mercury or other metals and mercury do occur rarely as minerals in nature. An example is the mineral eugenite (Ag11Hg2) and related forms.  Silver nuggets, wires, and grains are relatively common, but there are also a large number of silver compound minerals owing to silver being more reactive than gold.\n\n\n=== Platinum group ===\nNatural alloys of the platinum group metals include: native osmium (Os,Ir,Ru), rutheniridosmine (Ir,Os,Ru), ruthenium (Ru,Ir), palladium (Pd,Pt), platinum Pt, and rhodium (Rh,Pt).  In addition gold, copper, iron, mercury, tin, and lead may occur in alloys of this group.  As with gold, salts and other compounds of the platinum group metals are rare; native platinum and related metals and alloys are the predominant minerals bearing these metals. These metals occur associated with ultramafic intrusions, and placer deposits derived from those intrusions.\n\n\n=== Copper ===\n\nNative copper has been historically mined as an early source of the metal. \nThe term Old Copper Complex is used to describe an ancient North American civilization that utilized native copper deposits for weapons, tools, and decorative objects. This society existed around Lake Superior, where they found sources of native copper and mined them between 6000 and 3000 BC. Copper would have been especially useful to ancient man as it was much stronger than gold, hard enough to be made into useful items such as fishhooks and woodworking tools, but still soft enough to be easily shaped, unlike meteoric iron.\nThe same deposits of native copper on the Keweenaw Peninsula and Isle Royale were later mined commercially.  From 1845 until 1887, the Michigan Copper Country was the leading producer of copper in the United States.  Masses of native copper weighing hundreds of tons were sometimes found in the mines.\nThe spectrum of copper minerals closely resembles that of silver, ranging from oxides of its multiple oxidation states through sulfides and silicates to halides and chlorates, iodates, nitrates and others.  Natural alloys of copper (particularly with silver; the two metals can also be found in separate but co-mingled masses) are also found.\n\n\n=== Iron, nickel and cobalt ===\n\nTelluric iron (Earth born) is very rare, with only one major deposit known in the world, located on or nearby Disko Island in Greenland. Most of the native iron on earth is actually not in fact \"native\", in the traditional sense, to Earth. It mainly comes from iron-nickel meteorites that formed millions of years ago but were preserved from chemical attack by the vacuum of space, and fell to the earth a relatively short time ago. Metallic meteorites are composed primarily of the iron-nickel alloys: taenite (high nickel content) and kamacite (low nickel content). However, there are a few areas on earth where truly native iron can be found.Native nickel has been described as serpentinite due to hydrothermal alteration of ultramafic rocks in New Caledonia and elsewhere.Metallic cobalt has been reported in the Canadian Lorraine Mine, Cobalt-Gowganda region, the Timiskaming District, Ontario, Canada, and in the Aidyrlya gold deposit in Orenburgskaya Oblast of the Southern Urals.\n\n\n=== Others ===\nAll other native metals occur only in small quantities or are found in geologically special regions. \nFor example, metallic cadmium was only found at two locations including the Vilyuy River basin in Siberia. Native molybdenum has been found in lunar regolith and in the Koryakskii volcano in Kamchatka Oblast of Russia.  Elsewhere in this region native indium, aluminium, tantalum, selenium, tellurium, and other metals have been reported.  Native lead is quite rare but somewhat more widespread, as are tin, mercury, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth.Native chromium has been found in small grains in Sichuan, China and other locations.\n\n\n== See also ==\nNative element minerals\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nThe Native Elements Class", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Native_Copper_from_Michigan.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Naturkundemuseum_Berlin_-_Gediegen_Gold_in_Quarz%2C_Eagles_Nest_Mine%2C_Placer_County%2C_Kalifornien%2C_USA.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Silber_mineral_erz.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Widmanstatten_hand.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Platinum-nugget.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "A native metal is any metal that is found pure in its metallic form in nature. Metals that can be found as native deposits singly or in alloys include aluminium, antimony, arsenic, bismuth, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, indium, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, niobium, rhenium, selenium, tantalum, tellurium, tin, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, and zinc, as well as the gold group (gold, copper, lead, aluminium, mercury, silver) and the platinum group (platinum, iridium, osmium, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium). Among the alloys found in native state have been brass, bronze, pewter, German silver, osmiridium, electrum, white gold, silver-mercury amalgam, and gold-mercury amalgam.\nOnly gold, silver, copper and the platinum group occur native in large amounts. Over geological time scales, very few metals can resist natural weathering processes like oxidation, so mainly the less reactive metals such as gold and platinum are found as native metals. The others usually occur as isolated pockets where a natural chemical process reduces a common compound or ore of the metal, leaving the pure metal behind as small flakes or inclusions.\nNon-metallic elements occurring in the native state include carbon and sulfur. Silicon, a semi-metal, has rarely been found in the native state as small inclusions in gold.Native metals were prehistoric man's only access to metal, since the process of extracting metals from their ores (smelting) is thought to have been discovered around 6500 BC. However, native metals could be found only in impractically small amounts, so while copper and iron were known well before the Copper Age and Iron Age, they did not have a large impact until smelting appeared."}, "Antimony": {"links": ["Wafer ", "Argon", "Isomorphic", "Phase change memory", "ISBN ", "Isotopes of antimony", "Beryllium", "Lewis acid", "Immediately dangerous to life or health", "Canada", "Lithium", "Russia", "Tajikistan", "Iraq", "Fluorine", "Hafnium", "Young's modulus", "Wayback Machine", "Diode", "Nitric acid", "Therapeutic index", "Veterinary", "Niobium", "Prodrug", "Stibine", "Lead\u2013acid batteries", "Bohrium", "Polyethylene terephthalate", "Loeb Classical Library", "Nickel", "World Health Organization", "Magnesium", "Seaborgium", "Magnetism", "Hunan", "Type metal", "Constantine the African", "List of data references for chemical elements", "fourth millennium BC", "Caesium", "Bismuth", "Potassium antimonyl tartrate", "The Periodic Table of Videos", "Bibcode ", "Basilius Valentinus", "Sala Silver Mine", "Sweden", "Sodium borohydride", "Antimony tetroxide", "Gadolinium", "Kazakhstan", "Alloy", "Magnetic susceptibility", "Tennessine", "American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists", "Thermodynamic stability", "Tartrate", "CAS Registry Number", "Sodium", "Tragedy", "Hydrochloric acid", "Tantalum", "Organ pipe", "Girsu", "Boron group", "Amastigote", "Loan word", "Technetium", "Actinium", "Guizhou", "Indium antimonide", "Stable isotope", "Cerium", "Radium", "Emetic", "Antimony trichloride", "Antimony trifluoride", "Royal Society of Chemistry", "Polyester resin", "Antimony pentafluoride", "Period seven element", "Group three element", "Attica", "United States", "Bullet", "Antimony triselenide", "Coefficient of thermal expansion", "Photodisintegration", "Vannoccio Biringuccio", "PMID ", "Explosive form of antimony", "Uranium", "Heat of formation", "Yemen", "Brittle", "Nitrogen", "Molybdenum", "V\u00e4stmanland County", "Phase ", "Pure and Applied Chemistry", "De la pirotechnia", "Pyrargyrite", "Covalent radius", "Chalcogen", "Benedictine", "Rubidium", "Trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry", "Metastability", "Erbium", "Mohs scale of mineral hardness", "Group four element", "Antimony ", "Astatine", "Superacid", "Bromine", "United States Geological Survey", "Brinell hardness test", "Group eleven element", "Aulus Cornelius Celsus", "Thallium", "Safety match", "Barium", "Electrical conductor", "Bulk modulus", "Popular etymology", "American English", "Type locality ", "Doi ", "LSJ", "Xikuangshan Mine", "Lawrencium", "Phlogiston theory", "Berkelium", "Semiconductor", "Jamesonite", "Shear modulus", "Froth flotation", "Meitnerium", "US Geological Survey", "Solder", "Boron", "Group six element", "Electrical cable", "Kelvin", "Meglumine antimoniate", "Arsenic", "Non-stoichiometric compound", "Antimony triiodide", "Copper", "Egypt", "Silicon", "Spectral line", "Halide", "Potassium", "Online Etymology Dictionary", "Timeline of chemical element discoveries", "Alchemist", "OCLC ", "Chromium", "Manganese", "Johann Th\u00f6lde", "J\u00f6ns Jakob Berzelius", "Opacifier", "Antimony pill", "Group ", "Alkaline earth metal", "Neptunium", "D-block", "Leishmaniasis", "Keratinized", "Earth", "Krypton", "De re metallica", "Moscovium", "Copernicium", "Alabaster", "Dopant", "Poet", "Oganesson", "S-block", "Metalloid", "Zinc", "Atomic number", "Trigonal", "Swedish people", "Leibniz", "Antimonial", "Alloy junction transistor", "Californium", "Flerovium", "Curium", "Tellurium", "Gold", "Indium", "Neutron source", "Oxohalide", "Praseodymium", "Helium", "Group eight element", "Ytterbium", "Period ", "Chananel ben Chushiel", "JSTOR ", "Antimonide", "StwoCID ", "Iodine", "Palladium", "Hassium", "Infrared", "Chlorine", "F-block", "Group twelve element", "Turkey", "Group five element", "Anton von Swab", "Alchemical symbol", "Sulfide mineral", "Ruminant", "Fermium", "Selenium", "Primordial nuclide", "Radioactive decay", "Standard conditions for temperature and pressure", "Andreas Libavius", "Mercury ", "Fluoroantimonic acid", "Periodic table", "Amphoteric", "Antimony pentoxide", "Decay product", "Nuclear isomer", "Gamma ray", "Density", "Darmstadtium", "Kohl ", "Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world", "China", "Gallium", "Carbon group", "Antiprotozoal agent", "Hall effect", "Silver", "Phosphorus", "Thermal conductivity", "Trigonal crystal system", "Lead shot", "Cobalt", "Sodium oxide", "Boiling point", "Bolivia", "Infrared detector", "Bone marrow", "Isotope", "Picometre", "Antimony pentachloride", "Pnictogen", "Carbothermic reaction", "David Kimhi", "Samarium", "Iridium", "Rutherfordium", "Plutonium", "Laos", "Molar ionization energies of the elements", "Atomic radius", "Halogen", "Pneumoconiosis", "Antimony tribromide", "Organoantimony chemistry", "Linotype machine", "Period four element", "Antimony-one twenty-four", "Period five element", "Period two element", "Lutetium", "Radon", "Solid", "Red phosphorus", "Hydrofluoric acid", "Space group", "Dysprosium", "Stibnite", "Thailand", "Kyrgyzstan", "Plain bearing", "Antimony Peak", "Boulangerite", "Exothermic", "Period six element", "Ionization energy", "Carbon", "Group nine element", "Livermorium", "Zirconium", "Aluminium", "Enthalpy of fusion", "Fire retardant", "Iron", "Dubnium", "Rhodium", "British English", "Van der Waals radius", "Thorium", "Kilojoule per mole", "Antimony pentasulfide", "Pedanius Dioscorides", "Efflorescence", "Lanthanum", "Enthalpy of vaporization", "Pliny the Elder", "PMC ", "Strontium", "Speed of sound", "Neon", "Vitreous enamel", "Aaldert Wapstra", "Flame retardant", "Jabir ibn Hayyan", "Symbol ", "Antimony telluride", "Vapor pressure", "Chemical element", "Allotrope", "Zinkenite", "Mohs scale", "Mendelevium", "Glass-reinforced plastic", "Byzantine Greek", "Schistosomiasis", "Part per million", "Stibarsen", "Antimony trisulfide", "Group seven element", "Thulium", "Crystal structure", "Antimony sulfate", "Tungsten", "Vanadium", "Lead", "Mary Elvira Weeks", "Francium", "Melting point", "Europium", "Occupational Safety and Health Administration", "Lead\u2013acid battery", "Reverberatory furnace", "Tin", "Oxidation state", "Germanium", "Earth's crust", "Promethium", "Nobelium", "Protactinium", "Praziquantel", "Amphoterism", "Ruthenium", "Molar heat capacity", "Antimony", "RoHS", "Tolerable daily intake", "Pewter", "Hillman Hall of Minerals and Gems", "Noble gas", "Titanium", "Group ten element", "Polymer", "Xenon", "Composite material", "Rhenium", "Australia", "Antinomy", "Edmund Oscar von Lippmann", "Einsteinium", "Neodymium", "Herbert Gladstone, onest Viscount Gladstone", "Hieroglyphs", "Electrical resistivity and conductivity", "Grignard reagent", "Period three element", "Platinum", "Beta decay", "Predynastic Egypt", "British Geological Survey", "Synthetic radioisotope", "Startup neutron source", "Roger Moorey", "National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health", "P-block", "Latin language", "Critical mineral raw materials", "Mineral", "Mexico", "South Africa", "Nihonium", "Georg Agricola", "Littr\u00e9", "Antimony potassium tartrate", "Permissible exposure limit", "Americium", "Sulfur", "Triphenylstibine", "Redox", "Antimony oxychloride", "Electronegativity", "Half-life", "Electron configuration", "Tellurium-one twenty-five", "Babbitt metal", "United States Environmental Protection Agency", "Hydrogen", "Alkali metal", "Chaldea", "Osmium", "Terbium", "Antimony trioxide", "Cosmetic palette", "Gangue", "Microelectronics", "Glass", "Dental decay", "Chemistry World", "Period one element", "Oxoacid", "Standard atomic weight", "Block ", "Beta emission", "Calcium", "Recommended exposure limit", "Roentgenium", "Sala Municipality, Sweden", "Diamagnetic", "Polonium", "Oxygen", "Yttrium", "Domestic animal", "Holmium", "Scandium", "N-type semiconductor", "Cadmium", "Blast furnace", "Natural History ", "Allotropy", "Myanmar", "George Sarton", "Trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry", "Natural abundance"], "content": "Antimony is a chemical element with the symbol Sb (from Latin: stibium) and atomic number 51. A lustrous gray metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite (Sb2S3). Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were powdered for use as medicine and cosmetics, often known by the Arabic name kohl. Metallic antimony was also known, but it was erroneously identified as lead upon its discovery. The earliest known description of the metal in the West was written in 1540 by Vannoccio Biringuccio.\nFor some time, China has been the largest producer of antimony and its compounds, with most production coming from the Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan. The industrial methods for refining antimony are roasting and reduction with carbon or direct reduction of stibnite with iron.\nThe largest applications for metallic antimony are an alloy with lead and tin and the lead antimony plates in lead\u2013acid batteries. Alloys of lead and tin with antimony have improved properties for solders, bullets, and plain bearings. Antimony compounds are prominent additives for chlorine and bromine-containing fire retardants found in many commercial and domestic products. An emerging application is the use of antimony in microelectronics.\n\n\n== Characteristics ==\n\n\n=== Properties ===\n\nAntimony is a member of group 15 of the periodic table, one of the elements called pnictogens, and has an electronegativity of 2.05. In accordance with periodic trends, it is more electronegative than tin or bismuth, and less electronegative than tellurium or arsenic. Antimony is stable in air at room temperature, but reacts with oxygen if heated to produce antimony trioxide, Sb2O3.Antimony is a silvery, lustrous gray metalloid with a Mohs scale hardness of 3, which is too soft to make hard objects; coins of antimony were issued in China's Guizhou province in 1931 but the durability was poor and the minting was soon discontinued. Antimony is resistant to attack by acids.\nFour allotropes of antimony are known: a stable metallic form and three metastable forms (explosive, black and yellow). Elemental antimony is a brittle, silver-white shiny metalloid. When slowly cooled, molten antimony crystallizes in a trigonal cell, isomorphic with the gray allotrope of arsenic. A rare explosive form of antimony can be formed from the electrolysis of antimony trichloride. When scratched with a sharp implement, an exothermic reaction occurs and white fumes are given off as metallic antimony forms; when rubbed with a pestle in a mortar, a strong detonation occurs. Black antimony is formed upon rapid cooling of antimony vapor. It has the same crystal structure as red phosphorus and black arsenic; it oxidizes in air and may ignite spontaneously. At 100 \u00b0C, it gradually transforms into the stable form. The yellow allotrope of antimony is the most unstable. It has only been generated by oxidation of stibine (SbH3) at \u221290 \u00b0C. Above this temperature and in ambient light, this metastable allotrope transforms into the more stable black allotrope.Elemental antimony adopts a layered structure (space group R3m No. 166) in which layers consist of fused, ruffled, six-membered rings. The nearest and next-nearest neighbors form an irregular octahedral complex, with the three atoms in each double layer slightly closer than the three atoms in the next. This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 6.697 g/cm3, but the weak bonding between the layers leads to the low hardness and brittleness of antimony.\n\n\n=== Isotopes ===\n\nAntimony has two stable isotopes: 121Sb with a natural abundance of 57.36% and 123Sb with a natural abundance of 42.64%. It also has 35 radioisotopes, of which the longest-lived is 125Sb with a half-life of 2.75 years. In addition, 29 metastable states have been characterized. The most stable of these is 120m1Sb with a half-life of 5.76 days. Isotopes that are lighter than the stable 123Sb tend to decay by \u03b2+ decay, and those that are heavier tend to decay by \u03b2\u2212 decay, with some exceptions.\n\n\n=== Occurrence ===\n\nThe abundance of antimony in the Earth's crust is estimated to be 0.2 to 0.5 parts per million, comparable to thallium at 0.5 parts per million and silver at 0.07 ppm. Even though this element is not abundant, it is found in more than 100 mineral species. Antimony is sometimes found natively (e.g. on Antimony Peak), but more frequently it is found in the sulfide stibnite (Sb2S3) which is the predominant ore mineral.\n\n\n== Compounds ==\n\nAntimony compounds are often classified according to their oxidation state: Sb(III) and Sb(V). The +5 oxidation state is more stable.\n\n\n=== Oxides and hydroxides ===\nAntimony trioxide is formed when antimony is burnt in air. In the gas phase, the molecule of the compound is Sb4O6, but it polymerizes upon condensing. Antimony pentoxide (Sb4O10) can be formed only by oxidation with concentrated nitric acid. Antimony also forms a mixed-valence oxide, antimony tetroxide (Sb2O4), which features both Sb(III) and Sb(V). Unlike oxides of phosphorus and arsenic, these oxides are amphoteric, do not form well-defined oxoacids, and react with acids to form antimony salts.\nAntimonous acid Sb(OH)3 is unknown, but the conjugate base sodium antimonite ([Na3SbO3]4) forms upon fusing sodium oxide and Sb4O6. Transition metal antimonites are also known. Antimonic acid exists only as the hydrate HSb(OH)6, forming salts as the antimonate anion Sb(OH)\u22126. When a solution containing this anion is dehydrated, the precipitate contains mixed oxides.Many antimony ores are sulfides, including stibnite (Sb2S3), pyrargyrite (Ag3SbS3), zinkenite, jamesonite, and boulangerite. Antimony pentasulfide is non-stoichiometric and features antimony in the +3 oxidation state and S\u2013S bonds. Several thioantimonides are known, such as [Sb6S10]2\u2212 and [Sb8S13]2\u2212.\n\n\n=== Halides ===\nAntimony forms two series of halides: SbX3 and SbX5. The trihalides SbF3, SbCl3, SbBr3, and SbI3 are all molecular compounds having trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry.\nThe trifluoride SbF3 is prepared by the reaction of Sb2O3 with HF:\nSb2O3 + 6 HF \u2192 2 SbF3 + 3 H2OIt is Lewis acidic and readily accepts fluoride ions to form the complex anions SbF\u22124 and SbF2\u22125. Molten SbF3 is a weak electrical conductor. The trichloride SbCl3 is prepared by dissolving Sb2S3 in hydrochloric acid:\n\nSb2S3 + 6 HCl \u2192 2 SbCl3 + 3 H2S\nThe pentahalides SbF5 and SbCl5 have trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry in the gas phase, but in the liquid phase, SbF5 is polymeric, whereas SbCl5 is monomeric. SbF5 is a powerful Lewis acid used to make the superacid fluoroantimonic acid (\"H2SbF7\").\nOxyhalides are more common for antimony than for arsenic and phosphorus. Antimony trioxide dissolves in concentrated acid to form oxoantimonyl compounds such as SbOCl and (SbO)2SO4.\n\n\n=== Antimonides, hydrides, and organoantimony compounds ===\nCompounds in this class generally are described as derivatives of Sb3\u2212. Antimony forms antimonides with metals, such as indium antimonide (InSb) and silver antimonide (Ag3Sb). The alkali metal and zinc antimonides, such as Na3Sb and Zn3Sb2, are more reactive. Treating these antimonides with acid produces the highly unstable gas stibine, SbH3:\nSb3\u2212 + 3 H+ \u2192 SbH3Stibine can also be produced by treating Sb3+ salts with hydride reagents such as sodium borohydride. Stibine decomposes spontaneously at room temperature. Because stibine has a positive heat of formation, it is thermodynamically unstable and thus antimony does not react with hydrogen directly.Organoantimony compounds are typically prepared by alkylation of antimony halides with Grignard reagents. A large variety of compounds are known with both Sb(III) and Sb(V) centers, including mixed chloro-organic derivatives, anions, and cations. Examples include Sb(C6H5)3 (triphenylstibine), Sb2(C6H5)4 (with an Sb-Sb bond), and cyclic [Sb(C6H5)]n. Pentacoordinated organoantimony compounds are common, examples being Sb(C6H5)5 and several related halides.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nAntimony(III) sulfide, Sb2S3, was recognized in predynastic Egypt as an eye cosmetic (kohl) as early as about 3100 BC, when the cosmetic palette was invented.An artifact, said to be part of a vase, made of antimony dating to about 3000 BC was found at Telloh, Chaldea (part of present-day Iraq), and a copper object plated with antimony dating between 2500 BC and 2200 BC has been found in Egypt. Austen, at a lecture by Herbert Gladstone in 1892, commented that \"we only know of antimony at the present day as a highly brittle and crystalline metal, which could hardly be fashioned into a useful vase, and therefore this remarkable 'find' (artifact mentioned above) must represent the lost art of rendering antimony malleable.\"The British archaeologist Roger Moorey was unconvinced the artifact was indeed a vase, mentioning that Selimkhanov, after his analysis of the Tello object (published in 1975), \"attempted to relate the metal to Transcaucasian natural antimony\" (i.e. native metal) and that \"the antimony objects from Transcaucasia are all small personal ornaments.\" This weakens the evidence for a lost art \"of rendering antimony malleable.\"The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder described several ways of preparing antimony sulfide for medical purposes in his treatise Natural History. Pliny the Elder also made a distinction between \"male\" and \"female\" forms of antimony; the male form is probably the sulfide, while the female form, which is superior, heavier, and less friable, has been suspected to be native metallic antimony.The Greek naturalist Pedanius Dioscorides mentioned that antimony sulfide could be roasted by heating by a current of air. It is thought that this produced metallic antimony.\n\nThe intentional isolation of antimony is described by Jabir ibn Hayyan before 815 AD. A description of a procedure for isolating antimony is later given in the 1540 book De la pirotechnia by Vannoccio Biringuccio, predating the more famous 1556 book by Agricola, De re metallica. In this context Agricola has been often incorrectly credited with the discovery of metallic antimony. The book Currus Triumphalis Antimonii (The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony), describing the preparation of metallic antimony, was published in Germany in 1604. It was purported to be written by a Benedictine monk, writing under the name Basilius Valentinus in the 15th century; if it were authentic, which it is not, it would predate Biringuccio.The metal antimony was known to German chemist Andreas Libavius in 1615 who obtained it by adding iron to a molten mixture of antimony sulfide, salt and potassium tartrate. This procedure produced antimony with a crystalline or starred surface.With the advent of challenges to phlogiston theory, it was recognized that antimony is an element forming sulfides, oxides, and other compounds, as do other metals.The first discovery of naturally occurring pure antimony in the Earth's crust was described by the Swedish scientist and local mine district engineer Anton von Swab in 1783; the type-sample was collected from the Sala Silver Mine in the Bergslagen mining district of Sala, V\u00e4stmanland, Sweden.\n\n\n=== Etymology ===\nThe medieval Latin form, from which the modern languages and late Byzantine Greek take their names for antimony, is antimonium. The origin of this is uncertain; all suggestions have some difficulty either of form or interpretation. The popular etymology, from \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b1\u03c7\u03cc\u03c2 anti-monachos or French antimoine, still has adherents; this would mean \"monk-killer\", and is explained by many early alchemists being monks, and antimony being poisonous. However, the low toxicity of antimony (see below) makes this unlikely.\nAnother popular etymology is the hypothetical Greek word \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 antimonos, \"against aloneness\", explained as \"not found as metal\", or \"not found unalloyed\". Lippmann conjectured a hypothetical Greek word \u03b1\u03bd\u03b8\u03ae\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd anthemonion, which would mean \"floret\", and cites several examples of related Greek words (but not that one) which describe chemical or biological efflorescence.The early uses of antimonium include the translations, in 1050\u20131100, by Constantine the African of Arabic medical treatises. Several authorities believe antimonium is a scribal corruption of some Arabic form; Meyerhof derives it from ithmid; other possibilities include athimar, the Arabic name of the metalloid, and a hypothetical as-stimmi, derived from or parallel to the Greek.The standard chemical symbol for antimony (Sb) is credited to J\u00f6ns Jakob Berzelius, who derived the abbreviation from stibium.The ancient words for antimony mostly have, as their chief meaning, kohl, the sulfide of antimony.\n\nThe Egyptians called antimony m\u015bdmt; in hieroglyphs, the vowels are uncertain, but the Coptic form of the word is \u2ca5\u2ca7\u2c8f\u2c99 (st\u0113m). The Greek word, \u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03bc\u03bc\u03b9 stimmi, is probably a loan word from Arabic or from Egyptian stm  and is used by Attic tragic poets of the 5th century BC. Later Greeks also used \u03c3\u03c4\u1f30\u03b2\u03b9 stibi, as did Celsus and Pliny, writing in Latin, in the first century AD. Pliny also gives the names stimi, larbaris, alabaster, and the \"very common\" platyophthalmos, \"wide-eye\" (from the effect of the cosmetic). Later Latin authors adapted the word to Latin as stibium. The Arabic word for the substance, as opposed to the cosmetic, can appear as \u0625\u062b\u0645\u062f ithmid, athmoud, othmod, or uthmod. Littr\u00e9 suggests the first form, which is the earliest, derives from stimmida, an accusative for stimmi.\n\n\n== Production ==\n\n\n=== Top producers and production volumes ===\nThe British Geological Survey (BGS) reported that in 2005 China was the top producer of antimony with approximately 84% of the world share, followed at a distance by South Africa, Bolivia and Tajikistan. Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan province has the largest deposits in China with an estimated deposit of 2.1 million metric tons.In 2016, according to the US Geological Survey, China accounted for 76.9% of total antimony production, followed in second place by Russia with 6.9% and Tajikistan with 6.2%.\nChinese production of antimony is expected to decline in the future as mines and smelters are closed down by the government as part of pollution control. Especially due to a new environmental protection law having gone into effect in January 2015 and revised \"Emission Standards of Pollutants for Stanum, Antimony, and Mercury\" having gone into effect, hurdles for economic production are higher. According to the National Bureau of Statistics in China, by September 2015 50% of antimony production capacity in the Hunan province (the province with biggest antimony reserves in China) had not been used.Reported production of antimony in China has fallen and is unlikely to increase in the coming years, according to the Roskill report. No significant antimony deposits in China have been developed for about ten years, and the remaining economic reserves are being rapidly depleted.The world's largest antimony producers, according to Roskill, are listed below:\n\n\n=== Reserves ===\n\n\n=== Production process ===\nThe extraction of antimony from ores depends on the quality and composition of the ore. Most antimony is mined as the sulfide; lower-grade ores are concentrated by froth flotation, while higher-grade ores are heated to 500\u2013600 \u00b0C, the temperature at which stibnite melts and separates from the gangue minerals. Antimony can be isolated from the crude antimony sulfide by reduction with scrap iron:\nSb2S3 + 3 Fe \u2192 2 Sb + 3 FeSThe sulfide is converted to an oxide; the product is then roasted, sometimes for the purpose of vaporizing the volatile antimony(III) oxide, which is recovered. This material is often used directly for the main applications, impurities being arsenic and sulfide. Antimony is isolated from the oxide by a carbothermal reduction:\n2 Sb2O3 + 3 C \u2192 4 Sb + 3 CO2The lower-grade ores are reduced in blast furnaces while the higher-grade ores are reduced in reverberatory furnaces.\n\n\n=== Supply risk and critical mineral rankings ===\nAntimony has consistently been ranked high in European and US risk lists concerning criticality of the element indicating the relative risk to the supply of chemical elements or element groups required to maintain the current economy and lifestyle.\nWith most of the antimony imported into Europe and the US coming from China, Chinese production is critical to supply. As China is revising and increasing environmental control standards, antimony production is becoming increasingly restricted. Additionally Chinese export quotas for antimony have been decreasing in the past years. These two factors increase supply risk for both Europe and US.\n\n\n==== Europe ====\nAccording to the BGS Risk List 2015, antimony is ranked second highest (after rare earth elements) on the relative supply risk index. This indicates that it has currently the second highest supply risk for chemical elements or element groups which are of economic value to the British economy and lifestyle.\nFurthermore, antimony was identified as one of 20 critical raw materials for the EU in a report published in 2014 (which revised the initial report published in 2011). As seen in Figure xxx antimony maintains high supply risk relative to its economic importance. 92% of the antimony is imported from China, which is a significantly high concentration of production.\n\n\n==== U.S. ====\nMuch analysis has been conducted in the U.S. toward defining which metals should be called strategic or critical to the nation's security. Exact definitions do not exist, and views as to what constitutes a strategic or critical mineral to U.S. security diverge.In 2015, no antimony was mined in the U.S., the metal is imported. In the period 2011\u20132014, 68% of America's antimony came from China, 14% from India, 4% from Mexico, and 14% from other sources. There are no publicly known government stockpiles in place currently.\nThe U.S. \"Subcommittee on Critical and Strategic Mineral Supply Chains\" has screened 78 mineral resources from 1996 to 2008. It found that a small subset of minerals including antimony has fallen into the category of potentially critical minerals consistently. In the future, a second assessment will be made of the found subset of minerals to identify which should be defined of significant risk and critical to U.S. interests.\n\n\n== Applications ==\nAbout 60% of antimony is consumed in flame retardants, and 20% is used in alloys for batteries, plain bearings, and solders.\n\n\n=== Flame retardants ===\nAntimony is mainly used as the trioxide for flame-proofing compounds, always in combination with halogenated flame retardants except in halogen-containing polymers. The flame retarding effect of antimony trioxide is produced by the formation of halogenated antimony compounds, which react with hydrogen atoms, and probably also with oxygen atoms and OH radicals, thus inhibiting fire. Markets for these flame-retardants include children's clothing, toys, aircraft, and automobile seat covers. They are also added to polyester resins in fiberglass composites for such items as light aircraft engine covers. The resin will burn in the presence of an externally generated flame, but will extinguish when the external flame is removed.\n\n\n=== Alloys ===\nAntimony forms a highly useful alloy with lead, increasing its hardness and mechanical strength. For most applications involving lead, varying amounts of antimony are used as alloying metal. In lead\u2013acid batteries, this addition improves plate strength and charging characteristics. For sailboats, lead keels are used to provide righting moment, ranging from 600 lbs to over 200 tons for the largest sailing superyachts; to improve hardness and tensile strength of the lead keel, antimony is mixed with lead between 2% and 5% by volume. Antimony is used in antifriction alloys (such as Babbitt metal), in bullets and lead shot, electrical cable sheathing, type metal (for example, for linotype printing machines), solder (some \"lead-free\" solders contain 5% Sb), in pewter, and in hardening alloys with low tin content in the manufacturing of organ pipes.\n\n\n=== Other applications ===\nThree other applications consume nearly all the rest of the world's supply. One application is as a stabilizer and catalyst for the production of polyethylene terephthalate. Another is as a fining agent to remove microscopic bubbles in glass, mostly for TV screens; antimony ions interact with oxygen, suppressing the tendency of the latter to form bubbles. The third application is pigments.Antimony is increasingly being used in semiconductors as a dopant in n-type silicon wafers for diodes, infrared detectors, and Hall-effect devices. In the 1950s, the emitters and collectors of n-p-n alloy junction transistors were doped with tiny beads of a lead-antimony alloy. Indium antimonide is used as a material for mid-infrared detectors.Biology and medicine have few uses for antimony. Treatments containing antimony, known as antimonials, are used as emetics. Antimony compounds are used as antiprotozoan drugs. Potassium antimonyl tartrate, or tartar emetic, was once used as an anti-schistosomal drug from 1919 on. It was subsequently replaced by praziquantel. Antimony and its compounds are used in several veterinary preparations, such as anthiomaline and lithium antimony thiomalate, as a skin conditioner in ruminants. Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues in animals.\nAntimony-based drugs, such as meglumine antimoniate, are also considered the drugs of choice for treatment of leishmaniasis in domestic animals. Besides having low therapeutic indices, the drugs have minimal penetration of the bone marrow, where some of the Leishmania amastigotes reside, and curing the disease \u2013 especially the visceral form \u2013 is very difficult. Elemental antimony as an antimony pill was once used as a medicine. It could be reused by others after ingestion and elimination.Antimony(III) sulfide is used in the heads of some safety matches. Antimony sulfides help to stabilize the friction coefficient in automotive brake pad materials. Antimony is used in bullets, bullet tracers, paint, glass art, and as an opacifier in enamel. Antimony-124 is used together with beryllium in neutron sources; the gamma rays emitted by antimony-124 initiate the photodisintegration of beryllium. The emitted neutrons have an average energy of 24 keV. Natural antimony is used in startup neutron sources.\nHistorically, the powder derived from crushed antimony (kohl) has been applied to the eyes with a metal rod and with one's spittle, thought by the ancients to aid in curing eye infections. The practice is still seen in Yemen and in other Muslim countries.\n\n\n== Precautions ==\nThe effects of antimony and its compounds on human and environmental health differ widely. Elemental antimony metal does not affect human and environmental health. Inhalation of antimony trioxide (and similar poorly soluble Sb(III) dust particles such as antimony dust) is considered harmful and suspected of causing cancer. However, these effects are only observed with female rats and after long-term exposure to high dust concentrations. The effects are hypothesized to be attributed to inhalation of poorly soluble Sb particles leading to impaired lung clearance, lung overload, inflammation and ultimately tumour formation, not to exposure to antimony ions (OECD, 2008). Antimony chlorides are corrosive to skin. The effects of antimony are not comparable to those of arsenic; this might be caused by the significant differences of uptake, metabolism, and excretion between arsenic and antimony.\nFor oral absorption, ICRP (1994) has recommended values of 10% for tartar emetic and 1% for all other antimony compounds. Dermal absorption for metals is estimated to be at most 1% (HERAG, 2007). Inhalation absorption of antimony trioxide and other poorly soluble Sb(III) substances (such as antimony dust) is estimated at 6.8% (OECD, 2008), whereas a value <1% is derived for Sb(V) substances. Antimony(V) is not quantitatively reduced to antimony(III) in the cell, and both species exist simultaneously.\nAntimony is mainly excreted from the human body via urine. Antimony and its compounds do not cause acute human health effects, with the exception of antimony potassium tartrate (\"tartar emetic\"), a prodrug that is intentionally used to treat leishmaniasis patients.\nProlonged skin contact with antimony dust may cause dermatitis. However, it was agreed at the European Union level that the skin rashes observed are not substance-specific, but most probably due to a physical blocking of sweat ducts (ECHA/PR/09/09, Helsinki, 6 July 2009). Antimony dust may also be explosive when dispersed in the air; when in a bulk solid it is not combustible.Antimony is incompatible with strong acids, halogenated acids, and oxidizers; when exposed to newly formed hydrogen it may form stibine (SbH3).The 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA) is set at 0.5 mg/m3 by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists and by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) as a legal permissible exposure limit (PEL) in the workplace. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.5 mg/m3 as an 8-hour TWA.Antimony compounds are used as catalysts for polyethylene terephthalate (PET) production. Some studies report minor antimony leaching from PET bottles into liquids, but levels are below drinking water guidelines. Antimony concentrations in fruit juice concentrates were somewhat higher (up to 44.7 \u00b5g/L of antimony), but juices do not fall under the drinking water regulations. The drinking water guidelines are:\n\nWorld Health Organization: 20 \u00b5g/L\nJapan: 15 \u00b5g/L\nUnited States Environmental Protection Agency, Health Canada and the Ontario Ministry of Environment: 6 \u00b5g/L\nEU and German Federal Ministry of Environment: 5 \u00b5g/LThe tolerable daily intake (TDI) proposed by WHO is 6 \u00b5g antimony per kilogram of body weight. The immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH) value for antimony is 50 mg/m3.\n\n\n=== Toxicity ===\nCertain compounds of antimony appear to be toxic, particularly antimony trioxide and antimony potassium tartrate. Effects may be similar to arsenic poisoning. Occupational exposure may cause respiratory irritation, pneumoconiosis, antimony spots on the skin, gastrointestinal symptoms, and cardiac arrhythmias. In addition, antimony trioxide is potentially carcinogenic to humans.Adverse health effects have been observed in humans and animals following inhalation, oral, or dermal exposure to antimony and antimony compounds. Antimony toxicity typically occurs either due to occupational exposure, during therapy or from accidental ingestion. It is unclear if antimony can enter the body through the skin. The presence of low levels of antimony in saliva may also be associated with dental decay.\n\n\n== See also ==\nPhase change memory\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nEndlich, F. M. (1888). \"On Some Interesting Derivations of Mineral Names\". The American Naturalist. 22 (253): 21\u201332 [28]. doi:10.1086/274630. JSTOR 2451020.\nEdmund Oscar von Lippmann (1919) Entstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie, teil 1. Berlin: Julius Springer (in German).\nPublic Health Statement for Antimony\n\n\n== External links ==\nInternational Antimony Association vzw (i2a)\nChemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Antimony\nAntimony at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)\nCDC \u2013 NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards \u2013 Antimony\nAntimony Mineral data and specimen images", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Antimon.PNG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Antimony-4.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Antimony-pentafluoride-monomer-3D-balls.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Antimony-symbol.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Antimony_-_world_production_trend.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Antimony_massive.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Antimony_spectrum_visible.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Rhombohedral.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/SbAs_lattice.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Specola%2C_medaglione_di_vannoccio_biringucci.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Stibnite.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/World_Antimony_Production_2010.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg"], "summary": "Antimony is a chemical element with the symbol Sb (from Latin: stibium) and atomic number 51. A lustrous gray metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite (Sb2S3). Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were powdered for use as medicine and cosmetics, often known by the Arabic name kohl. Metallic antimony was also known, but it was erroneously identified as lead upon its discovery. The earliest known description of the metal in the West was written in 1540 by Vannoccio Biringuccio.\nFor some time, China has been the largest producer of antimony and its compounds, with most production coming from the Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan. The industrial methods for refining antimony are roasting and reduction with carbon or direct reduction of stibnite with iron.\nThe largest applications for metallic antimony are an alloy with lead and tin and the lead antimony plates in lead\u2013acid batteries. Alloys of lead and tin with antimony have improved properties for solders, bullets, and plain bearings. Antimony compounds are prominent additives for chlorine and bromine-containing fire retardants found in many commercial and domestic products. An emerging application is the use of antimony in microelectronics."}, "Tennessine": {"links": ["Bismuth", "Osmium", "Alkaline earth metal", "ArXiv ", "Systematic element name", "Island of stability", "Ytterbium", "Group ", "Semi-empirical mass formula", "Period five element", "Sweden", "Iodine", "Halogen", "Nashville, Tennessee", "Darmstadtium", "Indium", "Congener ", "IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party", "Latin language", "Age of the universe", "Chromium", "Nuclear fission", "Metal", "Quantum tunneling", "Beta decay", "Uus", "Placeholder name", "Mendelevium", "Radium", "Oganesson", "Oxidation state", "CiteSeerX ", "OCLC ", "P-block", "Nobelium", "Introduction to the heaviest elements", "Picometre", "Zirconium", "Moscovium-two eighty-nine", "Dubnium", "Las Vegas, Nevada", "Quantum number", "Covalent radius", "High Flux Isotope Reactor", "Samarium", "Proton", "Group ten element", "Stockholm", "Kelvin", "Electronvolt", "Thorium", "California", "Uranium", "Copernicium", "Bloomberg Businessweek", "Aluminium", "Krypton", "CAS Registry Number", "Darleane C. 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Seaborg", "Phase ", "Standard conditions for temperature and pressure", "Spin ", "Group eleven element", "Spin\u2013orbit interaction", "Journal of Physics: Conference Series", "Roentgenium", "Iridium", "Molecular geometry", "Pure and Applied Chemistry", "Springer Science+Business Media", "Group six element", "Calcium", "Boron", "Americium", "Hessen", "Joint Institute for Nuclear Research", "Acetyl group", "Alpha particle", "Picobarn", "S-block", "Semiconductor detector", "Livermore, California", "Iron", "Actinium", "Vanadium", "Titanium", "Gottfried M\u00fcnzenberg", "Meitnerium", "Electron configuration", "Dubna", "Diatomic molecule", "Atomic orbital", "Odd-even nuclei", "Relativistic quantum chemistry", "Gallium", "Hdl ", "Atomic nucleus", "Electric dipole moment", "Tennessee", "Hydrogen-like atom", "Displacement ", "Hassium", "Dawn Shaughnessy", "Terbium", "Tantalum", "Particle accelerator", "Trigonal planar molecular geometry", "Isotope", "F-block", "Chalcogen", "Millisecond", "Xenon", "Moscovium-two ninety", "Atomic nuclei", "Period one element", "Tennessean ", "Speed of light", "OSTI ", "Curium", "Tellurium", "Scandium", "Carbon", "Electron affinity", "Dysprosium", "Moscow", "Electron", "Oak Ridge National Laboratory", "Scientific American", "Antibonding", "Nuclear Physics A", "Actinide", "Stockholm County", "Inert pair effect", "Sverdlovsk Oblast", "Timeline of chemical element discoveries", "ISBN ", "Periodic trends", "CRC Press", "Physical Review Letters", "Promethium", "Propyl group", "ISSN ", "Distillations ", "Fermium", "Public Television of Russia", "Ulyanovsk Oblast", "U.S. Department of Energy", "Selenium", "Noble gas", "Germanium", "Bromine", "Caesium", "Scania", "Manganese", "Closed city", "Natural logarithm of two", "Neutron", "Dimitrovgrad ", "Potassium", "Superactinide", "Group nine element", "Decay energy", "Californium", "Metalloid", "Chemical element", "Boiling point", "VSEPR theory", "Period two element", "Helium", "Heavy element", "Silver", "Europium", "Radon", "John Wiley & Sons", "Eone seventeen", "Seaborgium", "Period ", "Synthetic element", "Antimony", "Sodium", "European Physical Journal WOC", "Zinc", "Einsteinium", "Astatine", "Gamma ray", "Physical Review C", "University of Nevada, Las Vegas", "Covalent bond", "University of Tennessee", "Praseodymium", "Lund", "Alpha decay", "Molar ionization energies of the elements", "Thulium", "Lead", "Lesnoy, Sverdlovsk Oblast", "Palladium", "List of data references for chemical elements", "Lawrencium", "Thallium", "GSI Helmholtz Center for Heavy Ion Research", "Nevada", "Nuclear shell model", "Azimuthal quantum number", "UUS ", "World Scientific", "Department of Energy", "Extraction ", "Gadolinium", "Ionization energy", "Sulfur", "Period three element", "Post-transition metal", "Calcium-forty-eight", "Palladium-one ten", "Chemical & Engineering News", "Australian National University", "Chemistry World", "Isotopes of tennessine", "Rhodium", "Rutherfordium", "Mendeleev's predicted elements", "Group twelve element", "Spinor", "Synthetic radioisotope", "Period seven element", "Boron group", "Erbium", "Compound nucleus", "Phosphorus", "International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry", "Coulomb's law", "Cadmium", "Strong nuclear force", "Yuri Oganessian", "Mass number", "Electron pair", "Darmstadt", "Ligand", "Peter Armbruster", "Niobium", "Platinum", "Moscovium", "Nanometer", "Bibcode ", "Protactinium", "Molybdenum", "Group four element", "Nucleon", "Rubidium", "Half-life", "Holmium", "Nihonium", "Nitrogen", "Copper", "Livermorium", "Lund University", "Fluorine", "Oak Ridge, Tennessee", "Doi ", "International Union of Pure and Applied Physics", "Ruthenium", "Excited state", "Royal Society of Chemistry", "Anion", "Picometer", "Tungsten", "Standard reduction potential", "Nuclear physics", "Natural abundance", "Mercury ", "Pi bond", "Electronic configuration", "Lutetium", "Silicon", "Lanthanum", "Cerium", "PMID ", "Spallation", "Pnictogen", "Chemical symbol", "Periodic table", "Tosyl", "Tin", "Block ", "Neon", "Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory", "Period six element", "Physics Today", "Nauka ", "Cobalt", "Gold", "D-block", "European route Eone seventeen", "Group seven element", "Strontium"], "content": "Tennessine is a synthetic chemical element with the symbol Ts and atomic number 117. It is the second-heaviest known element and the penultimate element of the 7th period of the periodic table.\nThe discovery of tennessine was officially announced in Dubna, Russia, by a Russian\u2013American collaboration in April 2010, which makes it the most recently discovered element as of 2021. One of its daughter isotopes was created directly in 2011, partially confirming the results of the experiment. The experiment itself was repeated successfully by the same collaboration in 2012 and by a joint German\u2013American team in May 2014. In December 2015, the Joint Working Party of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, which evaluates claims of discovery of new elements, recognized the element and assigned the priority to the Russian\u2013American team. In June 2016, the IUPAC published a declaration stating that the discoverers had suggested the name tennessine after Tennessee, United States, a name which was officially adopted in November 2016.Tennessine may be located in the \"island of stability\", a concept that explains why some superheavy elements are more stable compared to an overall trend of decreasing stability for elements beyond bismuth on the periodic table. The synthesized tennessine atoms have lasted tens and hundreds of milliseconds. In the periodic table, tennessine is expected to be a member of group 17, all other members of which are halogens. Some of its properties may differ significantly from those of the halogens due to relativistic effects. As a result, tennessine is expected to be a volatile metal that neither forms anions nor achieves high oxidation states. A few key properties, such as its melting and boiling points and its first ionization energy, are nevertheless expected to follow the periodic trends of the halogens.\n\n\n== Introduction ==\n\n \n\nThe heaviest atomic nuclei are created in nuclear reactions that combine two other nuclei of unequal size into one; roughly, the more unequal the two nuclei in terms of mass, the greater the possibility that the two react. The material made of the heavier nuclei is made into a target, which is then bombarded by the beam of lighter nuclei. Two nuclei can only fuse into one if they approach each other closely enough; normally, nuclei (all positively charged) repel each other due to electrostatic repulsion. The strong interaction can overcome this repulsion but only within a very short distance from a nucleus; beam nuclei are thus greatly accelerated in order to make such repulsion insignificant compared to the velocity of the beam nucleus. Coming close alone is not enough for two nuclei to fuse: when two nuclei approach each other, they usually remain together for approximately 10\u221220 seconds and then part ways (not necessarily in the same composition as before the reaction) rather than form a single nucleus. If fusion does occur, the temporary merger\u2014termed a compound nucleus\u2014is an excited state. To lose its excitation energy and reach a more stable state, a compound nucleus either fissions or ejects one or several neutrons, which carry away the energy. This occurs in approximately 10\u221216 seconds after the initial collision.The beam passes through the target and reaches the next chamber, the separator; if a new nucleus is produced, it is carried with this beam. In the separator, the newly produced nucleus is separated from other nuclides (that of the original beam and any other reaction products) and transferred to a surface-barrier detector, which stops the nucleus. The exact location of the upcoming impact on the detector is marked; also marked are its energy and the time of the arrival. The transfer takes about 10\u22126 seconds; in order to be detected, the nucleus must survive this long. The nucleus is recorded again once its decay is registered, and the location, the energy, and the time of the decay are measured.Stability of a nucleus is provided by the strong interaction. However, its range is very short; as nuclei become larger, its influence on the outermost nucleons (protons and neutrons) weakens. At the same time, the nucleus is torn apart by electrostatic repulsion between protons, as it has unlimited range. Nuclei of the heaviest elements are thus theoretically predicted and have so far been observed to primarily decay via decay modes that are caused by such repulsion: alpha decay and spontaneous fission; these modes are predominant for nuclei of superheavy elements. Alpha decays are registered by the emitted alpha particles, and the decay products are easy to determine before the actual decay; if such a decay or a series of consecutive decays produces a known nucleus, the original product of a reaction can be determined arithmetically. Spontaneous fission, however, produces various nuclei as products, so the original nuclide cannot be determined from its daughters.The information available to physicists aiming to synthesize one of the heaviest elements is thus the information collected at the detectors: location, energy, and time of arrival of a particle to the detector, and those of its decay. The physicists analyze this data and seek to conclude that it was indeed caused by a new element and could not have been caused by a different nuclide than the one claimed. Often, provided data is insufficient for a conclusion that a new element was definitely created and there is no other explanation for the observed effects; errors in interpreting data have been made.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Pre-discovery ===\nIn December 2004, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) team in Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Russia, proposed a joint experiment with the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, United States, to synthesize element 117 \u2014 so-called for the 117 protons in its nucleus. Their proposal involved fusing a berkelium (element 97) target and a calcium (element 20) beam, conducted via bombardment of the berkelium target with calcium nuclei: this would complete a set of experiments done at the JINR on the fusion of actinide targets with a calcium-48 beam, which had thus far produced the new elements 113\u2013116 and 118. The ORNL\u2014then the world's only producer of berkelium\u2014could not then provide the element, as they had temporarily ceased production, and re-initiating it would be too costly. Plans to synthesize element 117 were suspended in favor of the confirmation of element 118, which had been produced earlier in 2002 by bombarding a californium target with calcium. The required berkelium-249 is a by-product in californium-252 production, and obtaining the required amount of berkelium was an even more difficult task than obtaining that of californium, as well as costly: It would cost around 3.5 million dollars, and the parties agreed to wait for a commercial order of californium production, from which berkelium could be extracted.The JINR team sought to use berkelium because calcium-48, the isotope of calcium used in the beam, has 20 protons and 28 neutrons, making a neutron\u2013proton ratio of 1.4; and it is the lightest stable or near-stable nucleus with such a large neutron excess. The second-lightest such nucleus, palladium-110 (46 protons, 64 neutrons, neutron\u2013proton ratio of 1.391), is much heavier. Thanks to the neutron excess, the resulting nuclei were expected to be heavier and closer to the sought-after island of stability. Of the aimed for 117 protons, calcium has 20, and thus they needed to use berkelium, which has 97 protons in its nucleus.In February 2005, the leader of the JINR team \u2014 Yuri Oganessian \u2014 presented a colloquium at ORNL. Also in attendance were representatives of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, who had previously worked with JINR on the discovery of elements 113\u2013116 and 118, and Joseph Hamilton of Vanderbilt University, a collaborator of Oganessian.Hamilton checked if the ORNL high-flux reactor produced californium for a commercial order: The required berkelium could be obtained as a by-product. He learned that it did not and there was no expectation for such an order in the immediate future. Hamilton kept monitoring the situation, making the checks once in a while. (Later, Oganessian referred to Hamilton as \"the father of 117\" for doing this work.)\n\n\n=== Discovery ===\nORNL resumed californium production in spring 2008. Hamilton noted the restart during the summer and made a deal on subsequent extraction of berkelium (the price was about $600,000). During a September 2008 symposium at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee celebrating his 50th year on the Physics faculty, he introduced Oganessian to James Roberto (then the deputy director for science and technology at ORNL). They established a collaboration among JINR, ORNL, and Vanderbilt; the team at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in Livermore, California, U.S., was soon invited to join.\nIn November 2008, the U.S. Department of Energy, which had oversight over the reactor in Oak Ridge, allowed the scientific use of the extracted berkelium. The production lasted 250 days and ended in late December 2008, resulting in 22 milligrams of berkelium, enough to perform the experiment. In January 2009, the berkelium was removed from ORNL's High Flux Isotope Reactor; it was subsequently cooled for 90 days and then processed at ORNL's Radiochemical Engineering and Development Center to separate and purify the berkelium material, which took another 90 days. Its half-life is only 330 days: after that time, half the berkelium produced would have decayed. Because of this, the berkelium target had to be quickly transported to Russia; for the experiment to be viable, it had to be completed within six months of its departure from the United States. The target was packed into five lead containers to be flown from New York to Moscow.Russian customs officials twice refused to let the target enter the country because of missing or incomplete paperwork. Over the span of a few days, the target traveled over the Atlantic Ocean five times. On its arrival in Russia in June 2009, the berkelium was immediately transferred to Research Institute of Atomic Reactors (RIAR) in Dimitrovgrad, Ulyanovsk Oblast, where it was deposited as a 300-nanometer-thin layer on a titanium film. In July 2009, it was transported to Dubna, where it was installed in the particle accelerator at the JINR. The calcium-48 beam was generated by chemically extracting the small quantities of calcium-48 present in naturally occurring calcium, enriching it 500 times. This work was done in the closed town of Lesnoy, Sverdlovsk Oblast, Russia.The experiment began in late July 2009. In January 2010, scientists at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions announced internally that they had detected the decay of a new element with atomic number 117 via two decay chains: one of an odd\u2013odd isotope undergoing 6 alpha decays before spontaneous fission, and one of an odd\u2013even isotope undergoing 3 alpha decays before fission. The obtained data from the experiment was sent to the LLNL for further analysis. On 9 April 2010, an official report was released in the journal Physical Review Letters identifying the isotopes as 294117 and 293117, which were shown to have half-lives on the order of tens or hundreds of milliseconds. The work was signed by all parties involved in the experiment to some extent: JINR, ORNL, LLNL, RIAR, Vanderbilt, the University of Tennessee (Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.), and the University of Nevada (Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.), which provided data analysis support. The isotopes were formed as follows:\n24997Bk + 4820Ca \u2192 297117* \u2192 294117 + 3 10n (1 event)24997Bk + 4820Ca \u2192 297117* \u2192 293117 + 4 10n (5 events)\n\n\n=== Confirmation ===\n\nAll daughter isotopes (decay products) of element 117 were previously unknown; therefore, their properties could not be used to confirm the claim of discovery. In 2011, when one of the decay products (289115) was synthesized directly, its properties matched those measured in the claimed indirect synthesis from the decay of element 117. The discoverers did not submit a claim for their findings in 2007\u20132011 when the Joint Working Party was reviewing claims of discoveries of new elements.The Dubna team repeated the experiment in 2012, creating seven atoms of element 117 and confirming their earlier synthesis of element 118 (produced after some time when a significant quantity of the berkelium-249 target had beta decayed to californium-249). The results of the experiment matched the previous outcome; the scientists then filed an application to register the element. In May 2014, a joint German\u2013American collaboration of scientists from the ORNL and the GSI Helmholtz Center for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt, Hessen, Germany, claimed to have confirmed discovery of the element. The team repeated the Dubna experiment using the Darmstadt accelerator, creating two atoms of element 117.In December 2015, the JWP officially recognized the discovery of 293117 on account of the confirmation of the properties of its daughter 289115, and thus the listed discoverers \u2014 JINR, LLNL, and ORNL \u2014 were given the right to suggest an official name for the element. (Vanderbilt was left off the initial list of discoverers in an error that was later corrected.)In May 2016, Lund University (Lund, Scania, Sweden) and GSI cast some doubt on the syntheses of elements 115 and 117. The decay chains assigned to 289115, the isotope instrumental in the confirmation of the syntheses of elements 115 and 117, were found based on a new statistical method to be too different to belong to the same nuclide with a reasonably high probability. The reported 293117 decay chains approved as such by the JWP were found to require splitting into individual data sets assigned to different isotopes of element 117. It was also found that the claimed link between the decay chains reported as from 293117 and 289115 probably did not exist. (On the other hand, the chains from the non-approved isotope 294117 were found to be congruent.) The multiplicity of states found when nuclides that are not even\u2013even undergo alpha decay is not unexpected and contributes to the lack of clarity in the cross-reactions. This study criticized the JWP report for overlooking subtleties associated with this issue, and considered it \"problematic\" that the only argument for the acceptance of the discoveries of elements 115 and 117 was a link they considered to be doubtful.On 8 June 2017, two members of the Dubna team published a journal article answering these criticisms, analysing their data on the nuclides 293117 and 289115 with widely accepted statistical methods, noted that the 2016 studies indicating non-congruence produced problematic results when applied to radioactive decay: they excluded from the 90% confidence interval both average and extreme decay times, and the decay chains that would be excluded from the 90% confidence interval they chose were more probable to be observed than those that would be included. The 2017 reanalysis concluded that the observed decay chains of 293117 and 289115 were consistent with the assumption that only one nuclide was present at each step of the chain, although it would be desirable to be able to directly measure the mass number of the originating nucleus of each chain as well as the excitation function of the 243Am + 48Ca reaction.\n\n\n=== Naming ===\n\nUsing Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements, element 117 should be known as eka-astatine. Using the 1979 recommendations by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), the element was temporarily called ununseptium (symbol Uus) until its discovery was confirmed and a permanent name chosen; the temporary name was formed from Latin roots \"one\", \"one\", and \"seven\", a reference to the element's atomic number 117. Many scientists in the field called it \"element 117\", with the symbol E117, (117), or 117. According to guidelines of IUPAC valid at the moment of the discovery approval, the permanent names of new elements should have ended in \"-ium\"; this included element 117, even if the element was a halogen, which traditionally have names ending in \"-ine\"; however, the new recommendations published in 2016 recommended using the \"-ine\" ending for all new group 17 elements.After the original synthesis in 2010, Dawn Shaughnessy of LLNL and Oganessian declared that naming was a sensitive question, and it was avoided as far as possible. However, Hamilton declared that year, \"I was crucial in getting the group together and in getting the 249Bk target essential for the discovery. As a result of that, I'm going to get to name the element. I can't tell you the name, but it will bring distinction to the region.\" (Hamilton teaches at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.) In a 2015 interview, Oganessian, after telling the story of the experiment, said, \"and the Americans named this a tour de force, they had demonstrated they could do [this] with no margin for error. Well, soon they will name the 117th element.\"In March 2016, the discovery team agreed on a conference call involving representatives from the parties involved on the name \"tennessine\" for element 117. In June 2016, IUPAC published a declaration stating the discoverers had submitted their suggestions for naming the new elements 115, 117, and 118 to the IUPAC; the suggestion for the element 117 was tennessine, with a symbol of Ts, after \"the region of Tennessee\". The suggested names were recommended for acceptance by the IUPAC Inorganic Chemistry Division; formal acceptance was set to occur after a five-months term following publishing of the declaration expires. In November 2016, the names, including tennessine, were formally accepted. Concerns that the proposed symbol Ts may clash with a notation for the tosyl group used in organic chemistry were rejected, following existing symbols bearing such dual meanings: Ac (actinium and acetyl) and Pr (praseodymium and propyl). The naming ceremony for moscovium, tennessine, and oganesson was held on 2 March 2017 at the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow; a separate ceremony for tennessine alone had been held at ORNL in January 2017.\n\n\n== Predicted properties ==\nOther than nuclear properties, no properties of tennessine or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production and the fact that it decays very quickly. Properties of tennessine remain unknown and only predictions are available.\n\n\n=== Nuclear stability and isotopes ===\n\nThe stability of nuclei quickly decreases with the increase in atomic number after curium, element 96, whose half-life is four orders of magnitude longer than that of any subsequent element. All isotopes with an atomic number above 101 undergo radioactive decay with half-lives of less than 30 hours. No elements with atomic numbers above 82 (after lead) have stable isotopes. This is because of the ever-increasing Coulomb repulsion of protons, so that the strong nuclear force cannot hold the nucleus together against spontaneous fission for long. Calculations suggest that in the absence of other stabilizing factors, elements with more than 104 protons should not exist. However, researchers in the 1960s suggested that the closed nuclear shells around 114 protons and 184 neutrons should counteract this instability, creating an \"island of stability\" where nuclides could have half-lives reaching thousands or millions of years. While scientists have still not reached the island, the mere existence of the superheavy elements (including tennessine) confirms that this stabilizing effect is real, and in general the known superheavy nuclides become exponentially longer-lived as they approach the predicted location of the island. Tennessine is the second-heaviest element created so far, and all its known isotopes have half-lives of less than one second. Nevertheless, this is longer than the values predicted prior to their discovery: the predicted lifetimes for 293Ts and 294Ts used in the discovery paper were 10 ms and 45 ms respectively, while the observed lifetimes were 21 ms and 112 ms respectively. The Dubna team believes that the synthesis of the element is direct experimental proof of the existence of the island of stability.\n\nIt has been calculated that the isotope 295Ts would have a half-life of about 18 milliseconds, and it may be possible to produce this isotope via the same berkelium\u2013calcium reaction used in the discoveries of the known isotopes, 293Ts and 294Ts. The chance of this reaction producing 295Ts is estimated to be, at most, one-seventh the chance of producing 294Ts. Calculations using a quantum tunneling model predict the existence of several isotopes of tennessine up to 303Ts. The most stable of these is expected to be 296Ts with an alpha-decay half-life of 40 milliseconds. A liquid drop model study on the element's isotopes shows similar results; it suggests a general trend of increasing stability for isotopes heavier than 301Ts, with partial half-lives exceeding the age of the universe for the heaviest isotopes like 335Ts when beta decay is not considered. Lighter isotopes of tennessine may be produced in the 243Am+50Ti reaction, which was considered as a contingency plan by the Dubna team in 2008 if 249Bk proved unavailable, and was considered again for study in 2017\u20132018 to investigate the properties of nuclear reactions with a titanium-50 beam, which becomes necessary to synthesize elements beyond oganesson.\n\n\n=== Atomic and physical ===\nTennessine is expected to be a member of group 17 in the periodic table, below the five halogens; fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine, each of which has seven valence electrons with a configuration of ns2np5. For tennessine, being in the seventh period (row) of the periodic table, continuing the trend would predict a valence electron configuration of 7s27p5, and it would therefore be expected to behave similarly to the halogens in many respects that relate to this electronic state. However, going down group 17, the metallicity of the elements increases; for example, iodine already exhibits a metallic luster in the solid state, and astatine is often classified as a metalloid due to its properties being quite far from those of the four previous halogens. As such, an extrapolation based on periodic trends would predict tennessine to be a rather volatile post-transition metal.\n\nCalculations have confirmed the accuracy of this simple extrapolation, although experimental verification of this is currently impossible as the half-lives of the known tennessine isotopes are too short. Significant differences between tennessine and the previous halogens are likely to arise, largely due to spin\u2013orbit interaction\u2014the mutual interaction between the motion and spin of electrons. The spin\u2013orbit interaction is especially strong for the superheavy elements because their electrons move faster\u2014at velocities comparable to the speed of light\u2014than those in lighter atoms. In tennessine atoms, this lowers the 7s and the 7p electron energy levels, stabilizing the corresponding electrons, although two of the 7p electron energy levels are more stabilized than the other four. The stabilization of the 7s electrons is called the inert pair effect; the effect that separates the 7p subshell into the more-stabilized and the less-stabilized parts is called subshell splitting. Computational chemists understand the split as a change of the second (azimuthal) quantum number l from 1 to 1/2 and 3/2 for the more-stabilized and less-stabilized parts of the 7p subshell, respectively. For many theoretical purposes, the valence electron configuration may be represented to reflect the 7p subshell split as 7s27p21/27p33/2.Differences for other electron levels also exist. For example, the 6d electron levels (also split in two, with four being 6d3/2 and six being 6d5/2) are both raised, so they are close in energy to the 7s ones, although no 6d electron chemistry has been predicted for tennessine. The difference between the 7p1/2 and 7p3/2 levels is abnormally high; 9.8 eV. Astatine's 6p subshell split is only 3.8 eV, and its 6p1/2 chemistry has already been called \"limited\". These effects cause tennessine's chemistry to differ from those of its upper neighbors (see below).\nTennessine's first ionization energy\u2014the energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom\u2014is predicted to be 7.7 eV, lower than those of the halogens, again following the trend. Like its neighbors in the periodic table, tennessine is expected to have the lowest electron affinity\u2014energy released when an electron is added to the atom\u2014in its group; 2.6 or 1.8 eV. The electron of the hypothetical hydrogen-like tennessine atom\u2014oxidized so it has only one electron, Ts116+\u2014is predicted to move so quickly that its mass is 1.90 times that of a non-moving electron, a feature attributable to relativistic effects. For comparison, the figure for hydrogen-like astatine is 1.27 and the figure for hydrogen-like iodine is 1.08. Simple extrapolations of relativity laws indicate a contraction of atomic radius. Advanced calculations show that the radius of an tennessine atom that has formed one covalent bond would be 165 pm, while that of astatine would be 147 pm. With the seven outermost electrons removed, tennessine is finally smaller; 57 pm for tennessine and 61 pm for astatine.\nThe melting and boiling points of tennessine are not known; earlier papers predicted about 350\u2013500 \u00b0C and 550 \u00b0C, respectively, or 350\u2013550 \u00b0C and 610 \u00b0C, respectively. These values exceed those of astatine and the lighter halogens, following periodic trends. A later paper predicts the boiling point of tennessine to be 345 \u00b0C (that of astatine is estimated as 309 \u00b0C, 337 \u00b0C, or 370 \u00b0C, although experimental values of 230 \u00b0C and 411 \u00b0C have been reported). The density of tennessine is expected to be between 7.1 and 7.3 g/cm3, continuing the trend of increasing density among the halogens; that of astatine is estimated to be between 6.2 and 6.5 g/cm3.\n\n\n=== Chemical ===\n\nThe known isotopes of tennessine, 293Ts and 294Ts, are too short-lived to allow for chemical experimentation at present. Nevertheless, many chemical properties of tennessine have been calculated. Unlike the lighter group 17 elements, tennessine may not exhibit the chemical behavior common to the halogens. For example, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine routinely accept an electron to achieve the more stable electronic configuration of a noble gas, obtaining eight electrons (octet) in their valence shells instead of seven. This ability weakens as atomic weight increases going down the group; tennessine would be the least willing group 17 element to accept an electron. Of the oxidation states it is predicted to form, \u22121 is expected to be the least common. The standard reduction potential of the Ts/Ts\u2212 couple is predicted to be \u22120.25 V; this value is negative, unlike for all the lighter halogens.There is another opportunity for tennessine to complete its octet\u2014by forming a covalent bond. Like the halogens, when two tennessine atoms meet they are expected to form a Ts\u2013Ts bond to give a diatomic molecule. Such molecules are commonly bound via single sigma bonds between the atoms; these are different from pi bonds, which are divided into two parts, each shifted in a direction perpendicular to the line between the atoms, and opposite one another rather than being located directly between the atoms they bind. Sigma bonding has been calculated to show a great antibonding character in the At2 molecule and is not as favorable energetically. Tennessine is predicted to continue the trend; a strong pi character should be seen in the bonding of Ts2. The molecule tennessine chloride (TsCl) is predicted to go further, being bonded with a single pi bond.Aside from the unstable \u22121 state, three more oxidation states are predicted; +5, +3, and +1. The +1 state should be especially stable because of the destabilization of the three outermost 7p3/2 electrons, forming a stable, half-filled subshell configuration; astatine shows similar effects. The +3 state should be important, again due to the destabilized 7p3/2 electrons. The +5 state is predicted to be uncommon because the 7p1/2 electrons are oppositely stabilized. The +7 state has not been shown\u2014even computationally\u2014to be achievable. Because the 7s electrons are greatly stabilized, it has been hypothesized that tennessine effectively has only five valence electrons.The simplest possible tennessine compound would be the monohydride, TsH. The bonding is expected to be provided by a 7p3/2 electron of tennessine and the 1s electron of hydrogen. The non-bonding nature of the 7p1/2 spinor is because tennessine is expected not to form purely sigma or pi bonds. Therefore, the destabilized (thus expanded) 7p3/2 spinor is responsible for bonding. This effect lengthens the TsH molecule by 17 picometers compared with the overall length of 195 pm. Since the tennessine p electron bonds are two-thirds sigma, the bond is only two-thirds as strong as it would be if tennessine featured no spin\u2013orbit interactions. The molecule thus follows the trend for halogen hydrides, showing an increase in bond length and a decrease in dissociation energy compared to AtH. The molecules TlTs and NhTs may be viewed analogously, taking into account an opposite effect shown by the fact that the element's p1/2 electrons are stabilized. These two characteristics result in a relatively small dipole moment (product of difference between electric charges of atoms and displacement of the atoms) for TlTs; only 1.67 D, the positive value implying that the negative charge is on the tennessine atom. For NhTs, the strength of the effects are predicted to cause a transfer of the electron from the tennessine atom to the nihonium atom, with the dipole moment value being \u22121.80 D. The spin\u2013orbit interaction increases the dissociation energy of the TsF molecule because it lowers the electronegativity of tennessine, causing the bond with the extremely electronegative fluorine atom to have a more ionic character. Tennessine monofluoride should feature the strongest bonding of all group 17 monofluorides.VSEPR theory predicts a bent-T-shaped molecular geometry for the group 17 trifluorides. All known halogen trifluorides have this molecular geometry and have a structure of AX3E2\u2014a central atom, denoted A, surrounded by three ligands, X, and two unshared electron pairs, E. If relativistic effects are ignored, TsF3 should follow its lighter congeners in having a bent-T-shaped molecular geometry. More sophisticated predictions show that this molecular geometry would not be energetically favored for TsF3, predicting instead a trigonal planar molecular geometry (AX3E0). This shows that VSEPR theory may not be consistent for the superheavy elements. The TsF3 molecule is predicted to be significantly stabilized by spin\u2013orbit interactions; a possible rationale may be the large difference in electronegativity between tennessine and fluorine, giving the bond a partially ionic character.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/CorneliusVanderbiltStatue.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/DecayChain_Tennessine.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Deuterium-tritium_fusion.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Island_of_Stability_derived_from_Zagrebaev.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/T-shaped-3D-balls.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Trigonal-3D-balls.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Valence_atomic_energy_levels_for_Cl%2C_Br%2C_I%2C_At%2C_and_117.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Berkelium.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"], "summary": "Tennessine is a synthetic chemical element with the symbol Ts and atomic number 117. It is the second-heaviest known element and the penultimate element of the 7th period of the periodic table.\nThe discovery of tennessine was officially announced in Dubna, Russia, by a Russian\u2013American collaboration in April 2010, which makes it the most recently discovered element as of 2021. One of its daughter isotopes was created directly in 2011, partially confirming the results of the experiment. The experiment itself was repeated successfully by the same collaboration in 2012 and by a joint German\u2013American team in May 2014. In December 2015, the Joint Working Party of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, which evaluates claims of discovery of new elements, recognized the element and assigned the priority to the Russian\u2013American team. In June 2016, the IUPAC published a declaration stating that the discoverers had suggested the name tennessine after Tennessee, United States, a name which was officially adopted in November 2016.Tennessine may be located in the \"island of stability\", a concept that explains why some superheavy elements are more stable compared to an overall trend of decreasing stability for elements beyond bismuth on the periodic table. The synthesized tennessine atoms have lasted tens and hundreds of milliseconds. In the periodic table, tennessine is expected to be a member of group 17, all other members of which are halogens. Some of its properties may differ significantly from those of the halogens due to relativistic effects. As a result, tennessine is expected to be a volatile metal that neither forms anions nor achieves high oxidation states. A few key properties, such as its melting and boiling points and its first ionization energy, are nevertheless expected to follow the periodic trends of the halogens.\n\n"}, "Europium": {"links": ["Fluorescent lamps", "Arsenic", "Aluminium", "Germanium", "Electrical resistivity and conductivity", "Halogen", "Neodymium", "Standard conditions for temperature and pressure", "Dwarf galaxy", "Protactinium", "Hydrogen", "Europium barium titanate", "Lanthanide", "Nobelium", "Fission products", "Group four element", "Period seven element", "Group eight element", "Solvent extraction", "Roentgenium", "Dubnium", "Oganesson", "Manganese", "Technetium", "Atomic number", "Young's modulus", "Tennessine", "Europium anomaly", "Period five element", "Zirconium", "Boron group", "Caesium-one thirty-four", "ISBN ", "Gadolinium-one fifty-two", "Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals", "Euro", "Beta minus decay", "Caesium-one thirty-seven", "Uranium-two thirty-five", "NFPA 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"Shear modulus", "Tantalum", "Calcium", "Gallium", "Einsteinium", "GHS hazard pictograms", "Polonium", "Group seven element", "GHS precautionary statements", "Decay mode", "Chondrite", "Thermal neutron", "Valence ", "Doi ", "Uranium", "Period four element", "StwoCID ", "Coordination number", "Solid", "Magnetic moment", "Petrology", "Block ", "Decay energy", "Thulium", "Strontium-ninety", "Livermorium", "Paul \u00c9mile Lecoq de Boisbaudran", "Abundances of the elements ", "Nitride", "GHS hazard statement", "D-block", "Dopant", "Europium", "Glass", "Magnetic susceptibility", "Strontium", "Carbon group", "Gadolinium", "Base ", "Organolanthanide chemistry", "Radioactive decay", "Wayback Machine", "Chemist", "Samarium-one fifty-two", "List of data references for chemical elements", "Laser", "Thermal conductivity", "Promethium", "EuFOD", "Krypton", "Beta decay", "Francium", "Radioactive", "Europium hydride", "Erbium", "Beryllium", "Actinium", "Cathode ray tube", "Osmium", "Parts per million", "Nuclear magnetic resonance", "Period two element", "Covalent radius", "Electron capture", "Terbium", "Stable isotope", "Plutonium", "Bulk modulus", "Europium ", "Bastn\u00e4site", "Antimony", "Cadmium-one thirteenm", "Heavy metals", "Frank Spedding", "Argon", "Annum", "Thallium", "Chlorine", "Hdl ", "Bismuth", "CAS Registry Number", "Mountain Pass mine", "Hassium", "Mercury ", "Bromine", "Cerium", "Rhenium", "Molybdenum", "Lithos ", "Electron shell", "J1124+forty-five thirty-five", "Coefficient of thermal expansion", "Comptes rendus de l'Acad\u00e9mie des sciences", "Silicon", "Ductile", "Barium", "Phosphorus", "Samarium", "Flerovium", "Pnictogen", "Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology", "Niobium", "Group three element", "Halflife", "California", "Seaborgium", "Neptunium", "Astatine", "Herbert Newby McCoy", "Moscovium", "Weardale", "Group six element", "Poisson's ratio", "Pure and Applied Chemistry", "Inner Mongolia", "Nuclide", "Timeline of chemical element discoveries", "Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry", "Group eleven element", "Dysprosium", "Nature ", "Magma", "Group ", "Rubidium", "Igneous rocks", "Nuclear fission product", "Bayan Obo", "Iodine", "Decay product", "Yttrium", "Samarium-one fifty-one", "Indium", "Group five element", "Ytterbium", "Curium", "William Crookes", "Holmium", "Eufod", "Mixed-valency", "Periodic table", "Picometre", "Kelvin", "Magnetism", "Fluorine", "Bohrium", "Kilojoule per mole", "Period one element", "Monazite", "Period three element", "Europium-one fifty-five", "Nihonium", "Rare-earth elements", "Ion exchange chromatography", "Loparite-", "Neon", "Enantiomer", "Period ", "Primordial nuclide", "Gold", "Iridium", "Spectroscopy", "Chalcogen", "Fission product yield", "Cubic crystal system", "Electronegativity", "Thorium", "Europium acetylacetonate", "Year", "Half-life"], "content": "Europium is a chemical element with the symbol Eu and atomic number 63. Europium is the most reactive lanthanide by far, having to be stored under an inert fluid to protect it from atmospheric oxygen or moisture. Europium is also the softest lanthanide, as it can be dented with a fingernail and easily cut with a knife. When oxidation is removed a shiny-white metal is visible. Europium was isolated in 1901 and is named after the continent of Europe. Being a typical member of the lanthanide series, europium usually assumes the oxidation state +3, but the oxidation state +2 is also common. All europium compounds with oxidation state +2 are slightly reducing. Europium has no significant biological role and is relatively non-toxic compared to other heavy metals. Most applications of europium exploit the phosphorescence of europium compounds. Europium is one of the rarest of the rare-earth elements on Earth.\n\n\n== Characteristics ==\n\n\n=== Physical properties ===\n\nEuropium is a ductile metal with a hardness similar to that of lead. It crystallizes in a body-centered cubic lattice. Some properties of europium are strongly influenced by its half-filled electron shell. Europium has the second lowest melting point and the lowest density of all lanthanides.Europium has been claimed to become a superconductor when it is cooled below 1.8 K and compressed to above 80 GPa. However the experimental evidence on which this claim is based\nhas  been challenged. If it becomes a superconductor this is believed to occur because europium is divalent in the metallic state, and is converted into the trivalent state by the applied pressure. In the divalent state, the strong local magnetic moment (J = 7/2) suppresses the superconductivity, which is induced by eliminating this local moment (J = 0 in Eu3+).\n\n\n=== Chemical properties ===\nEuropium is the most reactive rare-earth element. It rapidly oxidizes in air, so that bulk oxidation of a centimeter-sized sample occurs within several days. Its reactivity with water is comparable to that of calcium, and the reaction is\n\n2 Eu + 6 H2O \u2192 2 Eu(OH)3 + 3 H2Because of the high reactivity, samples of solid europium rarely have the shiny appearance of the fresh metal, even when coated with a protective layer of mineral oil. Europium ignites in air at 150 to 180 \u00b0C to form europium(III) oxide:\n\n4 Eu + 3 O2 \u2192 2 Eu2O3Europium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form pale pink solutions of the hydrated Eu(III), which exist as a nonahydrate:\n2 Eu + 3 H2SO4 + 18 H2O \u2192 2 [Eu(H2O)9]3+ + 3 SO2\u22124 + 3 H2\n\n\n==== Eu(II) vs. Eu(III) ====\nAlthough usually trivalent, europium readily forms divalent compounds. This behavior is unusual for most lanthanides, which almost exclusively form compounds with an oxidation state of +3. The +2 state has an electron configuration 4f7 because the half-filled f-shell provides more stability. In terms of size and coordination number, europium(II) and barium(II) are similar. The sulfates of both barium and europium(II) are also highly insoluble in water. Divalent europium is a mild reducing agent, oxidizing in air to form Eu(III) compounds. In anaerobic, and particularly geothermal conditions, the divalent form is sufficiently stable that it tends to be incorporated into minerals of calcium and the other alkaline earths. This ion-exchange process is the basis of the \"negative europium anomaly\", the low europium content in many lanthanide minerals such as monazite, relative to the chondritic abundance. Bastn\u00e4site tends to show less of a negative europium anomaly than does monazite, and hence is the major source of europium today. The development of easy methods to separate divalent europium from the other (trivalent) lanthanides made europium accessible even when present in low concentration, as it usually is.\n\n\n=== Isotopes ===\n\nNaturally occurring europium is composed of 2 isotopes, 151Eu and 153Eu, which occur in almost equal proportions; 153Eu is slightly more abundant (52.2% natural abundance). While 153Eu is stable, 151Eu was found to be unstable to alpha decay with a half-life of 5+11\u22123\u00d71018 years in 2007, giving about 1 alpha decay per two minutes in every kilogram of natural europium. This value is in reasonable agreement with theoretical predictions. Besides the natural radioisotope 151Eu, 35 artificial radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being 150Eu with a half-life of 36.9 years, 152Eu with a half-life of 13.516 years, and 154Eu with a half-life of 8.593 years. All the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives shorter than 4.7612 years, and the majority of these have half-lives shorter than 12.2 seconds. This element also has 8 meta states, with the most stable being 150mEu (t1/2=12.8 hours), 152m1Eu (t1/2=9.3116 hours) and 152m2Eu (t1/2=96 minutes).The primary decay mode for isotopes lighter than 153Eu is electron capture, and the primary mode for heavier isotopes is beta minus decay. The primary decay products before 153Eu are isotopes of samarium (Sm) and the primary products after are isotopes of gadolinium (Gd).\n\n\n==== Europium as a nuclear fission product ====\nEuropium is produced by nuclear fission, but the fission product yields of europium isotopes are low near the top of the mass range for fission products.\nAs with other lanthanides, many isotopes of europium, especially those that have odd mass numbers or are neutron-poor like 152Eu, have high cross sections for neutron capture, often high enough to be neutron poisons.\n151Eu is the beta decay product of samarium-151, but since this has a long decay half-life and short mean time to neutron absorption, most 151Sm instead ends up as 152Sm.\n152Eu (half-life 13.516 years) and 154Eu (half-life 8.593 years) cannot be beta decay products because 152Sm and 154Sm are non-radioactive, but 154Eu is the only long-lived \"shielded\" nuclide, other than 134Cs, to have a fission yield of more than 2.5 parts per million fissions. A larger amount of 154Eu is produced by neutron activation of a significant portion of the non-radioactive 153Eu; however, much of this is further converted to 155Eu.\n155Eu (half-life 4.7612 years) has a fission yield of 330 parts per million (ppm) for uranium-235 and thermal neutrons; most of it is transmuted to non-radioactive and nonabsorptive gadolinium-156 by the end of fuel burnup.\nOverall, europium is overshadowed by caesium-137 and strontium-90 as a radiation hazard, and by samarium and others as a neutron poison.\n\n\n=== Occurrence ===\n\nEuropium is not found in nature as a free element. Many minerals contain europium, with the most important sources being bastn\u00e4site, monazite, xenotime and loparite-(Ce). No europium-dominant minerals are known yet, despite a single find of a tiny possible Eu\u2013O or Eu\u2013O\u2013C system phase in the Moon's regolith.Depletion or enrichment of europium in minerals relative to other rare-earth elements is known as the europium anomaly. Europium is commonly included in trace element studies in geochemistry and petrology to understand the processes that form igneous rocks (rocks that cooled from magma or lava). The nature of the europium anomaly found helps reconstruct the relationships within a suite of igneous rocks. The average crustal abundance of europium is 2\u20132.2 ppm.\nDivalent europium (Eu2+) in small amounts is the activator of the bright blue fluorescence of some samples of the mineral fluorite (CaF2). The reduction from Eu3+ to Eu2+ is induced by irradiation with energetic particles. The most outstanding examples of this originated around Weardale and adjacent parts of northern England; it was the fluorite found here that fluorescence was named after in 1852, although it was not until much later that europium was determined to be the cause.In astrophysics, the signature of europium in stellar spectra can be used to classify stars and inform theories of how or where a particular star was born. For instance, astronomers in 2019 identified higher-than-expected levels of europium within the star J1124+4535, hypothesizing that this star originated in a dwarf galaxy that collided with the Milky Way billions of years ago.\n\n\n== Production ==\nEuropium is associated with the other rare-earth elements and is, therefore, mined together with them. Separation of the rare-earth elements occurs during later processing. Rare-earth elements are found in the minerals bastn\u00e4site, loparite-(Ce), xenotime, and monazite in mineable quantities. Bastn\u00e4site is a group of related fluorocarbonates, Ln(CO3)(F,OH). Monazite is a group of related of orthophosphate minerals LnPO4 (Ln denotes a mixture of all the lanthanides except promethium), loparite-(Ce) is an oxide, and xenotime is an orthophosphate (Y,Yb,Er,...)PO4. Monazite also contains thorium and yttrium, which complicates handling because thorium and its decay products are radioactive. For the extraction from the ore and the isolation of individual lanthanides, several methods have been developed. The choice of method is based on the concentration and composition of the ore and on the distribution of the individual lanthanides in the resulting concentrate. Roasting the ore, followed by acidic and basic leaching, is used mostly to produce a concentrate of lanthanides. If cerium is the dominant lanthanide, then it is converted from cerium(III) to cerium(IV) and then precipitated. Further separation by solvent extractions or ion exchange chromatography yields a fraction which is enriched in europium. This fraction is reduced with zinc, zinc/amalgam, electrolysis or other methods converting the europium(III) to europium(II). Europium(II) reacts in a way similar to that of alkaline earth metals and therefore it can be precipitated as a carbonate or co-precipitated with barium sulfate. Europium metal is available through the electrolysis of a mixture of molten EuCl3 and NaCl (or CaCl2) in a graphite cell, which serves as cathode, using graphite as anode. The other product is chlorine gas.A few large deposits produce or produced a significant amount of the world production. The Bayan Obo iron ore deposit in Inner Mongolia contains significant amounts of bastn\u00e4site and monazite and is, with an estimated 36 million tonnes of rare-earth element oxides, the largest known deposit. The mining operations at the Bayan Obo deposit made China the largest supplier of rare-earth elements in the 1990s. Only 0.2% of the rare-earth element content is europium. The second large source for rare-earth elements between 1965 and its closure in the late 1990s was the Mountain Pass rare earth mine in California. The bastn\u00e4site mined there is especially rich in the light rare-earth elements (La-Gd, Sc, and Y) and contains only 0.1% of europium. Another large source for rare-earth elements is the loparite found on the Kola peninsula. It contains besides niobium, tantalum and titanium up to 30% rare-earth elements and is the largest source for these elements in Russia.\n\n\n== Compounds ==\n\nEuropium compounds tend to exist trivalent oxidation state under most conditions. Commonly these compounds feature Eu(III) bound by 6\u20139 oxygenic ligands, typically water. These compounds, the chlorides, sulfates, nitrates, are soluble in water or polar organic solvent. Lipophilic europium complexes often feature acetylacetonate-like ligands, e.g., Eufod.\n\n\n=== Halides ===\nEuropium metal reacts with all the halogens:\n\n2 Eu + 3 X2 \u2192 2 EuX3 (X = F, Cl, Br, I)This route gives white europium(III) fluoride (EuF3), yellow europium(III) chloride (EuCl3), gray europium(III) bromide (EuBr3), and colorless europium(III) iodide (EuI3). Europium also forms the corresponding dihalides: yellow-green europium(II) fluoride (EuF2), colorless europium(II) chloride (EuCl2), colorless europium(II) bromide (EuBr2), and green europium(II) iodide (EuI2).\n\n\n=== Chalcogenides and pnictides ===\nEuropium forms stable compounds with all of the chalcogens, but the heavier chalcogens (S, Se, and Te) stabilize the lower oxidation state. Three oxides are known: europium(II) oxide (EuO), europium(III) oxide (Eu2O3), and the mixed-valence oxide Eu3O4, consisting of both Eu(II) and Eu(III).\nOtherwise, the main chalcogenides are europium(II) sulfide (EuS), europium(II) selenide (EuSe) and europium(II) telluride (EuTe): all three of these are black solids. EuS is prepared by sulfiding the oxide at temperatures sufficiently high to decompose the Eu2O3:\nEu2O3 + 3 H2S \u2192 2 EuS + 3 H2O + SThe main nitride is europium(III) nitride (EuN).\n\n\n== History ==\nAlthough europium is present in most of the minerals containing the other rare elements, due to the difficulties in separating the elements it was not until the late 1800s that the element was isolated. William Crookes observed the phosphorescent spectra of the rare elements including those eventually assigned to europium.Europium was first found in 1892 by Paul \u00c9mile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, who obtained basic fractions from samarium-gadolinium concentrates which had spectral lines not accounted for by samarium or gadolinium. However, the discovery of europium is generally credited to French chemist Eug\u00e8ne-Anatole Demar\u00e7ay, who suspected samples of the recently discovered element samarium were contaminated with an unknown element in 1896 and who was able to isolate it in 1901; he then named it europium.When the europium-doped yttrium orthovanadate red phosphor was discovered in the early 1960s, and understood to be about to cause a revolution in the color television industry, there was a scramble for the limited supply of europium on hand among the monazite processors, as the typical europium content in monazite is about 0.05%. However, the Molycorp bastn\u00e4site deposit at the Mountain Pass rare earth mine, California, whose lanthanides had an unusually high europium content of 0.1%, was about to come on-line and provide sufficient europium to sustain the industry. Prior to europium, the color-TV red phosphor was very weak, and the other phosphor colors had to be muted, to maintain color balance. With the brilliant red europium phosphor, it was no longer necessary to mute the other colors, and a much brighter color TV picture was the result. Europium has continued to be in use in the TV industry ever since as well as in computer monitors. Californian bastn\u00e4site now faces stiff competition from Bayan Obo, China, with an even \"richer\" europium content of 0.2%.\nFrank Spedding, celebrated for his development of the ion-exchange technology that revolutionized the rare-earth industry in the mid-1950s, once related the story of how he was lecturing on the rare earths in the 1930s, when an elderly gentleman approached him with an offer of a gift of several pounds of europium oxide. This was an unheard-of quantity at the time, and Spedding did not take the man seriously. However, a package duly arrived in the mail, containing several pounds of genuine europium oxide. The elderly gentleman had turned out to be Herbert Newby McCoy, who had developed a famous method of europium purification involving redox chemistry.\n\n\n== Applications ==\n\nRelative to most other elements, commercial applications for europium are few and rather specialized. Almost invariably, its phosphorescence is exploited, either in the +2 or +3 oxidation state.\nIt is a dopant in some types of glass in lasers and other optoelectronic devices. Europium oxide (Eu2O3) is widely used as a red phosphor in television sets and fluorescent lamps, and as an activator for yttrium-based phosphors. Color TV screens contain between 0.5 and 1 g of europium oxide. Whereas trivalent europium gives red phosphors, the luminescence of divalent europium depends strongly on the composition of the host structure. UV to deep red luminescence can be achieved. The two classes of europium-based phosphor (red and blue), combined with the yellow/green terbium phosphors give \"white\" light, the color temperature of which can be varied by altering the proportion or specific composition of the individual phosphors. This phosphor system is typically encountered in helical fluorescent light bulbs. Combining the same three classes is one way to make trichromatic systems in TV and computer screens, but as an additive, it can be particularly effective in improving the intensity of red phosphor. Europium is also used in the manufacture of fluorescent glass, increasing the general efficiency of fluorescent lamps. One of the more common persistent after-glow phosphors besides copper-doped zinc sulfide is europium-doped strontium aluminate. Europium fluorescence is used to interrogate biomolecular interactions in drug-discovery screens. It is also used in the anti-counterfeiting phosphors in euro banknotes.An application that has almost fallen out of use with the introduction of affordable superconducting magnets is the use of europium complexes, such as Eu(fod)3, as shift reagents in NMR spectroscopy. Chiral shift reagents, such as Eu(hfc)3, are still used to determine enantiomeric purity.A recent (2015) application of europium is in quantum memory chips which can reliably store information for days at a time; these could allow sensitive quantum data to be stored to a hard disk-like device and shipped around.A theorized application of europium is its use in stopping thermonuclear threats. Due to its high neutron capture cross-section and neutron poison chain it is preferred for neutron poison based anti-thermonuclear missiles.\n\n\n== Precautions ==\n\nThere are no clear indications that europium is particularly toxic compared to other heavy metals. Europium chloride, nitrate and oxide have been tested for toxicity: europium chloride shows an acute intraperitoneal LD50 toxicity of 550 mg/kg and the acute oral LD50 toxicity is 5000 mg/kg. Europium nitrate shows a slightly higher intraperitoneal LD50 toxicity of 320 mg/kg, while the oral toxicity is above 5000 mg/kg. The metal dust presents a fire and explosion hazard.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nIt's Elemental \u2013 Europium", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Aperture_Grille.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Cubic-body-centered.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Eu-Block.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Eu-sulfate-luminescence.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Eu-sulfate.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Europium.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Europium_on_air_oxidized.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Europium_spectrum_visible.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/GHS-pictogram-flamme.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Monazit_-_Mosambik%2C_O-Afrika.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg"], "summary": "Europium is a chemical element with the symbol Eu and atomic number 63. Europium is the most reactive lanthanide by far, having to be stored under an inert fluid to protect it from atmospheric oxygen or moisture. Europium is also the softest lanthanide, as it can be dented with a fingernail and easily cut with a knife. When oxidation is removed a shiny-white metal is visible. Europium was isolated in 1901 and is named after the continent of Europe. Being a typical member of the lanthanide series, europium usually assumes the oxidation state +3, but the oxidation state +2 is also common. All europium compounds with oxidation state +2 are slightly reducing. Europium has no significant biological role and is relatively non-toxic compared to other heavy metals. Most applications of europium exploit the phosphorescence of europium compounds. Europium is one of the rarest of the rare-earth elements on Earth."}, "Melody": {"links": ["Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis", "Staff ", "Timbre", "Joseph Smits van Waesberghe", "Sequence ", "Musical improvisation", "Bence Szabolcsi", "Strophic form", "A Greek\u2013English Lexicon", "Melisma", "Overture", "Interval ", "Popular music", "Refrain", "Pitch ", "Bridge ", "Heterophony", "Verse ", "Melodic pattern", "Thirty-two-bar form", "Developing variation", "Classical music", "Melodic motion", "Pre-chorus", "Indian classical music", "Gramophone ", "Stem ", "Conclusion ", "Composer", "Rock music", "Folk music", "Trill ", "Movement ", "Diatonic scale", "Musique concr\u00e8te", "Musical style", "Cadence", "Chromatic scale", "Tension ", "Willi Apel", "Richard Wagner", "Marcus Paus", "Johann Sebastian Bach", "String Quartet nineteen thirty-one ", "Greek language", "Motif ", "twentyth-century classical music", "Coda ", "Call and response ", "Binary form", "Subject ", "Verse\u2013chorus form", "Theme ", "Phrase ", "Ternary form", "Jazz", "Development ", "Part ", "Musical argument", "Cycle ", "Henry Liddell", "Rond\u00f2", "Transition ", "Ruth Crawford Seeger", "Sonata form", "Fugue", "Cadence ", "Melodic", "Formula composition", "Drop ", "Recapitulation ", "Ornament ", "Variation ", "Reprise", "Cyclic form", "Rhythm", "Melody type", "Ausmultiplikation", "Johann Philipp Kirnberger", "Orchestration", "Linearity", "Structural level", "Anton Webern", "Pop Goes the Weasel", "Riff", "Counterpoint", "Hook ", "Balungan", "Introduction ", "Song structure", "Cell ", "Imogen Holst", "Phonetics", "Through-composed music", "Polyphony", "Accompaniment", "Elliott Carter", "Post-chorus", "The Well-Tempered Clavier", "Arch form", "Melody ", "Section ", "Ululation", "Foreground ", "Perseus Project", "Period ", "Musical form", "Parsons code", "Exposition ", "Bar form", "Robert Scott ", "Bali", "Steps and skips", "Gamelan", "Lick ", "Western culture", "Harmony", "Beam ", "Leitmotif", "Klangfarbenmelodie", "Repetition ", "Finale ", "Hocket", "Common practice period", "Musical phrasing", "Sonata rondo form", "ISBN ", "Contemporary music", "Lyrics", "Musical composition", "Unified field", "Voice leading", "Melodic ", "Rondo", "Gy\u00f6rgy Ligeti", "Ostinato"], "content": "A melody (from Greek \u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u1ff3\u03b4\u03af\u03b1, mel\u014did\u00eda, \"singing, chanting\"), also tune, voice or line, is a linear succession of musical tones that the listener perceives as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination of pitch and rhythm, while more figuratively, the term can include successions of other musical elements such as tonal color. It is the foreground to the background accompaniment. A line or part need not be a foreground melody.\nMelodies often consist of one or more musical phrases or motifs, and are usually repeated throughout a composition in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches (predominantly conjunct or disjunct or with further restrictions), pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence, and shape.\n\n\n== Function and elements ==\nJohann Philipp Kirnberger argued:\n\nThe true goal of music\u2014its proper enterprise\u2014is melody. All the parts of harmony have as their ultimate purpose only beautiful melody. Therefore, the question of which is the more significant, melody or harmony, is futile. Beyond doubt, the means is subordinate to the end.\nThe Norwegian composer Marcus Paus has argued:\n\nMelody is to music what a scent is to the senses: it jogs our memory. It gives face to form, and identity and character to the process and proceedings. It is not only a musical subject, but a manifestation of the musically subjective. It carries and radiates personality with as much clarity and poignancy as harmony and rhythm combined. As such a powerful tool of communication, melody serves not only as protagonist in its own drama, but as messenger from the author to the audience.\nGiven the many and varied elements and styles of melody \"many extant explanations [of melody] confine us to specific stylistic models, and they are too exclusive.\" Paul Narveson claimed in 1984 that more than three-quarters of melodic topics had not been explored thoroughly.The melodies existing in most European music written before the 20th century, and popular music throughout the 20th century, featured \"fixed and easily discernible frequency patterns\", recurring \"events, often periodic, at all structural levels\" and \"recurrence of durations and patterns of durations\".Melodies in the 20th century \"utilized a greater variety of pitch resources than ha[d] been the custom in any other historical period of Western music.\" While the diatonic scale was still used, the chromatic scale became \"widely employed.\" Composers also allotted a structural role to \"the qualitative dimensions\" that previously had been \"almost exclusively reserved for pitch and rhythm\". Kliewer states, \"The essential elements of any melody are duration, pitch, and quality (timbre), texture, and loudness. Though the same melody may be recognizable when played with a wide variety of timbres and dynamics, the latter may still be an \"element of linear ordering.\"\n\n\n== Examples ==\n\nDifferent musical styles use melody in different ways. For example:\n\nJazz musicians use the term \"lead\" or \"head\" to refer to the main melody, which is used as a starting point for improvisation.\nRock music, and other forms of popular music and folk music tend to pick one or two melodies (verse and chorus, sometimes with a third, contrasting melody known as a bridge or middle eight) and stick with them; much variety may occur in the phrasing and lyrics.\nIndian classical music relies heavily on melody and rhythm, and not so much on harmony, as the music contains no chord changes.\nBalinese gamelan music often uses complicated variations and alterations of a single melody played simultaneously, called heterophony.\nIn western classical music, composers often introduce an initial melody, or theme, and then create variations. Classical music often has several melodic layers, called polyphony, such as those in a fugue, a type of counterpoint. Often, melodies are constructed from motifs or short melodic fragments, such as the opening of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony. Richard Wagner popularized the concept of a leitmotif: a motif or melody associated with a certain idea, person or place.\nWhile in both most popular music and classical music of the common practice period pitch and duration are of primary importance in melodies, the contemporary music of the 20th and 21st centuries pitch and duration have lessened in importance and quality has gained importance, often primary. Examples include musique concr\u00e8te, klangfarbenmelodie, Elliott Carter's Eight Etudes and a Fantasy (which contains a movement with only one note), the third movement of Ruth Crawford-Seeger's String Quartet 1931 (later re-orchestrated as Andante for string orchestra), which creates the melody from an unchanging set of pitches through \"dissonant dynamics\" alone, and Gy\u00f6rgy Ligeti's Aventures, in which recurring phonetics create the linear form.\n\n\n== See also ==\nHocket\nParsons code, a simple notation used to identify a piece of music through melodic motion\u2014the motion of the pitch up and down.\nSequence (music)\nUnified field\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nApel, Willi. Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed., pp. 517\u201319.\nEdwards, Arthur C. The Art of Melody, pp. xix\u2013xxx.\nHolst, Imogen(1962/2008). Tune, Faber and Faber, London. ISBN 0-571-24198-0.\nSmits van Waesberghe, Joseph (1955). A Textbook of Melody: A course in functional melodic analysis, American Institute of Musicology.\nSzabolcsi, Bence (1965). A History of Melody, Barrie and Rockliff, London.\nTrippett, David (2013). Wagner's Melodies. Cambridge University Press.\n\n\n== External links ==\n The dictionary definition of melody at Wiktionary\n Quotations related to Melody at Wikiquote\nCarry A Tune Week, list of tunes\nCreating and orchestrating a coherent and balanced melody", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/BachFugueBar.mid", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/BachFugueBar.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/BachFugueBar1.mid", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/BachFugueBar2.mid", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/BachFugueBar3.mid", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/BachFugueBar4.mid", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/FClef.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Pop_Goes_the_Weasel.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Pop_Goes_the_Weasel_melody.PNG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cb/Webern_Variations_melody.mid", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f0/Webern_Variations_melody.png"], "summary": "A melody (from Greek \u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u1ff3\u03b4\u03af\u03b1, mel\u014did\u00eda, \"singing, chanting\"), also tune, voice or line, is a linear succession of musical tones that the listener perceives as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination of pitch and rhythm, while more figuratively, the term can include successions of other musical elements such as tonal color. It is the foreground to the background accompaniment. A line or part need not be a foreground melody.\nMelodies often consist of one or more musical phrases or motifs, and are usually repeated throughout a composition in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches (predominantly conjunct or disjunct or with further restrictions), pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence, and shape."}, "Tonic_": {"links": ["Supertonic", "Seven six chord", "Synthetic chord", "Power chord", "Interval cycle", "Half-diminished seventh chord", "Key ", "Music written in all major and/or minor keys", "Transposition ", "Dominant ", "Psalms chord", "Eleventh chord", "Pyramid chord", "Major and minor", "Added tone chord", "Quartal and quintal harmony", "Augmented major seventh chord", "Solf\u00e8ge", "Modulation ", "Parallel key", "Homotonal", "Common practice period", "Passing chord", "Polychord", "Harmonic seventh chord", "Subsidiary chord", "Parallel and counter parallel", "Terzschritt", "Borrowed chord", "Primary triad", "Guitar chord", "Altered chord", "Neapolitan chord", "Circle of fifths", "Major seventh chord", "Relative key", "List of chords", "Chromatic mediant", "Elektra chord", "Suspended chord", "Complexe sonore", "ISBN ", "Petrushka chord", "Block chord", "Resolution ", "Secondary supertonic", "Open chord", "Axis system", "Classical music", "Northern lights chord", "Post tonal", "Factor ", "Mixed-interval chord", "All-interval twelve-tone row", "Perspectives of New Music", "Diatonic function", "Musical note", "Chord-scale system", "Tristan chord", "Dominant seventh sharp ninth chord", "Pr\u00e9lude \u00e0 l'apr\u00e8s-midi d'un faune", "Diminished triad", "Popular music", "Ninth chord", "Tonality", "Final ", "Bridge chord", "Extended chord", "Music", "Dominant seventh flat five chord", "Chordioid", "JSTOR ", "Function ", "Altered seventh chord", "Key signature names and translations", "Tertian", "Minor seventh chord", "Tone cluster", "Octatonic scale", "Minor major seventh chord", "Augmented triad", "Traditional music", "Lydian chord", "Degree ", "Secundal", "So What chord", "Dream chord", "Subtonic", "Viennese trichord", "Subdominant", "Double tonic", "Magic chord", "Transposing instrument", "Barre chord", "Roman numeral analysis", "Arthur Victor Berger", "Thirteenth", "Diatonic and chromatic", "Closely related key", "Dominant seventh chord", "Mark DeVoto", "Sixth chord", "Slash chord", "Secondary chord", "Seventh chord", "Key signature", "Mediant", "Chord substitution", "Farben chord", "Augmented sixth chord", "Chord ", "Tonic chord", "New York City", "Upper structure", "Atonality", "Arpeggio", "Minor chord", "Diatonic scale", "Major chord", "Root ", "Theoretical key", "Common chord ", "Mystic chord", "Triad ", "Secondary leading-tone", "Nondominant seventh chord", "OCLC ", "W. W. Norton & Company", "Submediant", "Diminished seventh chord", "Secondary dominant", "Leading-tone", "Cadence ", "Doi ", "Augmented seventh chord", "Approach chord", "Diminished major seventh chord", "Mu chord", "Walter Piston"], "content": "In music, the tonic is the first scale degree () of the diatonic scale (the first note of a scale) and the tonal center or final resolution tone that is commonly used in the final cadence in tonal (musical key-based) classical music, popular music, and traditional music. In the movable do solf\u00e8ge system, the tonic note is sung as do. More generally, the tonic is the note upon which all other notes of a piece are hierarchically referenced. Scales are named after their tonics: for instance, the tonic of the C major scale is the note C.\nThe triad formed on the tonic note, the tonic chord, is thus the most significant chord in these styles of music. In Roman numeral analysis, the tonic chord is typically symbolized by the Roman numeral \"I\" if it is major and by \"i\" if it is minor.\n\nIn very much conventionally tonal music, harmonic analysis will reveal a broad prevalence of the primary (often triadic) harmonies: tonic, dominant, and subdominant (i.e., I and its chief auxiliaries a 5th removed), and especially the first two of these.These chords may also appear as seventh chords: in major, as IM7, or in minor as i7 or rarely iM7:The tonic is sometimes confused with the root, which is the reference note of a chord, rather than that of the scale.\n\n\n== Importance and function ==\nIn music of the common practice period, the tonic center was the most important of all the different tone centers which a composer used in a piece of music, with most pieces beginning and ending on the tonic, usually modulating to the dominant (the fifth scale degree above the tonic, or the fourth below it) in between. \nTwo parallel keys have the same tonic.  For example, in both C major and C minor, the tonic is C.  However, relative keys (two different scales that share a key signature) have different tonics. For example, C major and A minor share a key signature that feature no sharps or flats, despite having different tonic pitches (C and A, respectively).\nThe term tonic may be reserved exclusively for use in tonal contexts while tonal center and/or pitch center may be used in post-tonal and atonal music: \"For purposes of non-tonal centric music, it might be a good idea to have the term 'tone center' refer to the more general class of which 'tonics' (or tone centers in tonal contexts) could be regarded as a subclass.\" Thus, a pitch center may function referentially or contextually in an atonal context, often acting as an axis or line of symmetry in an interval cycle. The term pitch centricity was coined by Arthur Berger in his \"Problems of Pitch Organization in Stravinsky\". According to Walter Piston, \"the idea of a unified classical tonality replaced by nonclassical (in this case nondominant) centricity in a composition is perfectly demonstrated by Debussy's Pr\u00e9lude \u00e0 l'apr\u00e8s-midi d'un faune\" (Play opening ).The tonic includes four separate activities or roles as the principal goal tone, initiating event, generator of other tones, and the stable center neutralizing the tension between dominant and subdominant.\n\n\n== See also ==\nFinal (music)\nTonic chord\nDouble tonic\nSubtonic\nSupertonic\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Claude_debussy_faune.mid", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/F-sharp_Major_key_signature.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Pyramid_chord.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Scale_deg_1.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "In music, the tonic is the first scale degree () of the diatonic scale (the first note of a scale) and the tonal center or final resolution tone that is commonly used in the final cadence in tonal (musical key-based) classical music, popular music, and traditional music. In the movable do solf\u00e8ge system, the tonic note is sung as do. More generally, the tonic is the note upon which all other notes of a piece are hierarchically referenced. Scales are named after their tonics: for instance, the tonic of the C major scale is the note C.\nThe triad formed on the tonic note, the tonic chord, is thus the most significant chord in these styles of music. In Roman numeral analysis, the tonic chord is typically symbolized by the Roman numeral \"I\" if it is major and by \"i\" if it is minor.\n\nIn very much conventionally tonal music, harmonic analysis will reveal a broad prevalence of the primary (often triadic) harmonies: tonic, dominant, and subdominant (i.e., I and its chief auxiliaries a 5th removed), and especially the first two of these.These chords may also appear as seventh chords: in major, as IM7, or in minor as i7 or rarely iM7:The tonic is sometimes confused with the root, which is the reference note of a chord, rather than that of the scale.\n\n"}, "Chordioid": {"links": ["Jazz improvisation", "Minor chord", "Bridge chord", "Polychord", "Backdoor progression", "Melodic pattern", "Supertonic", "Turnaround ", "Twelve-bar blues", "Call and response ", "Upper structure", "So What chord", "Farben chord", "Leading-tone", "Rhythm changes", "Groove ", "Musical improvisation", "Subtonic", "Bar-line shift", "Block chord", "Octatonic scale", "Seven six chord", "Subsidiary chord", "Open chord", "Outside ", "Dream chord", "Accordion", "Tone cluster", "Pyramid chord", "Chord substitution", "Harmolodics", "Chord ", "Augmented sixth", "Neapolitan chord", "Nondominant seventh chord", "Tristan chord", "Sixth chord", "Eric Satie", "Voicing ", "Bebop scale", "Psalms chord", "Harmonic seventh chord", "All-interval twelve-tone row", "Claude Debussy", "Chord progression", "Tonic ", "Secondary supertonic", "Third ", "Music theory", "Primary triad", "Seventh chord", "twelveTET", "List of free improvising musicians and groups", "Dominant seventh chord", "Wholetone scale", "Jam session", "Maurice Ravel", "Northern lights chord", "Dominant function", "Electroacoustic improvisation", "Secondary chord", "Comping", "Secundal", "Transposition ", "Subdominant", "Diatonic and chromatic", "Jazz harmony", "Diminished major seventh chord", "Nicolas Slonimsky", "Ancohemitonia", "Quartal and quintal harmony", "Bird changes", "Reification ", "Mediant", "Permutation", "Secondary leading-tone", "Petrushka chord", "Dominant seventh sharp ninth chord", "Swing ", "Syncopation", "Chord-scale system", "Permutations", "Constant structure", "Factor ", "Augmented triad", "Complexe sonore", "Magic chord", "Jazz scale", "Synthetic chord", "Tertian", "List of chords", "Augmented sixth chord", "Augmented chord", "Mystic chord", "Polyrhythm", "Anhemitonia", "Joseph Schillinger", "Homogeneity", "Triad ", "Borrowed chord", "Guitar chord", "Passing chord", "Ii\u2013V\u2013I progression", "Thirteenth chord", "Arpeggio", "ISBN ", "Tadd Dameron turnaround", "Enharmonic", "Power chord", "Lead sheet", "Mu chord", "Blue note", "Extended chord", "Suspended chord", "Minor major seventh chord", "Minor seventh chord", "Diminished seventh chord", "Slash chord", "Submediant", "Augmented major seventh chord", "Elektra chord", "Viennese trichord", "Cohemitonia", "Diminished triad", "Avoid note", "Diatonic function", "Free improvisation", "Major chord", "Dominant seventh flat five chord", "Bill Evans", "Altered chord", "Mixed-interval chord", "Augmented seventh chord", "Ninth chord", "Dominant ", "Parallel and counter parallel", "Jazz chord", "Lydian chord", "Cadenza", "Secondary dominant", "Jam band", "Thirteenth", "Coltrane changes", "Fifth ", "Head ", "Common chord ", "Approach chord", "Interval number", "Barre chord", "Contrafact", "Major seventh chord", "Symmetry", "Altered seventh chord", "Added tone chord", "Chromatic mediant", "Range ", "Gabriel Faure", "Half-diminished seventh chord", "Jazz", "Major third", "Eleventh chord"], "content": "A chordioid, also called chord fragment or fragmentary voicing or partial voicing, is a group of musical notes which does not qualify as a chord under a given chord theory, but still useful to name and reify for other reasons.\nThe main use of chordioids is to form \"legitimate\" chords enharmonically in 12TET by adding one or more notes to this base.  It is typical of chordioids that many different resultant chords can be created from the same base depending on the note or combination of notes added.  The resultant chords on a single chordioid are somewhat related, because they can be progressed between using motion of just one voice.  Theorists \u2013 or practical music teachers \u2013 writing of chordioids usually go so far as to advise that students learn them in the practical manner of chords generally: in all transpositions, ranges, permutations, and voicings, for reading, writing, and playing.\nIt is the case, also, that \"legitimate chords\" can be used as chordioids to create resultant chords by the same process.  Perhaps this is whence the non-chord chordioids come.  The Italian augmented 6th chord (It+6) is one example, from which proceed the French augmented 6th chord (Fr+6) and German augmented 6th chord (Gr+6) by addition of one note.  Rawlins (2005) asserts that the notion derives from practice of such composers as Eric Satie, Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel, and Gabriel Faure, and was first used in jazz by Bill Evans.Two chordioids may potentially be combined, as well.  Typically, duplication of notes will result in a reduced number of unique notes in the resultant.\nChordioids as a technique is related to polychords insofar as polychords are the result of an additive process, but differs in that the basis of polychords is the addition of two known chords.  Chordioids is related also to upper structures as a technique insofar as upper structures represent groups of notes not commonly taken to be \"legitimate\" chords, but differs in that chordioids as a technique uses a priori structures held in common rather than a free selection of color tones appropriate for a lower integral chord.  Chordioids is related to slash chords as a technique insofar as known chords may be used as chordioids to create resultant scales, but differs in that chordioids used are not exclusively known chords.\n\n\n== Master chord ==\n\nNicolas Slonimsky named \"master chord\" that chordioid described in jazz chord theory as 7no5, e.g.: { C D F\u266f }.  The sonority of the chordioid itself is identical to that of the It+6, a subset of the Wholetone scale and so subject to some of the symmetries and homogeneity for which that scale is known, and anhemitonic allowing the possibility that the resultant scale be anhemitonic or at least ancohemitonic itself.\nThe chord buttons of the Accordion usually play master chords, allowing the bass buttons (or a second chord button) to supply the variable note (or notes) to complete the sonority.\nThe new name and concept, \"master chord\", thus does not imply either jazz derivation, completeness of the sonority as an independent chord, nor connection to other use as a chord of dominant function.  It does not speciously denote anything to be \"missing\", or posit that the listener should ever hear a note not actually present.  It rejects the tertian chordal basis as pertaining at all.  These, the practicality of application, and the variety of use, are the logical basis of chordioids.\nThe following table shows the resultant chord for some of the possible added notes:\n\n\n== Non-dominant seventh chordioids ==\nRobert Rawlins based his theory of chordioids off the above as well as permutations of other major and minor 7th chords.  He described his chordiods as the interval of a 2nd below the interval of a 3rd.\n\n\n=== Major ===\nBased upon M7no5, e.g.: { C D\u266d F }:\n\n\n=== Major-minor ===\nBased upon mM7no5, e.g.: { C D\u266d F\u266d }:\n\n\n=== Minor ===\nBased upon m7no5, e.g.: { C D F }\n, the sonority of the chordioid itself is anhemitonic allowing the possibility that the resultant scale be anhemitonic or at least ancohemitonic itself.\n\n\n== Incomplete sevenths and ninths chordioids ==\nJoseph Schillinger based his theory of chordioids off the above as well as those irregular voicings of 7th chords in which the 5th is present but the 3rd absent, and of 9th chords in which the 5th and 3rd are both absent.\n\n\n=== Dominant seventh ===\nBased upon 7no3, e.g.: { C G B\u266d }\n, the sonority of the chordioid itself is anhemitonic allowing the possibility that the resultant scale be anhemitonic or at least ancohemitonic itself.\n\n\n=== M7 ===\nBased upon M7no3, e.g.: { C G B }:\n\n\n=== 7\u266d5 ===\nBased upon 7\u266d5no3, e.g.: { C G\u266d B\u266d }\n, the sonority of the chordioid itself is identical to that of the base triad of the Fr+6, a subset of the Wholetone scale and so subject to some of the symmetries and homogeneity for which that scale is known, and anhemitonic allowing the possibility that the resultant scale be anhemitonic or at least ancohemitonic itself.\n\n\n=== M7\u266d5 ===\nBased upon M7\u266d5no3, e.g.: { C G\u266d B }:\n\n\n=== 7\u266f5 ===\nBased upon 7\u266f5no3, e.g.: { C G\u266f B\u266d }\n, the sonority of the chordioid itself is a subset of the Wholetone scale and so subject to some of the symmetries and homogeneity for which that scale is known, and anhemitonic allowing the possibility that the resultant scale be anhemitonic or at least ancohemitonic itself.\n\n\n=== M7\u266f5 ===\nBased upon M7\u266f5no3, e.g.: { C G\u266f B }:\n\n\n=== Dominant 9 ===\nBased upon 9no5no3, e.g.: { C D B\u266d }\n, the sonority of the chordioid itself is a subset of the Wholetone scale and so subject to some of the symmetries and homogeneity for which that scale is known, and anhemitonic allowing the possibility that the resultant scale be anhemitonic or at least ancohemitonic itself.\n\n\n=== M9 ===\nBased upon M9no5no3, e.g.: { C D B }:\n\n\n=== Dominant \u266d9 ===\nBased upon \u266d9no5no3, e.g.: { C D\u266d B\u266d }\n, the sonority of the chordioid itself is anhemitonic allowing the possibility that the resultant scale be anhemitonic or at least ancohemitonic itself.\n\n\n=== M\u266d9 ===\nBased upon M\u266d9no5no3, e.g.: { C D\u266d B }, the sonority of the chordioid itself is cohemitonic assuring that the resultant scale be cohemitonic itself.\n\n\n=== Dominant \u266f9 ===\nBased upon \u266f9no5no3, e.g.: { C D\u266f B\u266d }\n, the sonority of the chordioid itself is anhemitonic allowing the possibility that the resultant scale be anhemitonic or at least ancohemitonic itself.\n\n\n=== M\u266f9 ===\nBased upon M\u266f9no5no3, e.g.: { C D\u266f B }:\n\n\n== Incomplete 11ths chordioids ==\n\n\n=== Dominant 11 ===\nBased upon 11no5no9 (or 7sus4), e.g.: { C F B\u266d }, the sonority of the chordioid itself is anhemitonic allowing the possibility that the resultant scale be anhemitonic or at least ancohemitonic itself.\n\n\n=== Major 11 ===\nBased upon M11no5no9 (or M7sus4), e.g.: { C F B }:\n\n\n== Augmented sixth chords ==\n\nHarmonically, augmented sixth chords (+6ths)  in prime position require three things:\n\nthe interval of a major third up from the bottom note,\nthe interval of an augmented sixth up from the bottom note, and\nstrict anhemitonia: that there be no semitones present.Given these requirements, which are minimally fulfilled by the Italian sixth (It+6), e.g.: { A\u266d C F\u266f }, it is possible to derive all potential +6 chords from the It+6.  The following table illustrates:\n\n\n== Other known chords as chordioids ==\nJoseph Schillinger also used basic triads and the master chord as chordioids in building bigger structures, textures, and strata.  His 7th chords were based upon single notes added below major, minor, diminished, or augmented triads; some of his hybrid 4-part harmony (including 11th and 13th chords) likewise.\n\n\n== See also ==\nFactor (chord)\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Augmented_dominant_seventh_chord.mid", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Augmented_eleventh_chord_on_C.mid", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Dominant_minor_ninth_chord_on_C.mid", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Dominant_seventh_chord_on_C.mid", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/DoubleSharp.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Doubleflat.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/French_sixth_moving_to_V.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/German_sixth_moving_to_V.ogg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Master_chord_chardiod_resultant_chords.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Ninth_augmented_fifth_chord_on_C.mid", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Ninth_flat_five_chord_on_C.mid", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Pyramid_chord.png"], "summary": "A chordioid, also called chord fragment or fragmentary voicing or partial voicing, is a group of musical notes which does not qualify as a chord under a given chord theory, but still useful to name and reify for other reasons.\nThe main use of chordioids is to form \"legitimate\" chords enharmonically in 12TET by adding one or more notes to this base.  It is typical of chordioids that many different resultant chords can be created from the same base depending on the note or combination of notes added.  The resultant chords on a single chordioid are somewhat related, because they can be progressed between using motion of just one voice.  Theorists \u2013 or practical music teachers \u2013 writing of chordioids usually go so far as to advise that students learn them in the practical manner of chords generally: in all transpositions, ranges, permutations, and voicings, for reading, writing, and playing.\nIt is the case, also, that \"legitimate chords\" can be used as chordioids to create resultant chords by the same process.  Perhaps this is whence the non-chord chordioids come.  The Italian augmented 6th chord (It+6) is one example, from which proceed the French augmented 6th chord (Fr+6) and German augmented 6th chord (Gr+6) by addition of one note.  Rawlins (2005) asserts that the notion derives from practice of such composers as Eric Satie, Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel, and Gabriel Faure, and was first used in jazz by Bill Evans.Two chordioids may potentially be combined, as well.  Typically, duplication of notes will result in a reduced number of unique notes in the resultant.\nChordioids as a technique is related to polychords insofar as polychords are the result of an additive process, but differs in that the basis of polychords is the addition of two known chords.  Chordioids is related also to upper structures as a technique insofar as upper structures represent groups of notes not commonly taken to be \"legitimate\" chords, but differs in that chordioids as a technique uses a priori structures held in common rather than a free selection of color tones appropriate for a lower integral chord.  Chordioids is related to slash chords as a technique insofar as known chords may be used as chordioids to create resultant scales, but differs in that chordioids used are not exclusively known chords."}, "Diatonic_function": {"links": ["All-interval twelve-tone row", "Tonality diamond", "Common chord ", "Seventh chord", "Otonality and Utonality", "Seven six chord", "Primary triad", "Quartal and quintal harmony", "Arpeggio", "Diminished triad", "Polytonality", "Chordioid", "Chromatic mediant", "Altered chord", "Slash chord", "Predominant chord", "Dominant seventh chord", "Scale degree", "Diatonic and chromatic", "Tone cluster", "Nondominant seventh chord", "Mu chord", "Jean-Philippe Rameau", "Barre chord", "Constant structure", "Farben chord", "Ninth chord", "Minor major seventh chord", "Chord-scale system", "Secondary supertonic", "Modulation ", "Petrushka chord", "Chord ", "Lydian chord", "Key ", "Tertian", "Upper structure", "Juilliard", "Simon Sechter", "Mediant", "Riemannian theory", "Psalms chord", "Neapolitan chord", "C major", "Arnold Schoenberg", "Northern lights chord", "Extended chord", "Pyramid chord", "Diminished seventh chord", "Viennese trichord", "Minor seventh chord", "Progressive tonality", "Tonal centre", "Block chord", "Triad ", "Augmented sixth chord", "Harmonic seventh chord", "ISBN ", "Minor chord", "Major and minor", "List of chords", "Power chord", "Elektra chord", "Diatonic function", "Degree ", "Major seventh chord", "Hugo Riemann", "Leading tone", "Supertonic", "Open chord", "Heinrich Schenker", "Diether de la Motte", "Leading-tone", "Secondary chord", "Tristan chord", "Dominant seventh sharp ninth chord", "Function ", "Parallel key", "Tonic ", "Eleventh chord", "Dominant ", "Dream chord", "Mixed-interval chord", "Ostinato", "Common practice period", "Approach chord", "Borrowed chord", "Schenkerian analysis", "Consonance and dissonance", "Voice leading", "Altered seventh chord", "Roman numeral analysis", "Synthetic chord", "Factor ", "Figured bass", "Sonata form", "Submediant", "Augmented seventh chord", "Secundal", "Subdominant", "Sixth chord", "Circle of fifths", "Subsidiary chord", "Secondary leading-tone", "Subtonic", "Just intonation", "Passing chord", "Added tone chord", "Neotonality", "Complexe sonore", "Major chord", "Tonicization", "Suspended chord", "Tonality", "Half-diminished seventh chord", "Terzschritt", "Secondary dominant", "Thirteenth", "Cadence", "Magic chord", "Diatonic scale", "Augmented triad", "Mystic chord", "Polychord", "Bridge chord", "Guitar chord", "So What chord", "Doi ", "Augmented major seventh chord", "Chord substitution", "Octatonic scale", "Diminished major seventh chord", "Dominant seventh flat five chord", "Parallel and counter parallel"], "content": "In music, function (also referred to as harmonic function) is a term used to denote the relationship of a chord or a scale degree to a tonal centre. Two main theories of tonal functions exist today:\n\nThe German theory created by Hugo Riemann in his Vereinfachte Harmonielehre of 1893, which soon became an international success (English and Russian translations in 1896, French translation in 1899), and which is the theory of functions properly speaking. Riemann described three abstract tonal \"functions\", tonic, dominant and subdominant, denoted by the letters T, D and S respectively, each of which could take on a more or less modified appearance in any chord of the scale. This theory, in several revised forms, remains much in use for the pedagogy of harmony and analysis in German-speaking countries and in North- and East-European countries.\nThe Viennese theory, characterized by the use of Roman numerals to denote the chords of the tonal scale, as developed by Simon Sechter, Arnold Schoenberg, Heinrich Schenker and others, practiced today in Western Europe and the United States. This theory in origin was not explicitly about tonal functions. It considers the relation of the chords to their tonic in the context of harmonic progressions, often following the cycle of fifths. That this actually describes what could be termed the \"function\" of the chords becomes quite evident in Schoenberg's Structural Functions of Harmony of 1954, a short treatise dealing mainly with harmonic progressions in the context of a general \"monotonality\".Both theories find part of their inspiration in the theories of Jean-Philippe Rameau, starting with his Trait\u00e9 d'harmonie of 1722. Even if the concept of harmonic function was not so named before 1893, it could be shown to exist, explicitly or implicitly, in many theories of harmony before that date. Early usages of the term in music (not necessarily in the sense implied here, or only vaguely so) include those by F\u00e9tis (Trait\u00e9 complet de la th\u00e9orie et de la pratique de l'harmonie, 1844), Durutte (Esth\u00e9tique musicale, 1855), Loquin (Notions \u00e9l\u00e9mentaires d'harmonie moderne, 1862), etc.The idea of function has been extended further and is sometimes used to translate Antique concepts, such as dynamis in Ancient Greece, or qualitas in medieval Latin.\n\n\n== Origins of the concept ==\nThe concept of harmonic function originates in theories about just intonation. It was realized that three perfect major triads, distant from each other by a perfect fifth, produced the seven degrees of the major scale in one of the possible forms of just intonation: for instance, the triads F\u2013A\u2013C, C\u2013E\u2013G and G\u2013B\u2013D (subdominant, tonic, and dominant respectively) produce the seven notes of the major scale. These three triads were soon considered the most important chords of the major tonality, with the tonic in the center, the dominant above and the subdominant under.\nThis symmetric construction may have been one of the reasons why the fourth degree of the scale, and the chord built on it, were named \"subdominant\", i.e. the \"dominant under [the tonic]\". It also is one of the origins of the dualist theories which described not only the scale in just intonation as a symmetric construction, but also the minor tonality as an inversion of the major one. Dualist theories are documented from the 16th century onwards.\n\n\n== German functional theory ==\nThe term 'functional harmony' derives from Hugo Riemann and, more particularly, from his Harmony Simplified. Riemann's direct inspiration was Moritz Hauptmann's dialectic description of tonality. Riemann described three abstract functions: the tonic, the dominant (its upper fifth), and the subdominant (its lower fifth). He also considered the minor scale to be the inversion of the major scale, so that the dominant was the fifth above the tonic in major, but below the tonic in minor; the subdominant, similarly, was the fifth below the tonic (or the fourth above) in major, and the reverse in minor.\nDespite the complexity of his theory, Riemann's ideas had huge impact, especially where German influence was strong. A good example in this regard are the textbooks by Hermann Grabner. More recent German theorists have abandoned the most complex aspect of Riemann's theory, the dualist conception of major and minor, and consider that the dominant is the fifth degree above the tonic, the subdominant the fourth degree, both in minor and in major.\n\nIn Diether de la Motte's version of the theory, the three tonal functions are denoted by the letters T, D and S, for Tonic, Dominant and Subdominant respectively; the letters are uppercase for functions in major (T, D, S), lowercase for functions in minor (t, d, s). Each of these functions can in principle be fulfilled by three chords: not only the main chord corresponding to the function, but also the chords a third lower or a third higher, as indicated by additional letters. An additional letter P or p indicates that the function is fulfilled by the relative (German Parallel) of its main triad: for instance Tp for the minor relative of the major tonic (e.g., A minor for C major), tP for the major relative of the minor tonic (e.g. E\u266d major for c minor), etc. The other triad a third apart from the main one may be denoted by an additional G or g for Gegenparallelklang or Gegenklang (\"counterrelative\"), for instance tG for the major counterrelative of the minor tonic (e.g. A\u266d major for C minor). \nThe relation between triads a third apart resides in the fact that they differ from each other by one note only, the two other notes being common notes. In addition, within the diatonic scale, triads a third apart necessarily are of opposite mode. In the simplified theory where the functions in major and minor are on the same degrees of the scale, the possible functions of triads on degrees I to VII of the scale could be summarized as in the table below (degrees II in minor and VII in major, diminished fifths in the diatonic scale, are considered as chords without fundamental). Chords on III and VI may exert the same function as those a third above or a third below, but one of these two is less frequent than the other, as indicated by parentheses in the table.\n\nIn each case, the mode of the chord is denoted by the final letter: for instance, Sp for II in major indicates that II is the minor relative (p) of the major subdominant (S). The major VIth degree in minor is the only one where both functions, sP (major relative of the minor subdominant) and tG (major counterparallel of the minor tonic), are equally plausible. Other signs (not discussed here) are used to denote altered chords, chords without fundamental, applied dominants, etc. Degree VII in harmonic sequence (e.g. I\u2013IV\u2013VII\u2013III\u2013VI\u2013II\u2013V\u2013I) may at times be denoted by its roman numeral; in major, the sequence would then be denoted by T\u2013S\u2013VII\u2013Dp\u2013Tp\u2013Sp\u2013D\u2013T.\nAs summarized by d'Indy (1903), who shared the conception of Riemann:\n\nThere is only one chord, a perfect chord; it alone is consonant because it alone generates a feeling of repose and balance;\nthis chord has two different forms, major and minor, depending whether the chord is composed of a minor third over a major third, or a major third over a minor;\nthis chord is able to take on three different tonal functions, tonic, dominant, or subdominant.\n\n\n== Viennese theory of the degrees ==\n\nThe Viennese theory on the other hand, the \"Theory of the degrees\" (Stufentheorie), represented by Simon Sechter, Heinrich Schenker and Arnold Schoenberg among others, considers that each degree has its own function and refers to the tonal center through the cycle of fifths; it stresses harmonic progressions above chord quality. In music theory as it is commonly taught in the US, there are six or seven different functions, depending on whether degree VII is considered to possess an independent function.\n\nStufentheorie stresses the individuality and independence of the seven harmonic degrees. Moreover, unlike Funktionstheorie, where the primary harmonic model is the I\u2013IV\u2013V\u2013I progression, Stufentheorie leans heavily on the cycle of descending fifths I\u2013IV\u2013VII\u2013III\u2013VI\u2013II\u2013V\u2013I\".\n\n\n== Comparison of the terminologies ==\nThe table below compares the English and German terminologies for the major scale. In English, the names of the scale degrees are also the names of their function, and they remain the same in major and in minor.\n\nNote that ii, iii, and vi are lowercase: this indicates that they are minor chords; vii\u00b0 indicates that this chord is a diminished triad.\n\nSome may at first be put off by the overt theorizing apparent in German harmony, wishing perhaps that a choice be made once and for all between Riemann's Funktionstheorie and the older Stufentheorie, or possibly believing that so-called linear theories have settled all earlier disputes. Yet this ongoing conflict between antithetical theories, with its attendant uncertainties and complexities, has special merits. In particular, whereas an English-speaking student may falsely believe that he or she is learning harmony \"as it really is,\" the German student encounters what are obviously theoretical constructs and must deal with them accordingly.\nReviewing usage of harmonic theory in American publications, William Caplin writes:\nMost North American textbooks identify individual harmonies in terms of the scale degrees of their roots. ... Many theorists understand, however, that the Roman numerals do not necessarily define seven fully distinct harmonies, and they instead propose a classification of harmonies into three main groups of harmonic functions: tonic, dominant, and pre-dominant.\nTonic harmonies include the I and VI chords in their various positions.\nDominant harmonies include the V and VII chords in their various positions. III can function as a dominant substitute in some contexts (as in the progression V\u2013III\u2013VI).\nPre-dominant harmonies include a wide variety of chords: IV, II, \u266dII, secondary (applied) dominants of the dominant (such as VII7/V), and the various \"augmented-sixth\" chords. ... The modern North American adaptation of the function theory retains Riemann\u2019s category of tonic and dominant functions but usually reconceptualizes his \"subdominant\" function into a more all-embracing pre-dominant function.\nCaplin further explains that there are two main types of pre-dominant harmonies, \"those built above the fourth degree of the scale () in the bass voice and those derived from the dominant of the dominant (V/V)\" (p. 10). The first type includes IV, II6 or \u266dII6, but also other positions of these, such as IV6 or \u266dII. The second type groups harmonies which feature the raised-fourth scale degree (\u266f) functioning as the leading tone of the dominant: VII7/V, V6V, or the three varieties of augmented sixth chords.\n\n\n== See also ==\nCommon practice period\nConstant structure\nDiatonic and chromatic\nNondominant seventh chord\nSecondary dominant\nSubsidiary chord\nRoman numeral analysis\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nImig, Renate (1970). System der Funktionsbezeichnung in den Harmonielehren seit Hugo Riemann. D\u00fcsseldorf: Gesellschaft zur F\u00f6rderung der systematischen Musikwissenschaft. [German]\nRehding, Alexander: Hugo Riemann and the Birth of Modern Musical Thought (New Perspectives in Music History and Criticism). Cambridge University Press (2003). ISBN 978-0-521-82073-8.\nRiemann, Hugo: Vereinfachte Harmonielehre, oder die Lehre von den tonalen Funktionen der Akkorde (1893). ASIN: B0017UOATO.\nSchoenberg, Arnold: Structural Functions of Harmony. W.W.Norton & Co. (1954, 1969) ISBN 978-0-393-00478-6, ISBN 978-0-393-02089-2.\n\n\n== External links ==\nUnlocking the Mysteries of Diatonic Harmony www.artofcomposing.com\nExample of Music theory course description from Juilliard: \"Principles of harmony\" (Archive from 24 November 2010, accessed 28 May 2013).", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Pyramid_chord.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Scale_deg_4.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Scale_degrees_with_chords.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Tonic_parallel_in_C_major.mid", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Tonic_parallel_in_C_major.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Ursatz_321IVI_revised.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg"], "summary": "In music, function (also referred to as harmonic function) is a term used to denote the relationship of a chord or a scale degree to a tonal centre. Two main theories of tonal functions exist today:\n\nThe German theory created by Hugo Riemann in his Vereinfachte Harmonielehre of 1893, which soon became an international success (English and Russian translations in 1896, French translation in 1899), and which is the theory of functions properly speaking. Riemann described three abstract tonal \"functions\", tonic, dominant and subdominant, denoted by the letters T, D and S respectively, each of which could take on a more or less modified appearance in any chord of the scale. This theory, in several revised forms, remains much in use for the pedagogy of harmony and analysis in German-speaking countries and in North- and East-European countries.\nThe Viennese theory, characterized by the use of Roman numerals to denote the chords of the tonal scale, as developed by Simon Sechter, Arnold Schoenberg, Heinrich Schenker and others, practiced today in Western Europe and the United States. This theory in origin was not explicitly about tonal functions. It considers the relation of the chords to their tonic in the context of harmonic progressions, often following the cycle of fifths. That this actually describes what could be termed the \"function\" of the chords becomes quite evident in Schoenberg's Structural Functions of Harmony of 1954, a short treatise dealing mainly with harmonic progressions in the context of a general \"monotonality\".Both theories find part of their inspiration in the theories of Jean-Philippe Rameau, starting with his Trait\u00e9 d'harmonie of 1722. Even if the concept of harmonic function was not so named before 1893, it could be shown to exist, explicitly or implicitly, in many theories of harmony before that date. Early usages of the term in music (not necessarily in the sense implied here, or only vaguely so) include those by F\u00e9tis (Trait\u00e9 complet de la th\u00e9orie et de la pratique de l'harmonie, 1844), Durutte (Esth\u00e9tique musicale, 1855), Loquin (Notions \u00e9l\u00e9mentaires d'harmonie moderne, 1862), etc.The idea of function has been extended further and is sometimes used to translate Antique concepts, such as dynamis in Ancient Greece, or qualitas in medieval Latin."}, "C_major": {"links": ["Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Chopin", "G-sharp minor", "Serenades ", "E ", "Piano Sonata No. two ", "E-flat major", "Piano Sonata No. twenty-eight ", "Dominant key", "D-flat minor", "JSTOR ", "Chord names and symbols ", "B-flat major", "Major scale", "F-sharp minor", "Franz Liszt", "G-sharp major", "Trout Quintet", "C major", "Violin Concerto ", "Symphony No. fifteen ", "Symphony No. seven ", "D major", "Ludwig van Beethoven", "Sharp ", "Subdominant", "Theoretical key", "Diatonic scale", "Violin Sonata No. nine ", "G-flat major", "Piano Concerto No. two ", "Piano Quintet No. two ", "F-flat major", "F major", "Major and minor", "Violin Sonata No. twenty-two ", "Polonaises Op. forty ", "List of symphonies in A major", "Rita Steblin", "Violin Sonata No. six ", "Key ", "C\u00e9sar Franck", "Violin Sonata No. two ", "G\u266f ", "Chord ", "D-sharp minor", "Tenor clef", "Anton Bruckner", "Music Theory Spectrum", "A minor", "C minor", "String Quartet No. two ", "A ", "Piano Sonata No. eleven ", "Relative key", "Symphony No. six ", "Hector Berlioz", "Timpani", "Minor scale", "F\u266f ", "Violin Sonata ", "\u00c9mile Waldteufel", "B ", "C-sharp minor", "A-flat minor", "Norman Del Mar", "E major", "Johannes Brahms", "Neapolitan sixth", "C-flat major", "G minor", "Piano Concerto No. twenty-three ", "Scale ", "G major", "F-sharp major", "Piano Sonata in A major, D six sixty-four ", "Les Patineurs ", "F minor", "B-flat minor", "D-flat major", "C-sharp major", "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "Felix Mendelssohn", "Clarinet Quintet ", "Preludes ", "D ", "Symphony No. twenty-nine ", "Parallel key", "Violin Concerto No. five ", "Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky", "Sergei Prokofiev", "Anton\u00edn Dvo\u0159\u00e1k", "Cello Sonata No. three ", "A-flat major", "E-flat minor", "E minor", "Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart", "C\u266f ", "Piano Sonata No. six ", "D minor", "Gabriel Faur\u00e9", "Flat ", "Ledger line", "Violin family", "Key signature", "ISBN ", "String Quartet No. five ", "A-sharp minor", "Piano Quartet No. two ", "Franz Schubert", "Franz Berwald", "Clarinet Concerto ", "The Strad", "Symphony No. four ", "B minor", "Dmitri Shostakovich", "B major", "String Quartet No. eighteen "], "content": "A major (or the key of A) is a major scale based on A, with the pitches A, B, C\u266f, D, E, F\u266f, and G\u266f. Its key signature has three sharps. Its relative minor is F-sharp minor and its parallel minor is A minor. The key of A major is the only key where a Neapolitan sixth chord on \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              2\n              ^\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\hat {2}}}\n   requires both a flat and a natural accidental.\nThe A major scale is:\n\nIn the treble, alto, and bass clefs, the G\u266f in the key signature is placed higher than C\u266f. However, in the tenor clef, it would require a ledger line and so G\u266f is placed lower than C\u266f.\n\n\n== History ==\nAlthough not as rare in the symphonic literature as sharper keys, examples of symphonies in A major are not as numerous as for D major or G major. Beethoven's Symphony No. 7, Bruckner's Symphony No. 6 and Mendelssohn's Symphony No. 4 comprise a nearly complete list of symphonies in this key in the Romantic era. Mozart's Clarinet Concerto and Clarinet Quintet are both in A major, along with his 23rd piano concerto, and generally Mozart was more likely to use clarinets in A major than in any other key besides E-flat major. Moreover, the climax part of Tchaikovsky's Violin Concerto is also in A major.\nThe key of A major occurs frequently in chamber music and other music for strings, which favor sharp keys. Franz Schubert's Trout Quintet and Anton\u00edn Dvo\u0159\u00e1k's Piano Quintet No. 2 are both in A major. Johannes Brahms, C\u00e9sar Franck, and Gabriel Faur\u00e9 wrote violin sonatas in A major. In connection to Beethoven's Kreutzer Sonata, Peter Cropper said that A major \"is the fullest sounding key for the violin.\"According to Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart, A major is a key suitable for \"declarations of innocent love, ... hope of seeing one's beloved again when parting; youthful cheerfulness and trust in God.\"For orchestral works in A major, the timpani are typically set to A and E a fifth apart, rather than a fourth apart as for most other keys. Hector Berlioz complained about the custom of his day in which timpani tuned to A and E a fifth apart were notated C and G a fourth apart, a custom which survived as late as the music of Franz Berwald.\n\n\n== Notable compositions in A major ==\n\n\n== See also ==\nMajor and minor\nChord (music)\nChord names and symbols (popular music)\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n Media related to A major at Wikimedia Commons", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/A-major_f-sharp-minor.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Circle_of_fifths_deluxe_4.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg"], "summary": "A major (or the key of A) is a major scale based on A, with the pitches A, B, C\u266f, D, E, F\u266f, and G\u266f. Its key signature has three sharps. Its relative minor is F-sharp minor and its parallel minor is A minor. The key of A major is the only key where a Neapolitan sixth chord on \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              2\n              ^\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\hat {2}}}\n   requires both a flat and a natural accidental.\nThe A major scale is:\n\nIn the treble, alto, and bass clefs, the G\u266f in the key signature is placed higher than C\u266f. However, in the tenor clef, it would require a ledger line and so G\u266f is placed lower than C\u266f."}, "Exposition_": {"links": ["Through-composed music", "Bridge ", "Variation ", "Rhythm", "Movement ", "Musical analysis", "Chord ", "Phrase ", "Cell ", "Musical composition", "Tonality", "Arch form", "Drop ", "Introduction ", "Musical form", "Section ", "Repetition ", "Hook ", "Post-chorus", "Sonata rondo form", "Musical development", "Subject ", "Lick ", "Musical argument", "Classical period ", "Leitmotif", "Song structure", "Reprise", "Joseph Haydn", "Modulation ", "Rondo", "Counterpoint", "Call and response ", "Melody", "Dominant ", "Sonata form", "Key ", "Ostinato", "Coda ", "Sonata in G major", "Bar form", "Motif ", "Piano Sonata No. twenty-one ", "Tonic ", "Recapitulation ", "Theme ", "Cyclic form", "Overture", "Development ", "Conclusion ", "Fugue", "Hoboken-Verzeichnis", "Ausmultiplikation", "Riff", "Thirty-two-bar form", "Formula composition", "Romantic music", "Pre-chorus", "Ternary form", "Rond\u00f2", "ISBN ", "Binary form", "Finale ", "Strophic form", "Cycle ", "Verse\u2013chorus form", "Developing variation", "Transition ", "Period "], "content": "In musical form and analysis, exposition is the initial presentation of the thematic material of a musical composition, movement, or section. The use of the term generally implies that the material will be developed or varied.\n\nIn sonata form, the exposition is \"the first major section, incorporating at least one important modulation to the dominant or other secondary key and presenting the principal thematic material.\"\nIn a fugue, the exposition is \"the statement of the subject in imitation by the several voices; especially the first such statement, with which the fugue begins.\"\n\n\n== In Classical Sonatas ==\nThe term is most widely used as an analytical convenience to denote a portion of a movement identified as an example of classical tonal sonata form. The exposition typically establishes the music's tonic key, and then modulates to, and ends in, the dominant. If the exposition starts in a minor key, it typically modulates to the relative major key.  There are many exceptions, especially in the late Classical and Romantic era. For example, to the mediant (the first movement of Beethoven's \"Waldstein Sonata\"), the flat mediant (Ferdinand Ries' \"Pastorale\" Concerto No. 5), the dominant when in a minor key (Ries' Concerto No. 3), the minor dominant (Chopin's Piano Concerto No. 2, Brahms' Piano Concerto No. 2), the submediant (Schubert's \"Unfinished Symphony\"), the relative minor (Beethoven's \"Triple Concerto\", Ries' Concerto No. 6), or the parallel major (Chopin's Piano Concerto No. 1).  Saint-Saens' Piano Concerto No. 3 even modulates to the leading tone in its first movement exposition, with no orchestral accompaniment. On the other hand, other Classical and Romantic composers strictly adhered to the traditional scheme of modulating to the dominant in a major key or the relative major in a minor key, including Haydn, Mozart, Hummel, John Field, and Mendelssohn. The exposition may include identifiable musical themes (whether melodic, rhythmic or chordal in character), and may develop them, but it is usually the key relationships and the sense of \"arrival\" at the dominant that is used by analysts in identifying the exposition.\nThe exposition in classical symphonies is typically repeated, although there are many examples where the composer does not specify such a repeat, and it never is repeated in concertos. In the recapitulation, the material in the exposition is repeated or paraphrased either in the home key (as by Mozart), or the parallel major of the home key if it is minor (as by Beethoven), although as with the exposition, a different modulation may be used (such as to the mediant in Dvorak's \"New World Symphony\").\nIf the movement starts with an introductory section, this introduction is not usually analysed as being part of the movement's exposition.\nIn many works of the Classical period and some of the Romantic era, the exposition is often bracketed by repeat signs, indicating that it is to be played twice. This is something which is not always done in concert from the 20th Century onwards.\n\n\n== In Fugue ==\nA fugue usually has two main sections: the exposition and the body. In the exposition, each voice plays its own adaptation of the theme, in either a subject or an answer; they also provide countersubjects (counterpoints) to the following voices as they enter. The exposition usually ends on either a I or V chord, and is then followed by the body.\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Exposition_Haydn%27s_Sonata_in_G_Major.mid", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Exposition_Haydn%27s_Sonata_in_G_Major.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/FClef.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg"], "summary": "In musical form and analysis, exposition is the initial presentation of the thematic material of a musical composition, movement, or section. The use of the term generally implies that the material will be developed or varied.\n\nIn sonata form, the exposition is \"the first major section, incorporating at least one important modulation to the dominant or other secondary key and presenting the principal thematic material.\"\nIn a fugue, the exposition is \"the statement of the subject in imitation by the several voices; especially the first such statement, with which the fugue begins.\""}, "Candy": {"links": ["Enduro ", "Canoe orienteering", "International Canoe Federation", "Unchambered long cairn", "Canoe tree", "Paddle", "Unchambered long barrow", "Geoglyph", "Aquajogging", "Portuguese Canoe Federation", "Ren\u00e9 de Br\u00e9hant de Galin\u00e9e", "Caribbean", "ICF Canoe Ocean Racing World Championships", "Microlith", "Carbon fiber", "Island Caribs", "Lithic core", "Whitewater canoeing", "Fire-saw", "Resin", "Kayaking", "Sail", "Initial stability", "Burnt mound", "Celt ", "Dandy horse", "Alpine touring binding", "Pedelec", "Track bicycle", "Kneeling", "Lunar calendar", "Pueblo", "Outrigger boat", "Throwing stick", "Tor enclosure", "Treadle bicycle", "Rafting", "Bow and arrow", "Human-powered aircraft", "Downhill mountain biking", "French-Canadian", "Surfing", "Wheelie bike", "Petrosomatoglyph", "Fulacht fiadh", "Canoe paddle strokes", "Cleaver ", "Penny-farthing", "Peterborough Canoe Company", "Cardium pottery", "Recreational kayak", "Stitching awl", "Earth oven", "Guardian stones", "League ", "Recreation", "The Pearl ", "Reservoir", "Stone circles in the British Isles and Brittany", "Symmetry", "Roller skates", "Langdale axe industry", "Sailing ", "Devizes to Westminster International Canoe Marathon", "Folding boat", "Jewellery", "Rowing", "Mahogany", "Yachting", "Solomon Islands", "Wildwater Canoeing World Championships", "Uniface", "Doug Ammons", "Aleutian kayak", "Wheel", "Canoeing", "Lithic technology", "Grave goods", "Gr\u00f8nsalen", "Sea kayak", "Hunting hypothesis", "Cremation", "Canadian Canoe Museum", "Snowboard", "Burin ", "Granary", "Henry Schoolcraft", "List of human-powered aircraft", "Adze", "Birch", "European colonization of the Americas", "International Scale of River Difficulty", "Kayak roll", "Wikisource", "Rapid", "Whitewater kayaking", "Velomobile", "Thornborough Henges", "Bar Harbor, Maine", "History of architecture", "Canoe launch", "Quinault people", "Aurignacian", "Ski", "History of clothing and textiles", "Jacal", "Texas Water Safari", "Tuilik", "Human-powered land vehicle", "Pulled rickshaw", "BMX bike", "War canoe", "Art of the Upper Paleolithic", "Spray deck", "Terrace ", "John Steinbeck", "Bed", "Whitewater", "Small-wheel bicycle", "Sewing needle", "Pacific Northwest", "Henri Julien", "Hand truck", "Mekong delta", "27.five Mountain bike", "Canoe Kayak Canada", "Human-powered watercraft", "Snorkeling", "Tad Dennis", "Cairn", "Feature ", "List of ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships medalists in women's kayak", "Venus figurine", "List of 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Until the mid-1800s the canoe was an important means of transport for exploration and trade, and in some places is still used as such, sometimes with the addition of an outboard motor. Where the canoe played a key role in history, such as the northern United States, Canada, and New Zealand, it remains an important theme in popular culture.\nCanoes are now widely used for competition and pleasure, such as racing, whitewater, touring and camping, freestyle and general recreation. Canoeing has been part of the Olympics since 1936. The intended use of the canoe dictates its hull shape, length, and construction material. Historically, canoes were dugouts or made of bark on a wood frame, but construction materials evolved to canvas on a wood frame, then to aluminum. Most modern canoes are made of molded plastic or composites such as fiberglass.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nThe word canoe came into English from the French, who had borrowed it from the Spanish. They in turn had borrowed the word from the Arawakan languages of the Caribbean.\n\n\n=== Dugouts ===\n\nMany peoples made dugout canoes, by carving out a single piece of wood; either a whole trunk, or a slab of trunk from particularly large trees.Constructed between 8200 and 7600 BC, and found in the Netherlands, the Pesse canoe may be the oldest known canoe. Excavations in Denmark reveal the use of dugouts and paddles during the Erteb\u00f8lle period, (c. 5300\u20133950 BC).One of the oldest canoes in the world is the Dufuna canoe in Nigeria. It is the oldest boat to be discovered in Africa, and the third oldest known worldwide. The canoe is currently in Damaturu, the state capital.Canoes have also played a vital role in the colonisation of the Pre-Columbian Caribbean as they represented the only possibility of reaching the Caribbean Islands from mainland South America. Around 3500 BC ancient Amerindian groups colonised the first Caribbean Islands using single-hulled canoes. Only very few Pre-Columbian Caribbean canoes have been uncovered.  There are several families of trees that could have been used to construct Caribbean canoes. These include woods of the mahogany family (Meliaceae) such as the Cuban mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni), that can reach heights of 30\u201335 m, the ceiba family (Malvacae) such as Ceiba pentandra, than can grow up to 60\u201370 m tall and the cedar family such as the Red Cedar (Cedrela odorata) that can grow up to 60 m in height. It is likely that these canoes were built in a variety of sizes. Ranging from fishing canoes, holding one or a few individuals, to larger ones able to carry as many as a few dozen people that could have been used to reach the Caribbean Islands from the mainland. Reports by historical chroniclers claim to have witnessed a canoe \"containing 40 to 50 Caribs [...] when it came out to trade with a visiting English ship\". These is still much dispute regarding the use of sails in Caribbean canoes. Some archaeologists doubt that oceanic transportation would have been possible without the use of sails as winds and currents would have carried the canoes off course. However, no evidence of a sail or a Caribbean canoe that could have made use of a sail has been found. Furthermore, no historical sources mention Caribbean canoes with sails. One possibility could be that canoes with sails were initially used in the Caribbean but later abandoned before European contact. This, however, seems unlikely, as long-distance trade continued in the Caribbean even after the prehistoric colonisation of the islands. Hence, it is likely that early Caribbean colonists made use of canoes without sails.The indigenous people of the Amazon commonly used Hymenaea trees. \nNative American groups of the north Pacific coast made dugout canoes in a number of styles for different purposes, from western red-cedar (Thuja plicata) or yellow-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis), depending on availability. Different styles were required for ocean-going vessels versus river boats, and for whale-hunting versus seal-hunting versus salmon-fishing. The Quinault of Washington State built shovel-nose canoes, with double bows, for river travel that could slide over a logjam without portaging. The Kootenai of British Columbia province made sturgeon-nosed canoes from pine bark, designed to be stable in windy conditions on Kootenay Lake. In recent years First Nations in British Columbia and Washington State have been revitalizing the ocean-going canoe tradition. Beginning in the 1980s, the Heiltsuk and Haida were early leaders in this movement. The paddle to Expo 86 in Vancouver by the Heiltsuk, and the 1989 Paddle to Seattle were early instances of this. In 1993 a large number of canoes paddled from up and down the coast to Bella Bella in its first canoe festival \u2013 'Qatuwas. The revitalization continued \u2013 and Tribal Journeys began with trips to various communities held most years.\nAustralian Aboriginal people made canoes from hollowed out tree trunks, as well as from tree bark.\n\n\n=== Skin canoes ===\n\n\n==== Australia ====\nSome Australian Aboriginal peoples made bark canoes. They could only be made from the bark of certain trees (usually red gum or box gum) and during summer. After cutting the outline of the required size and shape, a digging stick was used to cut through the bark to the hardwood, and the bark was then slowly prised out using numerous smaller sticks. The slab of bark was held in place by branches or hand-woven rope, and after separation from the tree, lowered to the ground and small fires lit on the inside of the bark. This would cause the bark to dry out and curl upwards, after which the ends could be pulled together and stitched with hemp and plugged with mud. It was then allowed to mature, with frequent applications of grease and ochre. The remaining tree was later dubbed a canoe tree by Europeans. Because of the porosity of the bark, they did not last too long (about two years), and were mainly used for fishing or crossing rivers or lakes rather than long journeys. They were usually propelled by punting with a long stick. Another type of bark canoe was made out of a type of stringybark gum known as Messmate stringybark (Eucalyptus obliqua), where the bark was pleated and tied at each end, with a framework of cross-ties and ribs. This type was known as a pleated or tied bark canoe. Bark strips could also be sewn together to make larger canoes, known as sewn bark canoes.\n\n\n==== Americas ====\nMany indigenous peoples of the Americas built bark canoes. They were usually skinned with birch bark over a light wooden frame, but other types could be used if birch was scarce. At a typical length of 4.3 m (14 ft) and weight of 23 kg (50 lb), the canoes were light enough to be portaged, yet could carry a lot of cargo, even in shallow water. Although susceptible to damage from rocks, they are easily repaired. Their performance qualities were soon recognized by early European settler colonials, and canoes played a key role in the exploration of North America, with Samuel de Champlain canoeing as far as the Georgian Bay in 1615. Ren\u00e9 de Br\u00e9hant de Galin\u00e9e, a French missionary who explored the Great Lakes in 1669, declared: \"The convenience of these canoes is great in these waters, full of cataracts or waterfalls, and rapids through which it is impossible to take any boat. When you reach them you load canoe and baggage upon your shoulders and go overland until the navigation is good; and then you put your canoe back into the water, and embark again. American painter, author and traveler George Catlin wrote that the bark canoe was \"the most beautiful and light model of all the water crafts that ever were invented\".\n\nThe first explorer to cross the North American continent, Alexander Mackenzie, used canoes extensively, as did David Thompson and the Lewis and Clark Expedition.\nIn the North American fur trade the Hudson's Bay Company's voyageurs used three types of canoe:\nThe rabaska or canot du ma\u00eetre was designed for the long haul from the St. Lawrence River to western Lake Superior. Its dimensions were: length approximately 11 m (35 ft), beam 1.2 to 1.8 m (4 to 6 ft), and height about 76 cm (30 in). It could carry 60 packs weighing 41 kg (90 lb), and 910 kg (2,000 lb) of provisions. With a crew of eight or ten (paddling or rowing), they could make three knots over calm waters. Four to six men could portage it, bottom up. Henry Schoolcraft declared it \"altogether one of the most eligible modes of conveyance that can be employed upon the lakes\". Archibald McDonald of the Hudson's Bay Company wrote: \"I never heard of such a canoe being wrecked, or upset, or swamped ... they swam like ducks.\"\nThe canot du nord (French: \"canoe of the north\"), a craft specially made and adapted for speedy travel, was the workhorse of the fur trade transportation system. About one-half the size of the Montreal canoe, it could carry about 35 packs weighing 41 kg (90 lb) and was manned by four to eight men. It could be carried by two men and was portaged in the upright position.\nThe express canoe or canot l\u00e9ger, was about 4.6 m (15 ft) long and were used to carry people, reports, and news.The birch bark canoe was used in a 6,500-kilometre (4,000 mi) supply route from Montreal to the Pacific Ocean and the Mackenzie River, and continued to be used up to the end of the 19th century.The indigenous peoples of eastern Canada and the northeast United States made canoes using the bark of the paper birch, which was harvested in early spring by stripping off the bark in one piece, using wooden wedges. Next, the two ends (stem and stern) were sewn together and made watertight with the pitch of balsam fir. The ribs of the canoe, called verons in Canadian French, were made of white cedar, and the hull, ribs, and thwarts were fastened using watap, a binding usually made from the roots of various species of conifers, such as the white spruce, black spruce, or cedar, and caulked with pitch.\n\n\n=== Modern canoes ===\n\nIn 19th-century North America, the birch-on-frame construction technique evolved into the wood-and-canvas canoes made by fastening an external waterproofed canvas shell to planks and ribs by boat builders such as Old Town Canoe, E. M. White Canoe, Peterborough Canoe Company and at the Chestnut Canoe Company in New Brunswick. While similar to bark canoes in the use of ribs, and a waterproof covering, the construction method is different, being built by bending ribs over a solid mold. Once removed from the mold, the decks, thwarts and seats are installed, and canvas is stretched tightly over the hull. The canvas is then treated with a combination of varnishes and paints to render it more durable and watertight.\n\nAlthough canoes were once primarily a means of transport, with industrialization they became popular as recreational or sporting watercraft. John MacGregor popularized canoeing through his books, and in 1866 founded the Royal Canoe Club in London and in 1880 the American Canoe Association. The Canadian Canoe Association was founded in 1900, and the British Canoe Union in 1936.\nSprint canoe was a demonstration sport at the 1924 Paris Olympics and became an Olympic discipline at the 1936 Berlin Olympics. The International Canoe Federation was formed in 1946 and is the umbrella organization of all national canoe organizations worldwide.\n\n\n== Hull design ==\n\nHull design must meet different, often conflicting, requirements for speed, carrying capacity, maneuverability, and stability The canoe's hull speed can be calculated using the principles of ship resistance and propulsion.\n\nLength: this is often stated by manufacturers as the overall length of the boat, but what counts in performance terms is the length of the waterline, and more specifically its value relative to the displacement of the canoe. Displacement is the amount of water displaced by the boat. It is equal to the total weight of the boat and its contents since a floating body displaces its own weight in water. When a canoe is paddled through water, it takes an effort to push all of the displaced water out of the way. Canoes are displacement hulls: the longer the waterline relative to its displacement, the faster it can be paddled. Among general touring canoeists, 5.18 m (17 ft) is a popular length, providing a good compromise between capacity and cruising speed. Too large a canoe will simply mean extra work paddling at cruising speed.\nWidth (beam): a wider boat provides more stability at the expense of speed. A canoe cuts through the water like a wedge, and a shorter boat needs a narrower beam to reduce the angle of the wedge cutting through the water. Canoe manufacturers typically provide three beam measurements: the gunwale (the measurement at the top of the hull), the waterline (the measurement at the point where the surface of the water meets the hull when it is empty), and the widest point. Another variation of the waterline beam measurement is called 4\" waterline where the displacement is taken into account. This measurement is done at the waterline level when the maximum load is applied to the canoe. Some canoe races use the 4\" waterline beam measurement as the standard for their regulations. In races, the measurement is done by measuring the widest point at 4 inches (10 cm) from the bottom of the canoe.\nFreeboard: a higher-sided boat stays drier in rough water. The cost of high sides is extra weight, extra wind resistance and increased susceptibility to cross-winds.\nStability and immersed bottom shape: the hull can be optimized for initial stability (the boat feels steady when it sits flat on the water) or final stability (resistance to rolling and capsizing). A flatter-bottomed hull has higher initial stability, versus a rounder or V-shaped hull in cross-section has high final stability. The fastest flat water non-racing canoes have sharp V-bottoms to cut through the water, but they are difficult to turn and have a deeper draft which makes them less suitable for shallows. Flat-bottomed canoes are most popular among recreational canoeists. At the cost of speed, they have a shallow draft, turn better, and more cargo space. The reason a flat bottom canoe has lower final stability is that the hull must wrap a sharper angle between the bottom and the sides, compared to a more round-bottomed boat. However, the sides of the canoe can be constructed where the gunwale sheer line is compressed inboard towards to keel line (rather than flaring outboard and outwards from the keel line) resulting in tumblehome, which increases final stability (increases the number of degrees of lateral roll possible before the gunwale is first submerged).\nKeel: an external keel makes a canoe track (hold its course) better and can stiffen a floppy bottom, but it can get stuck on rocks and decrease stability in rapids.\nProfile, the shape of the canoe's sides. Sides that flare out above the waterline deflect water but require the paddler to reach out over the side of the canoe. If the gunwale width is less than the waterline width (or the maximum width) the canoe is said to have tumblehome. This increases final hull stability.\nRocker: viewed from the side of the canoe, rocker is the amount of curve in the hull, much like the curve of a banana. A straight keeled canoe, with no rocker, is meant for covering long distances in a straight line. The full length of the hull is in the water, so it tracks well and has good speed. As the rocker increases, so does the ease of turning, at the cost of tracking. Native American birch-bark canoes were often characterized by extreme rocker.\nHull symmetry: viewed from above, a symmetrical hull has its widest point at the center of the hull and both ends are identical. An asymmetrical hull typically has the widest section aft of centerline, creating a longer bow and improving speed.\n\n\n== Modern materials and construction ==\n\n\n=== Plastic ===\nRoyalex is a composite material, comprising an outer layer of vinyl and hard acrylonitrile butadiene styrene plastic (ABS) and an inner layer of ABS foam, bonded by heat treatment. As a canoe material, Royalex is lighter, more resistant to UV damage, is more rigid, and has greater structural memory than non-composite plastics such as polyethylene.  Royalex canoes are, however, more expensive than aluminium canoes or canoes made from traditionally molded or roto-molded polyethylene hulls. It is heavier, and less suited for high-performance paddling than fiber-reinforced composites, such as fiberglass, kevlar, or graphite. Roto-molded polyethylene is a cheaper alternative to Royalex. Production of Royalex ceased in 2014.\nFolding canoes usually consist of a PVC skin around an aluminum frame.\nInflatable: These contain no rigid frame members and can be deflated, folded, and stored in a bag. The more durable types consist of an abrasion-resistant nylon or rubber outer shell, with separate PVC air chambers for the two side tubes and the floor.\n\n\n=== Fiber reinforced composites ===\nModern canoes are generally constructed by layering a fiber material inside a \"female\" mold. Fiberglass is the most common material used in manufacturing canoes. Fiberglass is not expensive, can be molded to any shape, and is easy to repair. Kevlar is popular with paddlers looking for a light, durable boat that will not be taken in whitewater. Fiberglass and Kevlar are strong but lack rigidity.  Carbon fiber is used in racing canoes to create a very light, rigid construction usually combined with Kevlar for durability. Boats are built by draping the cloth in a mold, then impregnating it with a liquid resin. Optionally, a vacuum process can be used to remove excess resin to reduce weight. \nA gel coat on the outside gives a smoother appearance.With stitch and glue, plywood panels are stitched together to form a hull shape, and the seams are reinforced with fiber reinforced composites and varnished.\nA cedar strip canoe is essentially a composite canoe with a cedar core. Usually fiberglass is used to reinforce the canoe since it is clear and allows a view of the cedar.\n\n\n=== Aluminum ===\nBefore the invention of fiberglass, this was the standard choice for whitewater canoeing. It is good value and very strong by weight. This material was once more popular but is being replaced by modern lighter materials. \"It is tough, durable, and will take being dragged over the bottom very well\", as it has no gel or polymer outer coating which would make it subject to abrasion.  The hull does not degrade from long term exposure to sunlight, and \"extremes of hot and cold do not affect the material\". It can dent, is difficult to repair, is noisy, can get stuck on underwater objects, and requires buoyancy chambers to assist in keeping the canoe afloat in a capsize.\n\n\n== In culture ==\n\nIn Canada, the canoe has been a theme in history and folklore, and is a symbol of Canadian identity. From 1935 to 1986 the Canadian silver dollar depicted a canoe with the Northern Lights in the background.\nThe Chasse-galerie is a French-Canadian tale of voyageurs who, after a night of heavy drinking on New Year's Eve at a remote timber camp want to visit their sweethearts some 100 leagues (about 400 km) away. Since they have to be back in time for work the next morning they make a pact with the devil. Their canoe will fly through the air, on condition that they not mention God's name or touch the cross of any church steeple as they fly by in the canoe. One version of this fable ends with the coup de gr\u00e2ce when, still high in the sky, the voyageurs complete the hazardous journey but the canoe overturns, so the devil can honour the pact to deliver the voyageurs and still claim their souls.\nIn John Steinbeck's novella The Pearl set in Mexico, the main character's canoe is a means of making a living that has been passed down for generations and represents a link to cultural tradition.The M\u0101ori, indigenous Polynesian people arrived in New Zealand in several waves of canoe voyage. Canoe traditions are important to the identity of M\u0101ori. Whakapapa (genealogical links) back to the crew of founding canoes served to establish the origins of tribes, and defined tribal boundaries and relationships.\n\n\n== Types ==\nModern canoe types are usually categorized by the intended use. Many modern canoe designs are hybrids (a combination of two or more designs, meant for multiple uses). The purpose of the canoe will also often determine the materials used. Most canoes are designed for either one person (solo) or two people (tandem), but some are designed for more than two people.\n\n\n=== Sprint ===\nSprint canoe is also known as flatwater racing. The paddler kneels on one knee, and uses a single-blade paddle. Canoes have no rudder, so the boat must be steered by the athlete's paddle using a j-stroke. Canoes may be entirely open or be partly covered. The minimum length of the opening on a C1 is 280 cm (110 in). Boats are long and streamlined with a narrow beam, which makes them very unstable.  A C4 can be up to 9 m (30 ft) long and weigh 30 kg (66 lb). ICF classes include C1 (solo), C2 (crew of two), and C4 (crew of four). Race distances at the 2012 Olympic Games were 200 and 1000 meters.\n\n\n=== Slalom and wildwater ===\n\nIn ICF whitewater slalom paddlers negotiate their way down a 300 m (980 ft) of whitewater rapids, through a series of up to 25 gates (pairs of hanging poles). The colour of the poles indicates the direction in which the paddlers must pass through; time penalties are assessed for striking poles or missing gates. Categories are C1 (solo) and C2 (tandem), the latter for two men, and C2M (mixed) for one woman and one man. C1 boats must have a minimum weight and width of 10 kg (22 lb) and 0.65 m (2 ft 2 in) and be not more than 3.5 m (11 ft) long. C2s must have a minimum weight and width of 15 kg (33 lb) and 0.75 m (2 ft 6 in), and be not more that 4.1 m (13 ft). Rudders are prohibited. Canoes are decked and propelled by single-bladed paddles, and the competitor must kneel.In ICF wildwater canoeing athletes paddle a course of class III to IV whitewater (using the International Scale of River Difficulty), passing over waves, holes and rocks of a natural riverbed in events lasting either 20\u201330 minutes (\"Classic\" races) or 2\u20133 minutes (\"Sprint\" races). Categories are C1 and C2, for both women and men. C1s must have a minimum weight and width of 12 kg (26 lb) and 0.7 m (2 ft 4 in), and a maximum length of 4.3 m (14 ft). C2s must have a minimum weight and width of 18 kg (40 lb) and 0.8 metres (2 ft 7 in), and a maximum length of 5 metres (16 ft). Rudders are prohibited. The canoes are decked boats which must be propelled by single bladed paddles and inside which the paddler kneels.\n\n\n=== Marathon ===\nMarathons are long-distance races which may include portages. Under ICF rules minimum canoe weight is 10 and 14 kg (22 and 31 lb) for C1 and C2 respectively. Other rules can vary by race, for example in the Classique Internationale de Canots de la Mauricie athletes race in C2s, with a maximum length of 5.6 m (18 ft 6 in), minimum width of 69 cm (27 in) at 8 cm (3 in) from the bottom of the centre of the craft, minimum height of 38 cm (15 in) at the bow and 25 cm (10 in) at the centre and stern. The Texas Water Safari, at 422 km (262 mi), includes an open class, the only rule being the vessel must be human-powered, and although novel setups have been tried, the fastest so far has been the six-man canoe.\n\n\n=== Touring ===\n\nA \"touring\" or \"tripping\" canoe is a boat for traveling on lakes and or rivers with capacity for camping gear. Tripping canoes such as the Chestnut Prospector and Old Town Tripper derivates are touring canoes for wilderness trips. They are typically made of heavier and tougher materials and designed with the ability to carry large amounts of gear while being maneuverable enough for rivers with some whitewater. Prospector is now a generic name for derivates of the Chestnut model, a popular type of wilderness tripping canoe marked by a shallow arch hull with a relatively large amount of rocker, giving a nice balance for wilderness tripping over lakes and rivers with some rapids.\nA touring canoe is sometimes covered with a greatly extended deck, forming a \"cockpit\" for the paddlers. A cockpit has the advantage that the gunwales can be made lower and narrower so the paddler can reach the water more easily.\n\n\n=== Freestyle ===\n\nA canoe specialized for whitewater play and tricks. Most are identical to short, flat-bottomed kayak playboats except for internal outfitting. The paddler kneels and uses a single-blade canoe paddle. Playboating is a discipline of whitewater canoeing where the paddler performs various technical moves in one place (a playspot), as opposed to downriver where the objective is to travel the length of a section of river (although whitewater canoeists will often stop and play en route). Specialized canoes known as playboats can be used.\n\n\n=== General recreation ===\nA square-stern canoe is an asymmetrical canoe with a squared-off stern for the mounting of an outboard motor, and is meant for lake travel or fishing. (In practice, use of a side bracket on a double-ended canoe often is more comfortable for the operator, with little or no loss of performance.) Since mounting a rudder on the square stern is very easy, such canoes often are adapted for sailing.\n\n\n== Canoe launches ==\nA canoe launch is a place for launching canoes, similar to a boat launch which is often for launching larger watercraft. Canoe launches are frequently on river banks or beaches. Canoe launches may be designated on maps of places such as parks or nature reserves.\n\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n Media related to Canoes at Wikimedia Commons", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/1998-10-tema-canoe.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/BWCA_Canoe_Outing_-_001.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Birchbark_canoe%2C_Abbe_Museum%2C_Bar_Harbor%2C_ME_IMG_2301.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/C1_Playboat.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Canoe_lessons_%28I0005532%29.tif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Canvas-stretching.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Dickerson-C1a.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Dugout_canoe_Rennell.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Elm_Bank_canoe_launch_213345_929.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/FAHopkins_Shooting_Rapids.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Global_thinking.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Historic_Center_of_Quito_-_World_Heritage_Site_by_UNESCO_-_Photo_437.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Kerala_backwater_20080218-11.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/La_Chasse-galerie_%281906%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Morris-canoe-600.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Native_tribes_of_South-East_Australia_Fig_24_-_A_Kurnai_bark_canoe.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Parts_of_Canoe.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/PaulKane-HuntingFish-ROM.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Pf026012.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Women_C-2.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Women_Rowing_-_My_Tho_-_Vietnam.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "A canoe is a lightweight narrow water vessel, typically pointed at both ends and open on top, propelled by one or more seated or kneeling paddlers facing the direction of travel and using a single-bladed paddle.In British English, the term \"canoe\" can also refer to a kayak, while canoes are then called Canadian or open canoes to distinguish them from kayaks.\nCanoes were developed by cultures all over the world, including some designed for use with sails or outriggers. Until the mid-1800s the canoe was an important means of transport for exploration and trade, and in some places is still used as such, sometimes with the addition of an outboard motor. Where the canoe played a key role in history, such as the northern United States, Canada, and New Zealand, it remains an important theme in popular culture.\nCanoes are now widely used for competition and pleasure, such as racing, whitewater, touring and camping, freestyle and general recreation. Canoeing has been part of the Olympics since 1936. The intended use of the canoe dictates its hull shape, length, and construction material. Historically, canoes were dugouts or made of bark on a wood frame, but construction materials evolved to canvas on a wood frame, then to aluminum. 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"Go-kart", "History of the bicycle", "Sandboarding", "Doi Suthep", "Parachuting", "Georgia ", "Vehicular cycling", "Longboarding", "Joe Breeze", "Toy wagon", "Whitewater kayaking", "Ice skate", "Freight bicycle", "Hand signals", "UCI Mountain Bike & Trials World Championships", "Golden, BC", "Durango, Colorado", "List of adjectival tourisms", "Rock climbing"], "content": "{| align=\"right\" border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\"\n|-valign=\"top\"\n|-\n\n|\n|}\n\nDownhill mountain biking (DH) is a genre of mountain biking practiced on steep, rough terrain that often features jumps, drops, rock gardens and other obstacles.\nDownhill bikes are heavier and stronger than other mountain bikes and feature front and rear suspension with over 8 inches (20 cm) of travel, to glide quickly over rocks and tree roots. In competitive races, a continuous course is defined on each side by a strip of tape. Depending on the format, riders have a single or double attempt to reach the finish line as fast as possible, while remaining between the two tapes designating the course. Riders must choose their line by compromising between the shortest possible line and the line that can be traveled at the highest speed.  If a rider leaves the course by crossing or breaking the tape they must return to the course at the point of exit, unless they do not gain a time advantage from crossing the tape, in which case they can continue with their run.Riders start at intervals, often seeded from slowest to fastest, and courses typically take two to five minutes to complete with winning margins being often less than a second.  Riders are timed with equipment similar to that used in downhill skiing.\n\n\n== History of competitive racing ==\nThe 1st downhill time-trial race took place in Fairfax, California on October 21, 1976 on a fireroad now referred to as Repack Road, due to the need to repack the hub brake after each descent. The bikes used were based on cruiser bicycles that had a drum or coaster brake that worked by pedalling backwards. The mechanism operated with a conical brake shoe being wound on a thread in a metal hub. To prevent the brake from seizing it was kept filled with grease. Heavy use during the descent would cause the brake to over heat, softening the grease and causing it to drain from the hub, requiring frequent repacking. Ten riders descended 1,300 feet (400 m) of Repack road in about 5 minutes.The first bikes used for descending were known as \"klunkers\" or \"paperboy bikes\" - sturdy cruisers using balloon tires and coaster brakes, designed by Ignatz Schwinn during the Great Depression. The bikes could endure abuse that would damage other bicycles by changing features from the Henderson and Excelsior motorcycles his company had built during the 1920s, including a heavy \"cantilevered\" frame with two top tubes and 2.125-inch-wide (54.0 mm) \"balloon\" tires from Germany. Innovations like the fat-tire Schwinn with derailleur gears by Russ Mahon of  The Morrow Dirt Club in Cupertino at the 1974 Marin County cyclo-cross and Gary Fisher's 1975 use of a tandem rear hub (from a flea market) with a drum brake threaded for a freewheel cluster developed the sport, and by 1979, two organizers and competitors of the Repack downhill, Charlie Kelly and Gary Fisher founded the company which named the sport, MountainBikes. As mountain biking grew during the 80s, downhill riders continued to use either rigid or limited-travel (under 2 inches (5 cm)) suspension bicycles. Purpose-made downhill bikes started to appear in the 90s, with innovations such as dual crown forks and disc brakes, as well as more elaborate suspension designs.\nLater, riders from other disciplines began focusing on downhill, such as BMX racers Daniel Solano (Team Tomac Bikes), and Brian Lopes. Their influence is seen in the increased difficulty of many courses, with bigger jumps and drops added. The coming of age for downhill biking was its inclusion at the first UCI Mountain Bike Championship, held in 1990 in Durango, Colorado.\n\n\n== Notable downhill racing venues ==\n\nMany ski areas are converted into downhill mountain biking venues in the summer, such as Whistler Mountain Bike Park and Fernie Alpine Resort, alongside the specifically developed all-season downhill trails. At some courses, bikers ride gondolas, trams or chair lifts to the starting point, or \"shuttling\" with motorized vehicles is used to transport riders to the top of the hill. Others are accessible by riding (or pushing) bicycles to the starting point. Urban downhill courses have also appeared in mountain-side cities, with the courses going through city streets and sidewalks, such as the Taxco Downhill event in Mexico.Courses used in competition often feature several \"lines\" through or around difficult obstacles. For example, the \"A line\" might be a direct line over a large jump with a sketchy landing, the \"B line\" a smaller jump with a better landing, and the \"C line\" completely avoids the jumps, but may take longer.\n\n\n=== Australia ===\n\nAustralia has produced a large number of internationally successful downhill racers,  including Sam Hill, Chris Kovarik, Nathan Rennie and Mick Hannah. The large majority of Australian downhill riding and racing is accessed by shuttling in cars, buses or by walking to the top of the track (push runs), however the venues at Mount Buller and Thredbo provide lift accessed tracks during the snow less summer months.\nMount Stromlo, near Canberra, hosted a World Cup Round in August 2008 and the 2009 World Championships. The top can be accessed by either riding up singletrack, or by shuttling via the road. Australia's first UCI Mountain Bike World Cup was held in Cairns in 1994-1995. followed by the World Mountain Bike Championships in 1996 and again in 2017, placing Cairns on the map as the premier Australian mountain bike destination.\n\n\n=== Austria ===\nLocated in the Alps, Austria is very suitable for downhill riding. A large majority of Austria's downhill tracks are accessible via lift shuttles. A World Cup track called the \"Planai\" is located in the city of Schladming. It is about 5 km long with an average descent grade of about 35%.\n\n\n=== Bolivia ===\nMost of Bolivia\u2019s downhill riding is done in the Andes Mountains in and around La Paz. In the city there is the Pura Pura trail, there are also a few trails through the forest. Camiraya at the outskirts of La Paz has more and longer trails. The Loma Loma and Chu Chu trails are a little further out in Sorata. There are also trails in other parts of the country, for example in Cochabamba and Potos\u00ed.\n\n\n=== Bosnia and Herzegovina ===\nBosnia and Herzegovina is rich with mountains especially around the capital city of Sarajevo, in which a downtown race is held, although mountain bike and downhill especially are still developing to become known sports. Mountains like Igman, Bjela\u0161nica and others are being increasingly used for downhill racing. Currently there are a few tracks on Trebevi\u0107, Igman, Bjela\u0161nica,  Cavljak - Barice, all featured tournaments on an international level. Unexploded ordnance is one of the reasons for slow development of this sport in a country with a such great potential for it.\n\n\n=== Canada ===\nCanada is famous for its downhill racing as well as other sorts of mountain biking. The Whistler Mountain Bike Park in Whistler, British Columbia hosts the annual Crankworx and Joyride Huckfest racing events. The province of British Columbia is also home to several other large lift-serviced mountain bike parks, including Sun Peaks in Kamloops, BC, Silver Star Mountain Resort in Vernon, BC, Kicking Horse Mountain Resort in Golden, BC and Fernie Alpine Resort. The North Shore Mountains of North Vancouver, BC, are a famous downhill biking destination in their own right. The popular style of technical downhill freeriding that involves many man-made trail elements originated here. The style is often referred to as \"North Shore Style.\"\nCanada has produced many world-class mountain bike racers, including downhillers Andrew Shandro and Steve Smith. The mount of Bromont, situated in Bromont, Quebec, and Mont-Sainte-Anne near Quebec City are great places for downhill biking.\n\n\n=== Croatia ===\n\nDownhill MTB races have been held in Croatia since 1993, when the first competition was organized outside Zagreb, on the same mountain that today hosts the world cup races in alpine skiing. Until the past 4\u20135 years, Mountain biking was banished from popular hiking trails and ski slopes around the capital. However, with the rise in popularity of DH and enduro, (gravity) riding, Trail management regulations have been relaxed and along with allowing riders, have begun to allow for development of MTB specific trails, cooperating with the local riding community to communicate which trails are acceptable and which are not. Additionally, the area known as 'Grma' has seen the growth and development of DH specific trails. MTB DH riding has also flourished in other parts of Croatia, especially in the northern Adriatic coastal region and in the northern (continental) part of country. In 2010 the national DH Cup events were held in Buzet (Istria), Samobor (Zagreb area), Pakrac (Slavonia) and Gracisce (Pazin, Istria). Additionally, multiple enduro races around the country are now part of an annual 'Cro-enduro' series and the fall of 2017 saw organization of the first ever Croatian Enduro National Championships. Urban downhill events are also held in the coastal city of Rijeka. 2018 saw the first UCI Mountain Bike World Cup held in Croatia, on the island of Lo\u0161inj.\n\n\n=== France ===\n\nThe French Alps are home to many downhill routes and events. The most famous of which is the Mega Avalanche downhill race event in the Alp d'Huez and Bourg d'Oisans region. Another downhill course in the region is Les Deux Alpes which sometimes hosts other downhill events. The downhill courses and events are limited in the area however, because of the alpine winter and snow.\nThe most popular area for downhill in the French alps is the Portes du Soleil including the two more popular resorts of Morzine and Les Gets. Most recently, a world cup was held for the first time in La Bresse. In August 2011, La Bresse hosted the sixth round of the UCI World Cup. Since 2015, Lourdes hosted a World Cup round each year.\n\n\n=== Georgia ===\nThe first downhill trails in Georgia were developed in 2015. Among the first built was in Gudauri, followed by trails in Bakuriani. Both of the places are also ski resorts. Trails are at 2000\u20132250 meters, with trail lengths of about 5000 meters.\n\n\n=== Germany ===\nIn Germany the landscape is quite diverse, reaching from flatlands in the north to medium-sized mountains in the center to alpine mountains in the south. Downhill tracks in Germany are not as steep as in Switzerland, Austria or Canada and the difference from top to bottom is less, but the main parts of an average track are everywhere in Germany. Racing on these short tracks is highly intense and allows no mistakes. Due to the country's large population the sport has developed quickly in Germany. Number of riders can go up to 600 at races. With 3 cup races, Thuringia, in the middle of Germany, is the center of gravity riding. The most popular race series is the 'iXS German Downhill Cup'. In Germany is the Europe's biggest Mountainbike Freeride Festival hold, called iXS Dirt Masters. It includes one iXS German Downhill Cup Round, a 4X Race and a slopestyle contest. It is visited by around 25000 spectators and 1200 riders. In the small town Willingen is a former World Cup Downhill and Four Cross Race Course. The World Cup has been held there in 2005 and 2006.\nWith Germany being a high level industry country, there are many firms producing downhill bikes, such as Last Bikes, Zonenschein, Fusion Bikes, Cube Bikes, Ghost Bikes, Canyon Bikes, Propain Bikes, Rose Bikes, Solid Bikes as well as boutique bike manufacturers Nicolai and Liteville. There are also a lot of firms producing high-end parts like Rohloff, Magura or Tune.\n\n\n=== India ===\n\nDownhill Mountain Biking in India is fairly new. The main and the most popular downhill mountain bike race in India is called Himalayan Downhill Mountain Bike Trophy which is organized by Himalayan Mountain Bike Network during Himalayan Mountain Bike Festival. This race is conducted at Ski Himalayas Ropeway and Ski Resort located in Solang Valley near Manali which the Mountain Biking Capital of India. The DH race track is 2 km long and the area offers lot of natural mountain biking trails and lends itself to many styles of mountain biking. The trails in this Himalayan region are accessible to riders of all skill levels.\n\n\n=== Ireland ===\nDownhill cycling has increased in Ireland over the past 10 years, for example, the National Points Series rounds regularly attract over 250 riders from all over the country. Irish tracks vary greatly in length and difficulty. Moneyscalp is one of the shorter tracks with times for Elites coming at just over a minute. Other tracks such as Carrick in Co.Wicklow are closer to 5 minutes. There are no official downhill tracks in the Republic of Ireland. Just across the border in Rostrevor, Northern Ireland however, Newry & Mourne District Council has recently built some tracks in Kilbroney Forest which includes a 27 km and 17 km single track and 2 purpose-built downhill trails.\nAccording to the law it is illegal to ride in the forests. All the tracks are built and maintained voluntarily by individuals and mountain biking clubs who take it upon themselves to do so. As downhill mountain biking has become more popular so has the call for more facilities and practitioners of this sport have begun campaigning with the state on this issue.\n\n\n=== Italy ===\nBardonecchia, one of the Torino 2006 winter olympic venues, converts some of its ski courses and lifts for use by mountain bikers in the summer, and a number of downhill courses are present. Other ski resorts turning to mountain bike parks in summer are Canazei, Pila, Sestola and Livigno. The area of Finale Ligure, near Genoa, offers year-round tracks that end on the seaside, served by shuttles. Among the most famous tracks in the country is the Sanremo Downhill, a rocky, technical and dangerous course won in 2007 by Fabien Barel. The 2008 World Championship were held in Val di Sole.\n\n\n=== Kazakhstan ===\nLocated in Tian Shan, city of Almaty, Shymbulak bike park was opened in 2013. There is also the Charyn canyons and mini RedBull Rampage trail. The cheap living costs, warm climate and fresh mountain air make Almaty a \"must visit\" place for riders on a budget.\n\n\n=== Latvia ===\nIn global context there are very little notable downhill venues in Latvia. Most of them are located at local ski resorts in Baldone, Sigulda and C\u0113sis, also there's trail network in the forests of Tukums near Melnezers. All the tracks are built and maintained voluntarily by individuals who take it upon themselves to do so. Each year Latvian Downhill association regularly schedule National downhill cup and championships. In the next several years it is expected to grow local community around downhill mountain biking by increasing the number of riders and improving local ski resort trail quality.\n\n\n=== Norway ===\nHafjell, a ski resort in the county of Oppland and host of the alpine skiing events (giant slalom and slalom) at the 1994 Winter Olympics, offers a wide variety of courses and tracks for cross country and downhill mountain bikers during summer. Hafjell hosted the 2010 European downhill championships and the 2010 Nordic downhill championships.\n\n\n=== Philippines ===\nPhilippines is known for its mountainous range and rocky hills. In Rizal, there are famous downhill tracks such as the Antenna Downhill Tracks in Binangonan and the Patiis Downhill Tracks in San Mateo. There are also other downhill tracks around the country that holds annual downhill races. Some notable Downhill athletes in Philippines are Parabanne Mendoza, Eleazar Barba Jr.,and Ni\u00f1o Martin Eday. The Downhill Riders Organization of the Philippines (DROP) organizes some of the downhill races around the country.\n\n\n=== Portugal ===\nPortugal is the host country of a unique variety of downhill races, the Urban Downhill, known as Downtown. Lisbon DownTown is a very popular annual event which brings world class Downhill athletes to Portugal, Steve Peat is the King of the race winning 8 of the 11 editions.\nThe Gouveia International Downhill is another important annual race that normally brings some of the WorldCup racers to the country.\nPlaces like Lous\u00e3, Tarouca and Sintra offer a big variety of single tracks and Downhill circuits.\n\n\n=== Russia ===\nSome of the notable Russian downhill venues are ski-complex \"Metallurg\" (Bannoe lake, Magnitogorsk), Mashuk and Chaget mountains. And in the city of Novosibirsk has a trail for such races. It is located in the CHP-5.\n\n\n=== Slovenia ===\n\nSlovenia's vast hilly landscape and undamaged nature makes very good conditions for downhill cycling, thus one of the world's top, not only tracks but riders are also in Slovenia. The famous tracks that are included in the world cup are at ski resort Kranjska Gora in north-west tip of Slovenia, while the other track is on ski resort hill Pohorje at Slovenia's second largest city Maribor.\n\n\n=== South Africa ===\nDownhill racing is not currently a very big sport in South Africa, but is rapidly growing. South Africa boasts some great tracks and riders, especially from the Western Cape and the Pietermaritzburg area in Kwa-Zulu Natal, the hometown of Greg Minnaar. In the Western Cape, the best tracks are Edeouth and Jonkershoek in Stellenbosch, Playgrounds in Paarl, Sir Lowry's Pass near Somerset-West (hometown of Andrew and Jonty Neethling), Zevenwacht near Kuilsriver and Witfontein in George. They provide quite technical, but fun courses. Ferncliff and World's View are great in Pietermaritzburg. Helderkruin (West of Johannesburg), Klapperkop in Pretoria and Gillooly's Farm in Johannesburg. South Africa held the first round of the 2009 UCI World Cup, which was in Pietermaritzburg (Greg Minnaar's hometown).\n\n\n=== Sweden ===\nWith the Caledonian mountains forming the borderland with Norway this country has places to downhill race. The majority of Sweden's notable downhill tracks are situated around \u00c5re and \u00c5re Bike, accessible via lift shuttles. In 1999 \u00c5re was the host for the UCI Mountain Bike & Trials World Championships and it hosted the Nordic Championships in 2007. There are numerous graded biking trails down the \u00c5reskutan fell.\nSweden's most southerly DH bike park is called Vall\u00e5sen Bike Park and is located on the north side of the Halland ridge between Sk\u00e5ne and Halland. Vall\u00e5sen opened in 2008 and attracts riders not only from Sweden but also Denmark due to its relatively close location to Copenhagen. Vall\u00e5sen holds an annual DH race at the end of the season called the Vall\u00e5sen DH Challenge.\nJarvs\u00f6 Bike Park is another downhill park, which is located in the locality of J\u00e4rvs\u00f6, in the municipality of Ljusdal approximately 3 hours north of Stockholm by car. The park consists of 17 tracks of varying difficulty, and a pumptrack.\n\n\n=== Switzerland ===\nLocated between the Alps and the Jura and surrounded by the downhill nations of France, Germany, Italy and Austria it is kind of a center for the European downhill scene. There are tracks in or near every city with high quality and a steep descent. It has several World Cup tracks like \"Champ\u00e9ry\" or \"Portes du Soleil\". Switzerland is the home of parts manufacturer DT Swiss,  EDCO Swiss bicycle components since 1902, frame manufacturer BMC and bike manufacturer Redalp.\n\n\n=== Thailand ===\nMountainous regions of Northern Thailand offer great venues for downhill mountain biking. Chiang Mai is the most famous location for downhill mountain biking in Thailand. The Chiang Mai Downhill Challenge, which were held in November 2012 and 2013 had attracted World Cup riders, such as Steve Peat, Josh Bryceland, Sam Dale, Brook Macdonald, Wyn Masters and Edward Masters, as well as a Belgian freerider, Nico Vink. Doi Suthep mountain is where most downhill actions take place in Chiang Mai. Tour operator, such as X-Biking Chiang Mai offers guided tour or shuttle service to the trailheads and pick up the riders once they complete the trails. The Thailand National Championships, which are held in many different venues across Thailand by the Thai Cycling Association also attract many riders across Southeast Asia. The cheap living costs, great foods, warm climate and great ridings make Thailand a \"must visit\" place for riders on a budget.\n\n\n=== United Kingdom ===\n\nWithin the UK most of the main downhill tracks are in the Scottish Uplands, Highlands, Wales and Northern England, as these are more mountainous areas. Fort William in Scotland is Britain's only World Cup standard track and was the venue for the 2007 World Championships. The UK has a strong race scene with a national series and numerous regional series with strong representation of all age groups present. The country has produced many of the world's top downhill mountain bikers including Steve Peat, Gee Atherton, Danny Hart, Josh Bryceland, Brendan Fairclough, Rachel Atherton, Manon Carpenter and Tahnee Seagrave.\n\n\n=== United States ===\nThe Sea Otter Classic, held each April at Laguna Seca near Monterey, California, is a major riding event that opens the racing season. In 2008, experienced racer Mark Reynolds died after a crash at the Sea Otter Classic, highlighting the dangers of the sport. Plattekill Mountain in the Catskills, Mammoth Mountain, the Northstar at Tahoe, Brian Head Resort, Attitash and Deer Valley ski resorts, and Moab (Utah) are also well known to mountain bikers. Snowmass, Colorado is also developing as a location for the sport.\nMountain Creek Bike Park in Vernon, New Jersey is a downhill venue which hosts their own series of competitions called the Gravity Series. In the southeastern United States, Snowshoe Mountain is well known for its extensive mountain bike park, camps, and freeriding areas during the summer. Bryce Resort offers a self-described progression based bike park, built by Gravity Logic. Massanutten Resort also has a bike park with some of the most rocky terrain on the east coast. UCI Pro Downhill riders, Neko Mulally and Dakota Norton have built, train at, and promoted races Windrock Bike Park in Oliver Springs, Tennessee as well.\nVail, Colorado was the site of the 1994 Downhill World Championship.  The trail was renamed \"'94 Downhill\", and is still ridden by downhill bikers today. In 2006, The U.S. National Championships were held at the Infineon Raceway in Sonoma, California. In 2007 and 2008 the U.S. National Championships were held in Mt. Snow, Vermont, and in 2009 and 2010 the U.S. National Championships were held at SolVista Bike Park in Colorado.\n\n\n=== Venezuela ===\nEl Volcan, a small mountain in the southeastern, touristic El Hatillo Municipality of Caracas, has a Downhill course that has about 500 meters of vertical drop, it is used by hundreds of riders a day during dry and wet weather, mostly on weekends. El Volcan is the representative [Downhill] Track of Caracas city. The course is open to the public and riding is neither specifically allowed nor prohibited by law. The trails are also used by hikers all week long. Shuttles are about 10 Venezuelan bolivars per trip, they run from the parking lot of a Farmatodo drug store in La Boyera, up to the summit using public avenues and paved roads, taking from 15 minutes to 30 minutes depending on traffic on the area. The course apart from being used mostly for recreational purpose, also has been used for irregularly scheduled downhill races due to the lack of organization in the riders community.\n\n\n== Governing bodies ==\nThe Union Cycliste Internationale is the governing body for downhill mountain bike racing.  Racers qualify to compete in World Cup races by earning UCI points, which are gained by being a top ten finisher in certain races, usually national.\nIn the U.S., NORBA, as part of USA Cycling, runs the National Mountain Bike Series, and the NCCA is the governing body for collegiate cycling.  In the UK, British Cycling controls mountain biking as well as road and BMX. In Australia, MTBA controls all disciplines of Mountain biking.\n\n\n== Notable riders ==\n\n\n=== Men ===\nGee Atherton\nDan Atherton\nFabien Barel\nWade Bootes\nJoe Breeze\nTroy Brosnan\nLo\u00efc Bruni\nJosh Bryceland\nEric Carter\nC\u00e9dric Gracia\nAaron Gwin\nMichael Hannah\nDanny Hart\nCorrado H\u00e9rin\nSam Hill\nFinn Iles\nMike King\nMatti Lehikoinen\nBrian Lopes\nGreg Minnaar\nSteve Peat\nNathan Rennie\nRoger Rinderknecht\nLuca Shaw\nSteve Smith\nJohn Tomac\nLoris Vergier\nNicolas Vouilloz\nJake Watson\nJoost Wichman\n\n\n=== Women ===\nRachel Atherton\nAnneke Beerten\nManon Carpenter\nAnne-Caroline Chausson\nLeigh Donovan\nMissy Giove\nNiki Gudex\nTracey Hannah\nValentina H\u00f6ll\nJana Hor\u00e1kov\u00e1\nTara Llanes\nTracy Moseley\nMyriam Nicole\nTahn\u00e9e Seagrave\n\n\n== See also ==\nDownhill bike\nMountain bike\nMountain biking\nMountain bike racing\nBicycle suspension\nGlossary of cycling\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nKlunkerz: a film about mountain bikes at IMDb", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/2016-05-01_10-10-08_enduro-du-lion-belfort.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Brendon_Fairclough_%27Brendog%27_at_Fort_William_2017.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Charyn_Canyon_2019.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Finn_Iles_Losinj_WC_2018.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Himachal_Downhill_Mountain_Bike_Trophy_2014.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/MTB_downhill_18_Stevage.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/MTB_downhill_19_Stevage.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/MTB_downhill_21_Stevage.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Mountain_biking.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Mountain_biking_Downhill.webm", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Mountain_biking_Ladahk%2C_India_43037992_624b2b553f.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Sarajevo_urban_downhill_race.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Shuttle_traffic_%28MTB%29.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "{| align=\"right\" border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\"\n|-valign=\"top\"\n|-\n\n|\n|}\n\nDownhill mountain biking (DH) is a genre of mountain biking practiced on steep, rough terrain that often features jumps, drops, rock gardens and other obstacles.\nDownhill bikes are heavier and stronger than other mountain bikes and feature front and rear suspension with over 8 inches (20 cm) of travel, to glide quickly over rocks and tree roots. In competitive races, a continuous course is defined on each side by a strip of tape. Depending on the format, riders have a single or double attempt to reach the finish line as fast as possible, while remaining between the two tapes designating the course. Riders must choose their line by compromising between the shortest possible line and the line that can be traveled at the highest speed.  If a rider leaves the course by crossing or breaking the tape they must return to the course at the point of exit, unless they do not gain a time advantage from crossing the tape, in which case they can continue with their run.Riders start at intervals, often seeded from slowest to fastest, and courses typically take two to five minutes to complete with winning margins being often less than a second.  Riders are timed with equipment similar to that used in downhill skiing.\n\n"}, "Naturism": {"links": ["Nature worship", "Mooning", "Vera, Spain", "Anglican", "Nudity and sexuality", "Dutch Reformed", "FQN-FCN Union", "Clothed male, naked female", "Rab", "Spain", "Rock Lodge Club", "The Naturist Society", "Max Koch", "Vendays-Montalivet", "History of nudity", "ISBN ", "Walt Whitman", "Sex segregation", "Berlin", "United States", "Self-esteem", "German reunification", "American Gymnosophical Association", "L'Ametlla del Vall\u00e8s", "Naturism in Germany", "List of social nudity places in the United States", "Timeline of social nudity", "Skopelos", "Maslin Beach", "The Daily Telegraph", "French language", "Ratnagiri", "American Association for Nude Recreation", "Indecent exposure", "Brussels", "Kleber Claux", "Naturalism ", "By-law", "Naturism ", "Nudity in film", "Thailand", "Bali", "India", "Nudist colony", "Onsen", "Bodypainting", "Naturism in Portugal", "Adolf Koch", "High Holborn", "Toplessness", "Arnd Kr\u00fcger", "World War II", "Free beach", "Intimate part", "Body image", "List of social nudity places in Asia", "Mark Storey", "Public bathing", "Newshub", "Henry David Thoreau", "Kurt Huldschinsky", "Virtuous circle and vicious circle", "Garden of Eden", "Germany", "San Pedro del Pinatar, Spain", "Rhythm & Vines", "Fraisthorpe", "Gymnosophy", "Comune", "Mykonos", "List of social nudity organizations", "Tourism New Zealand", "Canary Islands", "Matheran", "Softcore pornography", "Lee Baxandall", "Henri Matisse", "British Columbia", "Nude recreation", "Topfreedom in the United States", "Skiathos", "Undress code", "Barcelona", "Koktebel", "Wallis Simpson", "Dress code", "Regions of Italy", "Voyeurism", "King Edward VIII", "Adam and Eve", "Indian Civil Service", "Erich Angermann", "Canada", "List of social nudity places in North America", "Hippie", "Issues in social nudity", "Dunedin", "Model ", "East Germany", "List of social nudity places in Europe", "Young Naturists America", "\u00cele du Levant", "Nudity in music videos", "Otago Daily Times", "Gay naturism", "SUDOC ", "Exhibitionism", "JSTOR ", "Rugby football", "European Court of Human Rights", "Law enforcement in Italy", "Anasyrma", "France", "Stockholm, New Jersey", "Edinburgh Festival", "Andalusia", "Fairlight Cove", "Freik\u00f6rperkultur", "Naked party", "Naturism in New Zealand", "United Kingdom", "Wellington Naturist Club", "Wikimedia Commons", "Andr\u00e9 Durville", "Curlie", "Englischer Garten", "Naturism in France", "Wandervogel", "Les Concluses", "Henry S. Huntington", "Evreux", "Phuket City", "Mi\u0119dzyzdroje", "Adelaide", "Glamour photography", "Ilsley Boone", "ISSN ", "Christian naturism", "List of social nudity places in Africa", "Nude wedding", "Seminyak", "District Courts of India", "The Australian", "TVNZ two", "H&E naturist", "Nambassa", "Gaston Durville", "Intimate parts in Islam", "International Naturist Federation", "Cap d'Agde", "Barefoot", "Uccle", "PMID ", "Crimea", "Stuff ", "Fig leaf", "Nudity in American television", "Finnish culture", "Spencer Tunick", "Steglitz", "Charco del Palo", "Salou", "Imagery of nude celebrities", "Lebensreform", "New Zealand Herald", "Woodstock", "Heliotherapy", "Young Naturists and Nudists America", "Counterculture of the nineteen sixtys", "Sant Antoni de Portmany", "Taboo", "Candaulism", "Doi ", "Supreme Court of Cassation ", "StwoCID ", "Massage", "High Court of New Zealand", "Music festival", "Marc Ellis ", "New Zealand", "List of social nudity places in Oceania", "Pacificism", "Essex", "Streaking", "New Jersey", "Obscenity", "Heinrich Pudor", "Fairlight Glen", "Bangkok", "Leonardo da Vinci", "Nudity", "Sauna", "Topfreedom in Canada", "Hastings", "Pattaya", "Striptease", "Topfreedom", "Nude beach", "Nudity in religion", "CHM Montalivet", "Cultural movement", "Finnish sauna", "Ceramalus v Police", "Clothed female, naked male", "Nude photography ", "Erotic photography", "OCLC ", "Chiangmai", "Personality rights", "Elton Raymond Shaw", "Culture", "Greece", "Breastfeeding in public", "Lanzarote", "Kurt Barthel", "Naturist resort", "Clothing laws by country", "Sex in advertising", "Christian denomination", "List of social nudity places in South America", "Nude photography", "Nude swimming", "Naturist club", "Joie de vivre", "List of places where social nudity is practised", "Andr\u00e9 Gide", "Galdakao", "Bombay", "Sexual objectification", "Social conservatism", "Freedom of expression", "Life satisfaction", "Italy", "Splore", "Naked News", "Playa Zipolite", "Hamburg", "Provinces of Italy", "Auckland", "Stripper", "American League for Physical Culture", "Brighton", "Nude ", "Nudity in combat", "Vitruvian Man", "Bathing", "Modesty", "Wickford", "Lake Senftenberg", "O'Carroll v the United Kingdom", "Paul Bindrim", "Strip search", "Taitung County", "Crete", "Karpathos", "La F\u00e9d\u00e9ration Qu\u00e9b\u00e9coise de Naturisme", "Timeline of non-sexual social nudity", "Feminist stripper", "Body painting", "Gard", "SportsCafe", "Bridlington", "Nude calendar", "Przystanek Woodstock", "Richard Ungewitter", "Gymnosophist", "Wardrobe malfunction", "Taiwan", "MediaWorks New Zealand", "Naked yoga", "Aquitaine", "Nudity and protest", "Women's Freedom League", "Depictions of nudity", "Federation of Canadian Naturists", "Rickets", "British Naturism", "Fauvism", "Kiwiburn", "Nudity clause", "Anarcho-naturism"], "content": "Naturism is a lifestyle of non-sexual social nudity, and the cultural movement which advocates for and defends that lifestyle. Both may also be referred to as nudism. Though the two terms are largely interchangeable, nudism emphasizes the practice of nudity, whereas naturism highlights an attitude favoring harmony with nature and respect for the environment, into which that practice is integrated. That said, naturists come from a range of philosophical and cultural backgrounds; there is no single naturist ideology.\nEthical or philosophical nudism has a long history, with many advocates of the benefits of enjoying nature without clothing. At the turn of the 20th century, organizations emerged to promote social nudity and to establish private campgrounds and resorts for that purpose. Since the 1960s, with the acceptance of public places for clothing-optional recreation, individuals who do not identify themselves as naturists or nudists have been able to casually participate in nude activities. Nude recreation opportunities vary widely around the world, from isolated places known mainly to locals to officially-designated nude beaches and parks.\n\n\n== Definition and lexicology ==\nThe XIV Congress of the International Naturist Federation (INF) held at Agde, France, in 1974 defined naturism as:\n...a way of life in harmony with nature characterised by the practice of communal nudity with the intention of encouraging self-respect, respect for others and for the environment.\nMany contemporary naturists and naturist organisations advocate that the practice of social nudity should not be linked with sexual activity. Some recent studies show that naturism can help grow self-esteem, and thus have a positive impact on having a well-balanced sexuality, too. For various social, cultural, and historical reasons, the lay public, the media, and many contemporary naturists and their organisations have or present a simplified view of the relationship between naturism and sexuality. Current research has begun to explore this complex relationship.The International Naturist Federation explains:\nEach country has its own kind of naturism, and even each club has its own special character, for we too, human beings, have each our own character which is reflected in our surroundings.\nThe usage and definition of these terms varies geographically and historically. Naturism and nudism have the same meaning in the United States, but there is a clear distinction between the two terms in Great Britain.In naturist parlance, the terms \"textile\" or \"textilist\" refer to non-naturist persons, behaviours or facilities (e.g. \"the textile beach starts at the flag\", \"they are a mixed couple \u2013 he is naturist, she is textile\").  \"Textile\" is the predominant term used in the UK (\"textilist\" is unknown in British naturist magazines, including H&E naturist), although some naturists avoid using this term due to perceived negative or derogatory connotations. \"Textilist\" is said to be used interchangeably with \"textile\", but no dictionary definition to this effect exists, nor are there any equivalent examples of use in mainstream literature such as those for textile.\n\n\n== Naturist places and events ==\n\nSome naturists only practice naturism at special events, some only at private clubs or designated beaches, and some only at home. Most, however, will practice their chosen lifestyle wherever and whenever it is convenient and appropriate.\n\n\n=== Naturist facilities ===\n\nAt naturist organised events or venues, clothing is usually optional. At naturist swimming pools or sunbathing places, however, complete nudity is expected (weather permitting). This rule is sometimes a source of controversy among naturists. Staff at a naturist facility are usually required to be clothed due to health and safety regulations.Facilities for naturists are classified in various ways. A landed or members' naturist club is one that owns its own facilities. Non-landed (or travel) clubs meet at various locations, such as private residences, swimming pools, hot springs, landed clubs and resorts, or rented facilities. Landed clubs can be run by members on democratic lines or by one or more owners who make the rules. In either case, they can determine membership criteria and the obligations of members. This usually involves sharing work necessary to maintain or develop the site.\n\nThe international naturist organizations were mainly composed of representatives of landed clubs. Nudist colony is no longer a favored term, and can be used by naturists to address landed clubs that have rigid non-inclusive membership criteria.\nA holiday centre is a facility that specializes in providing apartments, chalets and camping pitches for visiting holidaymakers. A center is run commercially, and visitors are not members and have no say in the management. Most holiday centers expect visitors to hold an INF card (that is, to belong to an INF-affiliated organization), but some have relaxed this requirement, relying on the carrying of a trade card. Holiday centers vary in size. Larger holiday centres may have swimming pools, sports pitches, an entertainment program, kids' clubs, restaurants and supermarkets. Some holiday centres allow regular visitors to purchase their own chalets, and generations of the same families may visit each year. Holiday centres are more tolerant of clothing than members-only clubs; total nudity is usually compulsory in the swimming pools and may be expected on the beaches, while on the football pitches, or in the restaurants in the evening, it is rare.A naturist resort is, to a European, a private property with accommodation and facilities where naturism is the norm. Centre Helio-Marin in Vendays Montalivet, Aquitaine, France (the first naturist resort, established in 1950); the naturist village of Charco del Palo on Lanzarote, Canary Islands; Vera Playa in Spain; and Vritomartis Resort in Greece are examples.\nIn US usage, a naturist resort can mean a holiday centre. Freik\u00f6rperkultur (FKK)\u2014literally translated as 'free body culture'\u2014is the name for the general movement in Germany. The abbreviation is also recognised outside of Germany and can be found on informal signs indicating the direction to a remote naturist beach.\n\n\n=== Nude beaches ===\n\nIn some European countries, such as Denmark, all beaches are clothing optional, while in others like Germany (and experimentally in France) there are naturist sunbathing areas in public parks (e.g., in Munich and Berlin). Beaches in some holiday destinations, such as Crete, are also clothing optional, except some central urban beaches. There are two centrally located clothes-optional beaches in Barcelona. Sweden allows nudity on all beaches.In a survey by The Daily Telegraph, Germans and Austrians were most likely to have visited a nude beach (28%), followed by Norwegians (18%), Spaniards (17%), Australians (17%), and New Zealanders (16%). Of the nationalities surveyed, the Japanese (2%) were the least likely to have visited a nude beach. This result may indicate the lack of nude beaches in Japan; however, the Japanese are open with regard to family bathing nude at home and at onsens (hot springs).\n\n\n=== Festival naturism ===\nFrom Woodstock to Edinburgh, and Nambassa in the southern hemisphere, communal nudity can be seen at music and counterculture festivals.The Nambassa hippie festivals held in New Zealand in the late 1970s were examples of non-sexual naturism. Of the 75,000 patrons who attended the 1979 Nambassa three-day festival, an estimated 35% of attendees spontaneously chose to remove their clothing, preferring complete or partial nudity.\n\nSome nudist festivals are held to celebrate particular days of the year, and activities may include nude bodypainting. One example is the Neptune Day Festival held in Koktebel, Crimea, to depict mythological events. Another is the Festival Nudista Zipolite organized by the Federaci\u00f3n Nudista de M\u00e9xico (Mexican Nudist Federation) held annually since 2016 on the first weekend of February.A few camps organize activities in the nude, such as oil wrestling by camp Gymnasium.\n\n\n=== Summer naturism ===\nNaturism tends to be more common during the warmer summer months. \nSome regions host first-time naturists and people who have recently started to practice the naturist lifestyle.\nOne study noted that some of these people are seasonal naturists who wear clothes during other times of the year.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nNudity in social contexts has been practised in various forms by many cultures and in all time periods. In modern Western society, social nudity is most frequently encountered in the contexts of bathing, swimming and in saunas, whether in single-sex groups, within the family, or with mixed-sex friends, but throughout history and in many contemporary tropical cultures, nudity is a norm at many sports events and competitions.The first known use of the word naturisme occurred in 1778. A French-speaking Belgian, Jean Baptiste Luc Planchon (1734\u20131781), used the term to advocate nudism as a means of improving the hygi\u00e8ne de vie or healthy living.The earliest known naturist club in the western sense of the word was established in British India in 1891. The Fellowship of the Naked Trust was founded by Charles Edward Gordon Crawford, a widower who was a District and Sessions Judge for the Bombay Civil Service. The commune was based in Matheran and had just three members at the beginning: Crawford and two sons of an Anglican missionary, Andrew and Kellogg Calderwood. The commune fell apart when Crawford was transferred to Ratnagiri; he died soon after in 1894.\n\nIn 1902, a series of philosophical papers was published in Germany by Dr. Heinrich Pudor under the pseudonym Heinrich Scham, who coined the term Nacktkultur. In 1906 he went on to write a three-volume treatise with his new term as its title, which discussed the benefits of nudity in co-education and advocated participating in sports while being free of cumbersome clothing. Richard Ungewitter (Nacktheit, 1906, Nackt, 1908, etc.) proposed that combining physical fitness, sunlight, and fresh air bathing, and then adding the nudist philosophy, contributed to mental and psychological fitness, good health, and an improved moral-life view. Major promoters of these ideas included Adolf Koch and Hans Suren. Germany published the first journal of nudism between 1902 and 1932.The wide publication of those papers, and others, contributed to an explosive worldwide growth of nudism in which nudists participated in various social, recreational, and physical fitness activities in the nude. The first organized club for nudists on a large scale, Freilichtpark (Free-Light Park), was opened near Hamburg in 1903 by Paul Zimmerman.\nIn 1919, German doctor Kurt Huldschinsky discovered that exposure to sunlight helped to cure rickets in many children, causing sunlight to be associated with improved health.\n\nIn France in the early 20th century, the brothers Gaston and Andr\u00e9 Durville, both physicians, studied the effects of psychology, nutrition, and environment on health and healing. They became convinced of the importance of natural foods and the natural environment on human well-being and health. They named this concept in French: naturisme. The profound effect of clean air and sunlight on human bodies became evident to them and so nudity became a part of their naturism.Naturism became a more widespread phenomenon in the 1920s in Germany, the United Kingdom, France and other European countries and spread to the United States where it became established in the 1930s.By 1951, the various national federations united to form the International Naturist Federation. Some naturists preferred not to join clubs, and after 1945, pressure arose to designate beaches for naturist use.\nFrom the middle of the 20th century, with changing leisure patterns, commercial organisations began opening holiday resorts to attract naturists who expected the same \u2013 or better \u2013 standards of comfort and amenity offered to non-naturists. More recently, naturist holiday options have expanded to include cruises.In the early 21st century many organised clubs saw a decline in attendance by young people, which worried many naturists about the future of the movement. The clubs' aging memberships may have put younger people off joining in a vicious circle of decline. A rise in social conservatism, re-asserting a nudity taboo, may have also contributed to the decline. However, since tolerance for nudity in general is increasing over time, and is higher among younger generations, an alternative hypothesis is that younger naturists no longer feel they need to join a club or visit a resort in order to practise naturism. Active recruitment of younger members is being pursued by some organisations. The phenomenon varies by country, with, for example, naturism in France experiencing steady growth in a younger demographic during the 2010s.\n\n\n== Writers ==\nNaturism was part of a literary movement in the late 1800s (see the writings of Andr\u00e9 Gide) that also influenced the art movements of the time, specifically Henri Matisse and other Fauve painters. This movement was based on the French concept of joie de vivre, the idea of reveling freely in physical sensations and direct experiences and a spontaneous approach to life.\nHeinrich Pudor wrote on methods to improve social hygiene in his book Nackende Menschen und Jauchzen der Zukunft (Naked people and the future of Mankind) and then Nacktkultur (Nude Culture). It prescribes an austere lifestyle and nudity.\nPaul Zimmermann opened the Freilicht Park in L\u00fcbeck which was open to those who subscribed to Nacktkultur principles.\nRichard Ungewitter wrote Die Nacktheit (Nakedness) which sold 90,000 copies, prescribed a similar Utopian lifestyle, where everyone would be nude, eat only vegetables and abstain from alcohol and tobacco. In his Utopia, everyone was to be Germanic with blue eyes and blonde hair.\nAdolf Koch, a left-wing primary-school teacher, sought to use social nudity to free the people from \"authority fixated conditioning which held proletarians in deference of their masters: parental authority, paternalism of the church, the mass media and organs of law and order.\" He used Organic-Rhythmic exercises in Berlin schools in the 1920s. In 1932 there were about 100,000 Germans involved with naturism, of which 70,000 were in Koch's K\u00f6rpersch\u00fclen schools.\nHans Sur\u00e9n taught nude gymnastics to soldiers for five years, and on being forced to leave the army, he wrote (in 1924) Mensch und die Sonne (Men and the Sun) which ran to 61 reprints.\nAmerican writers Walt Whitman and Henry David Thoreau both wrote of nudity within the natural environment.\n\n\n== Health ==\nNaturist activities can have positive psychological benefits including greater life satisfaction, more positive body image, and higher self-esteem. Social nudity leads to acceptance in spite of differences in age, body shape, fitness, and health.\n\n\n== Religion ==\n\nChristian naturism includes various members associated with most denominations. Although beliefs vary, a common theme is that much of Christianity has misinterpreted the events regarding the Garden of Eden, and that God was displeased with Adam and Eve for covering their bodies with fig leaves.\n\n\n== Europe ==\n \nIn most European countries, nudity is not explicitly forbidden. Whether it is tolerated on beaches which are not marked as official nudist beaches varies greatly. The only country with substantially different laws is Denmark, where beach nudity is explicitly allowed on all beaches, except for two in the far west of the country.\n\n\n=== Belgium ===\nOrganized naturism in Belgium began in 1924 when engineer Joseph-Paul Swenne founded the Belgian League of Heliophilous Propaganda (usually abbreviated to H\u00e9lios) in Uccle near Brussels. This was followed four years later by De Spar, founded by Jozef Geertz and hosted on the country estate of entrepreneur Oswald Johan de Schampelaere. Belgian naturism was influenced in equal part by French naturism and German Freik\u00f6rperkultur. Today Belgian naturists are represented by the Federatie van Belgische Naturisten (FBN).\n\n\n=== Croatia ===\n\nCroatia is world-famous for naturism, which accounts for about 15% of its tourism industry. It was also the first European country to develop commercial naturist resorts. During a 1936 Adriatic cruise, King Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson stopped at a beach on the island of Rab where King Edward obtained a special permission from the local government to swim naked, thereby designating it the world's first official nude beach.\n\n\n=== Finland ===\n\nIn Finnish culture, nudism is considered to be a relatively normal way to live. It is not uncommon to see entire families spending time together naked. Families may be naked while bathing in a sauna, swimming in a pool, or playing on a beach, and it's not unusual to see children playing naked in a family yard for example. Nudity as a whole is considered less taboo than in many other countries.\n\n\n=== France ===\n\nMarcel Kienn\u00e9 de Mongeot is credited with starting naturism in France in 1920. His family had suffered from tuberculosis, and he saw naturism as a cure and a continuation of the traditions of the ancient Greeks. In 1926 he started the magazine Vivre int\u00e9gralement (later called Vivre) and the first French naturist club, Sparta Club, at Garambouville, near Evreux. The court action that he initiated established that nudism was legal on private property that was fenced and screened.Drs. Andr\u00e9 and Gaston Durville bought 70 hectares (170 acres) on the \u00cele du Levant where they established the village of H\u00e9liopolis, which was open to the public. In 1925 Dr Fran\u00e7ois Fougerat de David de Lastours wrote a thesis on heliotherapy, and in that year opened the Club gymnique de France. In 1936 the naturist movement was officially recognised.Albert and Christine Lecocq were active members of many of these clubs, but they left after disagreements and in 1944 founded the Club du Soleil with members in 84 cities. Four years later they founded the F\u00e9d\u00e9ration Fran\u00e7aise de Naturisme (FFN); in 1949 they started the magazine, Vie au Soleil; and in 1950 they opened the CHM Montalivet, the world's first naturist holiday centre, where the INF was formed.\n\n\n=== Germany ===\n\nGerman naturism (Freik\u00f6rperkultur, FKK) was part of the Lebensreform movement and the Wandervogel youth movement of 1896, from Steglitz, Berlin, which promoted ideas of fitness and vigour. At the same time, doctors of the Natural Healing Movement were using heliotherapy, treating diseases such as tuberculosis, rheumatism, and scrofula with exposure to sunlight.Nacktkultur, a term coined in 1903 by Heinrich Pudor, connected nudity, vegetarianism and social reform, and was practised in a network of 200 members clubs. The movement gained prominence in the 1920s by offering a health giving life-style with Utopian ideals. Germany published the first naturist journal between 1902 and 1932, but it became politicised by radical socialists who believed it would lead to classlessness and a break down of society. It eventually became associated with pacificism.In 1926, Adolf Koch established a school of naturism in Berlin, encouraging a mixing of the sexes, open air exercises, and a programme of \"sexual hygiene\". In 1929 the Berlin school hosted the first International Congress on Nudity.After World War II, East Germans were free to practice naturism, chiefly at beaches rather than clubs (private organizations were regarded as potentially subversive). Naturism became a large element in DDR politics. The Proletarische Freik\u00f6rperkulturbewegung subsection of the Workers Sports Organisation had 60,000 members. Since reunification there are many clubs, parks and beaches open to naturists, though nudity has become less common in the former eastern zone. Germans are typically the most commonly seen visitors at nude beaches in France and around Europe.\n\n\n=== Greece ===\nPublic nudity is prohibited in Greece and there are no official nude beaches. There are, however, numerous unofficial nude beaches especially on the islands frequented by tourists, like Crete, Mykonos or Karpathos, and also on smaller islands like Skopelos or Skiathos where nudity is tolerated, usually at the more remote ends or secluded areas of beaches.On the other hand, toplessness is not illegal and is widely practiced by locals and tourists alike as there are no cultural taboos against it.\n\n\n=== Italy ===\nPublic nudity is generally prohibited in Italy as a civil offence and can be punished with high fines (see the German Wikivoyage), with the exception of the official naturist beaches and places where there's a tradition of naturist attendance, as shown by a recent absolution sentence. Furthermore, in the recent decade, some regions have created laws to help the naturist tourism industry, and actually there are thirteen official naturist beaches in all Italy, where nudity is officially guaranteed by administrative acts. On all other public beaches in Italy, police can potentially impose substantial fines. On the other hand, female toplessness has been officially legalized (in a nonsexual context) in all public beaches and swimming pools throughout the country (unless otherwise specified by region, province or municipality by-laws) on March 20, 2000, when the Supreme Court of Cassation (through sentence No. 3557) has determined that the exposure of the nude female breast, after several decades, is now considered a \"commonly accepted behavior\", and therefore, has \"entered into the social costume\".\n\n\n=== Netherlands ===\nThe oldest Dutch naturist association is Zon en Leven (\"Sun and Life\"), founded in 1946 with the aim of promoting healthy physical and mental development and a natural way of life. The national association is Naturisten Federatie Nederland (NFN), which in 2017 adopted the new brand name Bloot Gewoon! (\"Simply Naked\") in an effort to become more accessible to casual naturists and strengthen the acceptance of nude recreation.In general, Dutch people are very tolerant of beach nudity, as long as it does not impact on others, or involve inappropriate staring or sexual behaviour. Topless sunbathing is permitted on most beaches except where prohibited by signage.\n\n\n=== Portugal ===\n\nThe Federa\u00e7\u00e3o Portuguesa de Naturismo (Portuguese Naturist Federation) or FPN was founded on 1 March 1977 in Lisbon. In the 21st century, naturism is considered a tolerated practice, whereas there are many officially-designated nudist beaches.\n\n\n=== Poland ===\n\nIn today's Poland naturism is practiced in number of the seaside and inland beaches. Most Polish beaches are actually clothing-optional rather than naturist. One such beach is Mi\u0119dzyzdroje-Lubiewo.\n\n\n=== Spain ===\n\nPublic nudity in Spain is not illegal since there is no law banning its practice. Spanish legislation foresees felony for exhibitionism but restricts its scope to obscene exposure in front of children or mentally impaired individuals, i.e. with sexual connotation. There are, however, some municipalities (like San Pedro del Pinatar) where public nudity has been banned by means of by-laws. Other municipalities (like Barcelona, Salou, Platja de Palma and Sant Antoni de Portmany) have used similar provisions to regulate partial nudity, requiring people to cover their torsos on the streets. Some naturist associations have appealed these by-laws on the grounds that a fundamental right (freedom of expression, as they understand nudism to be self-expression) cannot be regulated with such a mechanism. Some courts have ruled in favour of nudist associations. Nudism in Spain is normally practised by the seaside, on beaches or small coves with a tradition of naturism. In Vera (Andalusia), there is a wide residential area formed by nudist urbanisations. Nudist organisations may organise some activities elsewhere in inner territory.\nLegal provisions regarding partial nudity (or toplessness) are analogous to those regarding full nudity, but social tolerance towards toplessness is higher. The law does not require women to cover their breasts in public swimming, or on any beach in Spain. The governments of the municipalities of Galdakao and L'Ametlla del Vall\u00e8s legalized female toplessness on their public pools in March 2016 and June 2018, respectively.\n\n\n=== United Kingdom ===\n\nIn the United Kingdom, the first official nudist club was established in Wickford, Essex, in 1924. According to Michael Farrar, writing for British Naturism, the club adopted the name \"Moonella Group\" from the name of the owner of the ground and called its site The Camp. Moonella, who was still living in 1965 but whose identity remains to be discovered, had inherited a house with land in 1923 and made it available to certain members of the New Gymnosophy Society. This society was founded a few years before by H.C. Booth, M.H. Sorensen and Rex Wellbye under the name of the English Gymnosophical Society. It met for discussions at the Minerva Cafe at 144 High Holborn in London, the headquarters of the Women's Freedom League. Those who were permitted to join the Moonella Group were carefully selected, and the club was run by a leadership of the original members, all of whom had club names to preserve their anonymity. The club closed in 1926 because of construction on adjacent land.By 1943 there were a number of \"sun clubs\", and together they formed the British Sun Bathers Association, or BSBA. In 1954 a group of clubs unhappy with the way the BSBA was being run split to form the Federation of British Sun Clubs, or FBSC. In 1961, the BSBA Annual Conference agreed that the term nudist was inappropriate and should be discarded in favour of naturist. The two organisations rivalled each other before eventually coming together again in 1964 as the Central Council for British Naturism, or CCBN. This organisation structure has remained much the same but it is now called British Naturism, which is often abbreviated to BN.The first official nude beach was opened at Fairlight Glen in Covehurst Bay near Hastings in 1978 (not to be confused with Fairlight Cove, which is 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) to the east), followed later by the beaches at Brighton and Fraisthorpe. Bridlington opened in April 1980.\n\n\n== Oceania ==\n\n\n=== Australia ===\n\nAustralia's first naturist club was founded in Sydney in 1931 by the French-born anarchist and pacifist Kleber Claux. In 1975, the southern half of Maslin Beach, south of Adelaide, was declared Australia's first official nude beach. The beach is almost 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) long, so the area reserved for nude bathing is away from other beach users.\n\n\n=== New Zealand ===\n\nNudist clubs (called sun clubs) were established in Dunedin and Auckland in early 1938; the Auckland Sun Group went into recess shortly afterwards due to the outbreak of World War II. In 1958 the allied nudist clubs of New Zealand established the New Zealand Sunbathing Association, later renamed the New Zealand Naturist Federation. The Federation includes 17 affiliated clubs with a total membership (in 2012) of 1,600 people. In 2016 the Federation, in conjunction with Tourism New Zealand, hosted the World Congress of the International Naturist Federation at the Wellington Naturist Club, marking the second time the Congress had ever been held in the Southern Hemisphere.Outside formal naturist organizations, social nudity is practised in a variety of contexts in New Zealand culture. It is a feature of many summer music festivals, including Convergence, Kiwiburn, Luminate, Rhythm & Vines, and Splore, in a tradition going back to Nambassa in the late 1970s. It is also associated with the culture of rugby, most prominently in the nude rugby match held in Dunedin each winter from 2002 to 2014 (and sporadically thereafter) as pre-match entertainment for the first professional rugby game of the season, and in the mock public holiday \"National Nude Day\", an event in which viewers of the TV2 talk show SportsCafe were invited \u2013 chiefly by former rugby player Marc Ellis, the show's most irrepressibly comic presenter \u2013 to send in photos and video of themselves performing daily activities in the nude.While a large proportion of New Zealanders are tolerant of nudity, especially on beaches, there remains a contingent who consider it obscene. Naturists who engage in casual public nudity, even in places where this is lawful, risk being reported to police by disapproving people. Legally, nudity is permissible on any beach where it is \"known to occur\", in consequence of which New Zealand has no official nude beaches. The indecent exposure provision of the Summary Offences Act is, in practice, reserved for cases of public sexual gratification, but public nudity may still be prosecuted under the \"offensive behaviour\" provision.\n\n\n== North America ==\n\n\n=== Canada ===\n\nIn Canada individuals around the country became interested in nudism, skinny-dipping, and physical culture in the early part of the 20th century. Sunbathing & Health, a magazine targeted toward Canadian naturists and which occasionally carried local news, began publication after 1940. There were scattered groups of naturists in several cities during the 1930s and 1940s, and some of these groups attracted enough interest to form clubs on private land. The most significant clubs were the Van Tan Club, formed in 1939, which is still operating in North Vancouver, BC, and the Sun Air Club, in Ontario.\nCanadians who served in the military during the Second World War met like-minded souls from across the country, and often visited clubs while in Europe. They were a ready pool of recruits for post-war organizers. A few years later, the wave of post-war immigration brought many Europeans with their own extensive experience, and they not only swelled the ranks of membership, but often formed their own clubs, helping to expand nudism from coast to coast.Most clubs eventually united in the Canadian Sunbathing Association, which affiliated with the American Sunbathing Association in 1954. Several disagreements between eastern and western members of the CSA resulted in its division into the Western Canadian Sunbathing Association (WCSA) and the Eastern Canadian Sunbathing Association (ECSA) in 1960. The ECSA endured much in-fighting over the next fifteen years, which led to its official demise in 1978. The WCSA changed its name to the American Association for Nude Recreation \u2013 Western Canadian Region, a region of the American Association for Nude Recreation (AANR), which itself was formerly known as the ASA.In 1977 the F\u00e9d\u00e9ration qu\u00e9b\u00e9coise de naturisme (FQN) was founded in Quebec by Michel Va\u00efs, who had experienced European naturism at Montalivet. In 1985 the Federation of Canadian Naturists (FCN) was formed with the support of the FQN. In 1988 the FQN and FCN formed the FQN-FCN Union as the official Canadian representative in the International Naturist Federation.\n\n\n=== Mexico ===\n\nFederaci\u00f3n Nudista de M\u00e9xico is a members organization with both individual and organization members.  It promotes social nudity in Mexico, and it is recognized by the International Naturist Federation as the official national naturist organization in that country.\nAs of 2016, Playa Zipolite is Mexico's first and only legal public nude beach. A free beach and unofficially nudist for more than 50 years, this beach is reputed to be the best place for nudism in the country. The numerous nude sunbathers, and the long tradition, make it safe for nudism and naturism.  Annually since 2016, on the first weekend of February, Zipolite has hosted Festival Nudista Zipolite that in 2019 attracted 7,000-8,000 visitors.\n\n\n=== United States ===\n\nKurt Barthel founded the American League for Physical Culture in 1929 and organized the first nudist event. In about 1930 they organized the American Gymnosophical Association. Barthel founded America's first official nudist camp, Sky Farm in New Jersey, in May, 1932. Around 1932, the AGA established the Rock Lodge Club as a nudist facility in Stockholm, New Jersey and Ilsley Boone, a Dutch Reformed minister, formed the Christian naturism movement. Naturism began to expand nationwide. Nudism venues were alcohol-free until 1970.The American Association for Nude Recreation (AANR) is the national naturist organization. Arnd Kr\u00fcger compared nudists in Germany and the United States and came to the conclusion that in Germany the racial aspects (Zuchtwahl) were important for the breakthrough (e.g. the Commanding General of the Army served as patron for nudists events), while in the U.S. nudism was far more commercial and had thus more difficulties.In 2008, Florida Young Naturists held their first Naked Bash, which has been repeated multiple times per year and has grown into one of the largest young naturist gatherings in the world.In 2009, a campaign to promote Nudism in the United States occurred with an effort by the AANR to record the largest simultaneous Skinny Dip at several U.S. Clubs and beaches, which occurred on July 11 of that year.In 2010, a new organization formed called Young Naturists and Nudists America, which was mostly focused around the younger generation, as well as social issues, such as body image. Young Naturists and Nudists America closed in 2017.\n\n\n== Asia ==\n\n\n=== Indonesia ===\nIn the seventies, nudity on Bali's remote and deserted beaches was common, but with the massive growth of tourism this practice has disappeared. In 2002, nudity was declared illegal on Petitenget Beach, the last beach in Seminyak that tolerated discreet nudity. Individuals began to practice nudity in private villas and resorts. Laki Uma Villa, the first naturist facility to open, was for gay men only. Bali au Naturel, the first adult-only nudist resort for both genders, opened its doors in 2004. It subsequently expanded from 3 to 15 rooms and added two more swimming pools.\nIndonesia has an underground naturist community who defy the laws against public nudity.\n\n\n=== Thailand ===\nNudism was successfully introduced in 2012 by The Thailand Naturist Association in Pattaya (Chan Resort), and five more nudist resorts have been created across Thailand: Barefeet Resort in Bangkok, Lemon Tree in Phuket, Oriental Village in Chiangmai, Phuan Naturist Village in Huay Yai, and Peace Blue Naturist resort in Phukett, all members of the Naturist Association of Thailand and other international naturist organizations.\n\n\n== Naturist media ==\n\n\n=== Magazines ===\nMagazines published by, for or purportedly about naturists can be grouped:\n\nMagazines published by an \"official\" national organisation, such as BN (British Naturism), Going Natural/Au naturel (FCN/FQN), Nude & Natural Magazine (The Naturist Society), gonatural (New Zealand Naturist Federation).\nIndependent magazines published for naturists, such as Naturally, H&E naturist and TAN (acronym of The Australian Naturist).\nMagazines that print photographs only or primarily of young female professional models, which are disapproved of by many naturists and non-naturists alike.Magazines in the second and, occasionally, third groups feature naturist editorial and advertising. While some naturists argue over which magazines belonged in which of these categories, these views may change as publishers and editors change. Many clubs and groups have benefited from magazines which, while not exclusively or even predominantly naturist in character, made naturist information available to many who would not otherwise have been aware of it. The information and advertising provided online, along with the wide availability of free online porn, has meant the disappearance of old-style \"skin\" magazines presenting significant glamour content masquerading as, or alongside, naturist content. Naturist magazines have to appeal strongly to naturists to succeed; they cannot sit on the fence between naturism and glamour. Some naturists feel that the worthwhile editorial content in some magazines is not a fair balance for the disapproved-of photographic content.\n\n\n=== Photography, films and videos ===\n\nAlthough photographing others when they are nude in a public place may not violate their rights to privacy, individuals retain the personality rights to their own image in many countries. If so, recognizable photographs of any person cannot be published without a permission.\nSome naturist clubs have been willing to allow filming by the media on their grounds, though content that proved not to be of genuine naturism can end up being parodied by the media as the norm.Some commercial 'naturist' DVDs are dominated by imagery of naked children. Such material can be marketed in ways that appear to appeal directly to paedophile inclinations, and ownership of these DVDs (and their earlier video cassette incarnations) has resulted in successful British prosecutions for possession of indecent images of children. One case was appealed, unsuccessfully, to the European Court of Human Rights. The precedents set by the court cases mean that possession in Britain of any naturist image of a child is, potentially, grounds for prosecution.\nPhoto shoots, including major high-profile works by Spencer Tunick, are done in public places including beaches.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== Footnotes ==\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Books ===\n\n\n=== Journal articles ===\n\n\n=== Newspaper articles ===\n\n\n=== Websites ===\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nCarr-Gomm, Philip (2013). A brief history of nakedness. London: Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-78023-022-1. OCLC 906832943.\nClinard, Marshall B (2019). \"Ch. 1: The Example of Nudism.\". Sociology of deviant behavior. Boston, MA, USA: Cengage. ISBN 978-1-337-88564-5. OCLC 1019751074.\nCrick, Malcolm (2016). Resplendent sites, discordant voices: sri lankans and international tourism. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-138-99728-8. OCLC 953428622.\nHarp, Stephen L. (2011). \"Demanding Vacation au naturel : European Nudism and Postwar Municipal Development on the French Riviera\". The Journal of Modern History. 83 (3): 513\u2013543. doi:10.1086/660365. ISSN 0022-2801. JSTOR 10.1086/660365. S2CID 144401533. Retrieved 20 March 2021 \u2013 via University of Chicago Press Journals.\nHartman, William E. (1991). Nudist society : the controversial study of the clothes-free naturist movement in America (Rev. and updated ed.). Los Angeles: Elysium Growth Press. ISBN 1-55599-041-X. OCLC 23940079.\nHoffman, Brian S (2015). Naked: a cultural history of American nudism. New York: NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4465-9. OCLC 951103647.\nMonterrubio, Juan Carlos; Jaurand, Emmanuel (5 May 2014). \"Les soci\u00e9t\u00e9s locales face au tourisme nudiste: R\u00e9sultats d'une enqu\u00eate qualitative sur la c\u00f4te pacifique du Mexique\". T\u00e9oros (in French) (published 2009). 28 (2): 83\u201392. doi:10.7202/1024811ar. ISSN 1923-2705.\nParmelee, Maurice (2012). Nudism in modern life. Muller Press. ISBN 978-1-4474-5626-1. OCLC 935087781.\nTheobald, William F (2005). \"Ch. 7: Alternative tourism: a comparative analysis of meaning and impact\". Global tourism (3rd ed.). Burlington, MA: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 123. ISBN 978-1-4175-4459-2. OCLC 56731935.\n\n\n== External links ==\nInternational Naturist Federation\nFederatie van het Belgisch Naturisme (FBN)\nFederaci\u00f3n Nudista de M\u00e9xico (FNM)\nNaturist Living Show\nNaturism at Curlie\nUK Crown Prosecution Service - Nudity in Public\nFederazione Naturista Italiana", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/At_the_nudist_beach.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Badstuga%2C_efter_illustration_i_Acerbis_Travels%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Beach_nudism.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Beautiful_sunrise_from_Taitung_beach.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0815-302%2C_FKK-Str%C3%A4nde_des_Senftenberger_Erholungsgebietes.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/FYN_06.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/FYN_09.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Human.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Human_standing_nude_on_the_third_peak_of_Stawamus_Chief_%28DSCF7840%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Koch%2C_Max_%281854-1925%29_-_1897_-_Freilicht_-_vmp_01.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Mergefrom.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Naked_woman_in_inner_city_3.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Nude_couple_in_Barcelona%2C_Spain_-_20070928.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Nude_hiking_in_Gard.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Nudist_camp_Valalta.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Nudist_tea_for_two.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Outdoor_bathing_at_Jhiben_Hot_Spring_20121110.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/People_pix_in_the_village.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Posing_nude_at_Burning_Man.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Skinny_dipping_hippy_girls.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/WestEndZipoliteNudes.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Woodstock_Poland_2014_--_FKK.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg"], "summary": "Naturism is a lifestyle of non-sexual social nudity, and the cultural movement which advocates for and defends that lifestyle. Both may also be referred to as nudism. Though the two terms are largely interchangeable, nudism emphasizes the practice of nudity, whereas naturism highlights an attitude favoring harmony with nature and respect for the environment, into which that practice is integrated. That said, naturists come from a range of philosophical and cultural backgrounds; there is no single naturist ideology.\nEthical or philosophical nudism has a long history, with many advocates of the benefits of enjoying nature without clothing. At the turn of the 20th century, organizations emerged to promote social nudity and to establish private campgrounds and resorts for that purpose. Since the 1960s, with the acceptance of public places for clothing-optional recreation, individuals who do not identify themselves as naturists or nudists have been able to casually participate in nude activities. Nude recreation opportunities vary widely around the world, from isolated places known mainly to locals to officially-designated nude beaches and parks."}, "Nude_psychotherapy": {"links": ["Public relations", "American Psychological Association", "Henry S. Huntington", "Nudity in music videos", "Naked yoga", "Model ", "Nudity and protest", "History of nudity", "Topfreedom", "Timeline of social nudity", "Nudity clause", "Nude photography", "Nude wedding", "Feminist stripper", "Nudity in combat", "List of places where social nudity is practised", "Encounter group", "Intimate part", "Glamour photography", "Group psychotherapy", "Nudity", "Clothed male, naked female", "Nude calendar", "Consensual", "Dress code", "ISBN ", "Toplessness", "Nude recreation", "Richard Ungewitter", "Sex segregation", "Naturist", "Gymnosophy", "Clothed female, naked male", "Elton Raymond Shaw", "Kurt Barthel", "Erotic photography", "Stripper", "Naturism", "List of social nudity places in Asia", "Deer Park, California", "Nudity in film", "Nude swimming", "Body painting", "Nude photography ", "Topfreedom in the United States", "Undress code", "Paul Bindrim", "Freik\u00f6rperkultur", "List of social nudity places in Oceania", "Heinrich Pudor", "Candaulism", "Naked News", "Wardrobe malfunction", "Intimate parts in Islam", "Canadian Film Board", "Ilsley Boone", "Modesty", "Nudity and sexuality", "Breastfeeding in public", "Anarcho-naturism", "Naked party", "Voyeurism", "Nudist camp", "Nudity in religion", "Howard Warren", "Indecent exposure", "Nude beach", "List of social nudity places in Europe", "PMID ", "Doi ", "Streaking", "List of social nudity places in North America", "Nudity in American television", "Barefoot", "Strip search", "Striptease", "Topfreedom in Canada", "Massage", "Exhibitionism", "Naturist resort", "List of social nudity organizations", "Christian naturism", "Imagery of nude celebrities", "Abraham Maslow", "List of social nudity places in Africa", "Obscenity", "Anasyrma", "Sauna", "Depictions of nudity", "Mooning", "Sexual objectification", "Public bathing", "Softcore pornography", "Issues in social nudity", "List of social nudity places in South America", "Gay naturism", "Sex in advertising", "Lee Baxandall", "Nude ", "Clothing laws by country", "ISSN ", "The New York Times"], "content": "Nude psychotherapy is the use of non-sexual social nudity as an intentional means to improve the participant's psychological health.\nThe field began in the 1930s with psychological studies of the effects of social nudity on the lives of naturists. It developed in the 1960s along with the encounter group movement as a way to challenge preconceptions and promote intimacy and trust, but suffered a decline in the 1980s. It is still used by some organizations that offer participatory workshops on intimacy, sex and love.\n\n\n== Origins ==\nIn 1932 a Princeton psychologist Howard Warren, who was president of the American Psychological Association, spent a week at a German nudist camp. A year later, he published a paper entitled Social Nudism and the Body Taboo, which was a largely sympathetic consideration of the social and psychological significance of nudism. Warren described nudism in therapeutic terms, pointing out its 'easy camaraderie' and lack of 'self-consciousness' . He noted an 'improvement in general health' among participants.  Other psychologists published further papers on the effect of nudity in the 1940s and 1950s.\n\n\n=== 1960s ===\nIn 1967, a group psychotherapist in California, Paul Bindrim, noticed that towards the end of a long period of group psychotherapy called a \"marathon\", the participants would be sufficiently open and trusting of each other to feel comfortable enough to be spontaneously naked in each other's company. Bindrim theorized that intentionally introducing nudity in the early stages of a group might accelerate the process of mutual trust and emotional openness. Bindrim corresponded with Abraham Maslow on the subject of nude psychotherapy groups, which Maslow, who was then-president of the American Psychological Association, supported. Maslow supported the idea stating he saw the social taboo on nudity to be a matter of custom rather than of any ethical or moral importance. Maslow warned that he thought discretion, sensitivity and caution would have to be present in any execution of the idea. Maslow later cautioned that the sensation of nudity and sensual pleasure should not be mistaken by participants for the genuine achievement of a psychological \"high\" and feared it might impede the development of real empathy between individuals.In 1967, Bindrim conducted his first nude workshop in Deer Park, California. There were typically 15 to 25 participants. Bindrim developed his nude encounter marathons into a weekend workshop using nudity and swimming pools, which was recorded in the 1971 documentary film entitled Out of Touch by the Canadian Film Board and produced by Bindrim. The American Psychological Association's Ethics Committee launched an investigation of Bindrim, reportedly prompted by conservative politicians. However,  due to the cultural climate of the late 1960s and the fact that the nudity was consensual, the  investigation was later dropped. Bindrim became increasingly sensitive to the public relations obstacle posed by the phrase \"nude psychotherapy\" causing him recast his approach and by the late 1970s his promotional materials made only a passing reference to nudity. With the change in psychotherapeutic fashion as the 1970s progressed, the decision was eventually made to remove the emphasis on nudity altogether. Other contemporary researchers found that social nudity is not the sexually-charged practice that convention imagines it to be.\n\n\n== Today ==\nThe Human Awareness Institute, an organization that offers participatory workshops on intimacy, sex and love continues to conduct group sessions in which the participants have the option to be naked.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nBaring The Soul: Paul Bindrim, Abraham Maslow and 'Nude Psychotherapy'  by Ian Nicholson - full text, pdf", "images": [], "summary": "Nude psychotherapy is the use of non-sexual social nudity as an intentional means to improve the participant's psychological health.\nThe field began in the 1930s with psychological studies of the effects of social nudity on the lives of naturists. It developed in the 1960s along with the encounter group movement as a way to challenge preconceptions and promote intimacy and trust, but suffered a decline in the 1980s. It is still used by some organizations that offer participatory workshops on intimacy, sex and love."}, "Public_relations": {"links": ["Manifesto", "Boycott", "Aldous Huxley", "Flag-waving", "Brand management", "Whataboutism", "Propaganda", "Vil\u00e9m Flusser", "Models of communication", "George Gerbner", "Government relations", "Charitable organization", "Counterculture", "Northern Kentucky University", "Obfuscation", "Sales promotion", "The Lonely Crowd", "Infomercial", "Reputation management", "Sex in advertising", "Leadership", "Criticism of advertising", "James E. Grunig", "Cancel culture", "Non-apology apology", "International communication", "David Cameron", "Symbol", "Harold Innis", "False flag", "Meaning ", "Cosmopolitan ", "Promotional model", "Crisis communication", "Media proprietor", "Deplatforming", "Anonymity", "Subversion", "Advertising", "StwoCID ", "Pop music", "Communication theory", "Organizational communication", "Walter Lippmann", "List of public relations journals", "Businesses", "Promotion ", "Speech", "Text and conversation theory", "Utah Transit Authority", "Fortune five hundred", "Hoax", "Loyalty marketing", "Psychological manipulation", "Machiavellianism ", "Public Relations Journal", "Social engineering ", "Rally 'round the flag effect", "Media bias in the United States", "Propaganda ", "C-level", "Sound bite", "Closed-loop communication", "Walter Fisher ", "Robert T. 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Adorno", "Risk communication", "Walter Benjamin", "Nick Morgan", "Website", "Writing", "Public Relations Society of America", "Irving Janis", "Wilbur Schramm", "Atrocity propaganda", "Media relations", "Rockefeller family", "Information", "Organization", "Crisis management", "George Herbert Mead", "Deception", "Cold calling", "Public sector information", "Media studies", "Erving Goffman", "U.S. Forest Service", "Edward Bernays", "Public information officer", "Communication studies", "Corporate identity", "New media", "Ivy Lee", "Study of global communication", "Racial hoax", "Vance Packard", "Max Wertheimer", "Rhetorical", "Internet activism", "Fifth column", "Andrew B. Lippman", "Social media", "Charles Sanders Peirce", "Film censorship", "Door-to-door", "Doublespeak", "Journalism", "Protest", "Interview", "Interpersonal communication", "Promotional merchandise", "Political satire", "Censorship", "Buzzword", "Appeal to fear", "Gregory Bateson", "History of communication", "Petition", "Visual communication", "Book censorship", "Lying press", "Social science", "Health communication", "Doi ", "Jean Baudrillard", "Opinion leadership", "Virus hoax", "Brand", "Jacques Ranci\u00e8re", "Forgery", "Culture jamming", "Literary forgery", "Internal communications", "Marshall McLuhan", "Dumbing down", "Freedom of speech", "Deborah Tannen", "Hacktivism", "Narcotizing dysfunction", "Lifestyle ", "United Kingdom", "Wendell Johnson", "Sales", "Communicology", "Communication", "Media democracy", "twenty-four-hour news cycle", "Chartered Institute of Public Relations", "Ad hominem", "Managing the news", "Nora C. Quebral", "Mediated cross-border communication", "Pens\u00e9e unique", "Self-censorship", "Loaded language", "Intercultural communication", "Post-Fordism", "Half-truth", "Youth activism", "Indoctrination", "Reputation", "Spin ", "Historical revisionism", "Media franchise", "Conway, South Carolina", "Nonverbal communication", "Media ethics", "Companies", "Meta-communication", "Political campaign", "Disinformation", "Public interest", "Corporate censorship", "Nongovernmental organizations", "Product demonstration", "History of public relations", "Audience", "Media bias", "Marketing communications", "Media activism", "Pricing", "Roland Barthes", "Environmental communication", "Television advertisement", "Campaign advertising", "Computer-mediated communication", "Earned media", "Herbert Marcuse", "Science communication", "OCLC ", "Consumerism", "William Saletan", "Non-denial denial", "Infotainment", "Scott Cutlip", "Dog-whistle politics", "Semiotic democracy", "Bipartisanship", "Climate communication", "Neil Postman", "Spectacle ", "History of communication studies", "Media manipulation", "Walter J. Ong", "Activism", "News", "Internet", "Demonstration ", "Slogan", "Mobile marketing", "General public", "Product marketing", "Gish gallop", "Lawn sign", "Telemarketing", "The Cluetrain Manifesto", "Reading", "Newspeak", "Blood libel", "I. A. Richards", "News media", "Conversation", "Political communication", "Fearmongering", "Press service", "Front group", "Lawrence Erlbaum Associates", "Search engines", "Word-of-mouth marketing", "Fictitious entry", "Influence of mass media", "New World", "Outline of communication", "Grassroots", "Official", "Media ecology", "Newsletters", "Internet censorship", "Framing ", "Catch and kill", "Cult of personality", "Intrapersonal communication", "Propaganda of the deed", "Lobby groups", "Superficial charm", "ISSN ", "Target audience", "Mainstream", "Manuel Castells", "Negative campaigning", "D. Lawrence Kincaid", "Media circus", "Sedition", "Crowd manipulation", "Urban legend", "Industrial espionage", "Public relations in India", "English-speaking world", "Crowd psychology", "Stakeholder ", "Guy Debord", "Cross-cultural communication", "Billboard", "J\u00fcrgen Habermas", "Indeed", "Stuart Ewen", "Social media marketing", "Attack ad", "Public diplomacy", "American Dream", "Jos\u00e9 Ortega y Gasset", "PR ", "Product placement", "Push poll", "Accreditation in Public Relations", "James W. Tankard Jr.", "Character assassination", "Glittering generality", "National myth"], "content": "Public relations (PR) is the practice of managing and disseminating information from an individual or an organization (such as a business, government agency, or a nonprofit organization) to the public in order to affect public perception. Public relations (PR) and publicity differ in that PR is controlled internally, whereas publicity is not controlled and contributed by external parties. Public relations may include an organization or individual gaining exposure to their audiences using topics of public interest and news items that do not require direct payment. This differentiates it from advertising as a form of marketing communications. Public relations aims to create or obtain coverage for clients for free, also known as earned media, rather than paying for marketing or advertising. But in the early 21st century, advertising is also a part of broader PR activities.An example of good public relations would be generating an article featuring a PR firm's client, rather than paying for the client to be advertised next to the article. The aim of public relations is to inform the public, prospective customers, investors, partners, employees, and other stakeholders, and ultimately persuade them to maintain a positive or favorable view about the organization, its leadership, products, or political decisions. Public relations professionals typically work for PR and marketing firms, businesses and companies, government, and public officials as public information officers and nongovernmental organizations, and nonprofit organizations. Jobs central to public relations include account coordinator, account executive, account supervisor, and media relations manager.Public relations specialists establish and maintain relationships with an organization's target audience, the media, relevant trade media, and other opinion leaders. Common responsibilities include designing communications campaigns, writing press releases and other content for news, working with the press, arranging interviews for company spokespeople, writing speeches for company leaders, acting as an organization's spokesperson, preparing clients for press conferences, media interviews and speeches, writing website and social media content, managing company reputation (crisis management), managing internal communications, and marketing activities like brand awareness and event management. Success in the field of public relations requires a deep understanding of the interests and concerns of each of the company's many stakeholders. The public relations professional must know how to effectively address those concerns using the most powerful tool of the public relations trade, which is publicity.\n\n\n== Definitions ==\nIvy Lee, the man who turned around the Rockefeller name and image, and his friend, Edward Louis Bernays, established the first definition of public relations in the early 20th century as follows: \"a management function, which tabulates public attitudes, defines the policies, procedures and interests of an organization... followed by executing a program of action to earn public understanding and acceptance.\" However, when Lee was later asked about his role in a hearing with the United Transit Commission, he said \"I have never been able to find a satisfactory phrase to describe what I do.\" In 1948, historian Eric Goldman noted that the definition of public relations in Webster's would be \"disputed by both practitioners and critics in the field.\"According to Bernays, the public relations counsel is the agent working with both modern media of communications and group formations of society in order to provide ideas to the public's consciousness. Furthermore, he is also concerned with ideologies and courses of actions as well as material goods and services and public utilities and industrial associations and large trade groups for which it secures popular support.\nIn August 1978, the World Assembly of Public Relations Associations defined the field as \"the art and social science of analyzing trends, predicting their consequences, counselling organizational leaders and implementing planned programs of action, which will serve both the organization and the public interest.\"\nPublic Relations Society of America, a professional trade association, defined public relations in 1982 as: \"Public relations helps an organization and its publics adapt mutually to each other.\"\nIn 2011 and 2012, the PRSA solicited crowd supplied definitions for the term and allowed the public to vote on one of three finalists. The winning definition stated that: \n\n\"Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their publics.\"\nPublic relations can also be defined as the practice of managing communication between an organization and its publics.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nPublic relations is not a phenomenon of the 20th century, but rather has historical roots. Most textbooks consider the establishment of the Publicity Bureau in 1900 to be the founding of the public relations profession. Academics have found early forms of public influence and communications management in ancient civilizations. such as Aristotle\u2019s rhetoric which explains the core foundations of persuasion. It is believed that there is an evolutionary aspect to PR and that it only has improved over time. Evidence shows that it continued to evolve during the settling of the New World and during the movement to abolish slavery in England. Basil Clark is considered the founder of public relations in the United Kingdom for his establishment of Editorial Services in 1924.The concept of propaganda, which later evolved into Public Relations was used by the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, and others to rally for domestic support and demonize enemies during the World Wars. World War I was the first war which affected not only military but whole populations and is considered to be \"modern propaganda's launching pad.\" This led to more sophisticated commercial publicity efforts as public relations talent entered the private sector. Most historians believe modern-day public relations was first established in the US by Ivy Lee or Edward Bernays, then spread internationally. Many American companies with PR departments spread the practice to Europe when they created European subsidiaries as a result of the Marshall plan.In the second half of the 1900s, public relations entered an era of professional development. Trade associations, PR news magazines, international PR agencies, and academic principles for the profession were established. In the early 2000s, press release services began offering social media press releases. The Cluetrain Manifesto, which predicted the effect of social media in 1999, was controversial in its time, but by 2006, the effect of social media and new internet technologies became broadly accepted.\n\n\n== Career prospects ==\n\n\n=== United Kingdom ===\nCosmopolitan reported that the average annual salary for a \"public relations director\" was \u00a377,619 in 2017. One notable former PR practitioner was former Prime Minister David Cameron.\n\n\n=== United States ===\n\n\n==== Education ====\nPublic relations practitioners typically have a bachelor's degree in journalism, communications, public relations, marketing, or English. Many senior practitioners have advanced degrees; a 2015 survey found that forty-percent of chief communications officers at Fortune 500 companies had master's degrees.In 2013, a survey of the 21,000 members of the Public Relations Society of America found that 18-percent held the Accreditation in Public Relations.\n\n\n==== Salary ====\nIn 2019, a PR Week survey found a median annual compensation of $95,000 for public relations practitioners, with sector medians ranging from $85,000 in the non-profit sector, $96,000 in a private agency setting, and $126,000 in a for-profit corporation. The Bureau of Labor Statistics, meanwhile, reports the median annual for \"public relations specialists\" at $68,000 in 2017 and $114,000 for \"public relations managers\".According to a study made by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics in 2020, they found that public relations practitioners in the United States private sector \u2013 working at PR agencies \u2013 have a median salary of $57,940. Individuals that work within the federal sector have reported to be making a median income of $65,310. The information collected shows those that work for professional, labour, political, and similar organizations average $66,340 a year.\nThe c-level position of chief communications officer (CCO), used in some private companies, usually earned more than $220,000 annually as of 2013. CCOs at Fortune 200 companies, meanwhile, had an average compensation package of just over $1 million annually, according to a 2009 survey by Fortune; this amount included base salary, bonus, and stock options.Within the U.S. federal government, public affairs workers had a 2016 average salary of approximately $101,922, with the U.S. Forest Service employing the most such professionals. Of federal government agencies employing more than one public affairs worker, those at the Federal Aviation Administration earned the most, on average, at approximately $150,130. The highest-earning public affairs worker within the U.S. government, meanwhile, earned $229,333.Salaries of public relations specialists in local government vary widely. The chief communications officer of the Utah Transit Authority earned $258,165 in total compensation in 2014 while an early-career public information officer for the city of Conway, South Carolina had a pay range beginning at approximately $59,000 per year in 2017.\n\n\n=== Canada ===\nIndeed reported that the average annual salary for a \"public relations manager\" was $59,326 in June 2019. According to Stats Canada, there has been no growth in the demand for journalists in Canada, but the demand for PR practitioners continues to grow. Most journalists transition into public relations smoothly and bring a much-needed skill-set to the profession.\nPublic relations practitioners typically have a bachelor's degree in communications, public relations, journalism, or English. Some senior practitioners have advanced degrees. The industry has seen an influx of journalists because newsrooms are in decline and the salaries tend to be higher.\n\n\n== Tactics ==\nPublic relations professionals present the face of an organization or individual, usually to articulate its objectives and official views on issues of relevance, primarily to the media. Public relations contributes to the way an organization is perceived by influencing the media and maintaining relationships with stakeholders. According to Dr. Jacquie L\u2019Etang from Queen Margaret University, public relations professionals can be viewed as \"discourse workers specializing in communication and the presentation of argument and employing rhetorical strategies to achieve managerial aims.\"Specific public relations disciplines include:\n\nFinancial public relations \u2013 communicating financial results and business strategy\nConsumer/lifestyle public relations \u2013 gaining publicity for a particular product or service\nCrisis communication \u2013 responding in a crisis\nInternal communications \u2013 communicating within the company itself\nGovernment relations \u2013 engaging government departments to influence public policy\nMedia relations \u2013 a public relations function that involves building and maintaining close relationships with the news media so that they can sell and promote a business.\nSocial Media/Community Marketing - in today's climate, public relations professionals leverage social media marketing to distribute messages about their clients to desired target markets\nIn-house public relations \u2013 a public relations professional hired to manage press and publicity campaigns for the company that hired them.\n'Black Hat PR' - manipulating public profiles under the guise of neutral commentators or voices, or engaging to actively damage or undermine the reputations of the rival or targeted individuals or organizations.Building and managing relationships with those who influence an organization or individual's audiences have a central role in doing public relations. After a public relations practitioner has been working in the field, they accumulate a list of relationships that become an asset, especially for those in media relations.\nWithin each discipline, typical activities include publicity events, speaking opportunities, press releases, newsletters, blogs, social media, press kits, and outbound communication to members of the press. Video and audio news releases (VNRs and ANRs) are often produced and distributed to TV outlets in hopes they will be used as regular program content.\n\n\n=== Audience targeting ===\nA fundamental technique used in public relations is to identify the target audience and to tailor messages that are relevant to each audience. Sometimes the interests of differing audiences and stakeholders common to a public relations effort necessitate the creation of several distinct but complementary messages. These messages however should be relevant to each other, thus creating a consistency to the overall message and theme. Audience targeting tactics are important for public relations practitioners because they face all kinds of problems: low visibility, lack of public understanding, opposition from critics, and insufficient support from funding sources.On the other hand, stakeholder theory identifies people who have a stake in a given institution or issue. All audiences are stakeholders (or presumptive stakeholders), but not all stakeholders are members of a target audience. For example, if a charity commissions a public relations agency to create an advertising campaign to raise money to find a cure for a disease, the charity and the people with the disease are stakeholders, but the audience is anyone who is likely to donate money. Public relations experts possess deep skills in media relations, market positioning, and branding. They are powerful agents that help clients deliver clear, unambiguous information to a target audience that matters to them.\n\n\n=== The public in public relations ===\nA public is any group whose members have a common interest or common values in a particular subject, such as a political party. Those members would then be considered stakeholders, which are people who have a stake or an interest in an organization or issue that potentially involves the organization or group they're interested in. The Publics in Public Relations are:\n\nTraditional Publics: Groups with which the individual has an ongoing and long-term relationship with, this may include; Employees, Media, Governments, Investors, and Customers\nNon-Traditional Publics: Groups that are typically unfamiliar with the organization and the individual has not had a relationship with but may become traditional publics due to changes in the organization, in society or if a group changing event occurs.\nLatent Publics: A group whose values have come into contact with the values of the organization but whose members haven't yet realized it; the members of that public are not yet aware of the relationship.\nAware Publics: A group of members who are aware of the existence of a commonality of values or interests with your organization, but have not organized or attempted to respond to that commonality.\nIntervening Publics: Any public that helps an individual send a message to another public, could be the media or someone with stature.\nPrimary Publics: If a public can directly affect an organization's pursuit of its values-driven goals. This publics would include media, employees, government, shareholder, financial institutions, and the immediate community.\nSecondary Publics: Have high interest in the company such as the primary publics but will not be directly affected by decisions of the organization.\nInternal Publics: People within an organization\nExternal Publics: People outside of an organization\nDomestic Publics: Those within the country\nInternational Publics: Those outsides of the country and when communicating with this publics individuals must be wary of that areas culture, beliefs, values, ethic, and other valuable cultural difference as to not offend anyone.Early literature authored by James Grunig (1978) suggested that publics develop in stages determined by their levels of problem recognition, constraint recognition and involvement in addressing the issue. The theory posited that publics develop in the following stages:\n\nNon-Publics: Share no issue with an organization.\nLatent Publics: Face an issue but do not recognize it.\nApathetic Publics: Face an issue but do not care to address it.\nAware Publics: Face an issue but are unorganized to mobilize against it.\nActive Publics: Face an issue and are organized to respond to it. \n\n\n=== Messaging ===\nMessaging is the process of creating a consistent story around: a product, person, company, or service. Messaging aims to avoid having readers receive contradictory or confusing information that will instill doubt in their purchasing choices, or other decisions that affect the company. Brands aim to have the same problem statement, industry viewpoint, or brand perception shared across sources and media.\n\n\n=== Social media marketing ===\n\nDigital marketing is the use of Internet tools and technologies such as search engines, Web 2.0 social bookmarking, new media relations, blogging, and social media marketing. Interactive PR allows companies and organizations to disseminate information without relying solely on mainstream publications and communicate directly with the public, customers and prospects.\nPR practitioners have always relied on the media such as TV, radio, and magazines, to promote their ideas and messages tailored specifically to a target audience. Social media marketing is not only a new way to achieve that goal, it is also a continuation of a strategy that existed for decades. Lister et al. said that \"Digital media can be seen as a continuation and extension of a principal or technique that was already in place\".Social media platforms enable users to connect with audiences to build brands, increase sales, and drive website traffic. This involves publishing content on social media profiles, engaging with followers, analyzing results, and running social media advertisements. The goal is to produce content that users will share with their social network to help a company increase brand exposure and broaden customer reach. Some of the major social media platforms are currently Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, LinkedIn, Pinterest, YouTube, and Snapchat.As digital technology has evolved, the methods to measure effective online public relations effectiveness have improved. The Public Relations Society of America, which has been developing PR strategies since 1947, identified 5 steps to measure online public relations effectiveness. \n\nEngagement: Measure the number of people who engaged with an item (social shares, likes and comments).\nImpressions: Measure the number of people who may have viewed an item.\nItems: Measure any content (blog posts, articles, etc.) that originally appeared as digital media.\nMentions: Measure how many online items mention the brand, organization, or product.\nReach: Measure how far the PR campaign managed to penetrate overall and in terms of a particular audience.\n\n\n=== Types of public relations arenas ===\nPublicists can work in a host of different types of business verticals such as entertainment, technology, music, travel, television, food, consumer electronics and more. Many publicists build their career in a specific business space to leverage relationships and contacts. There are different kinds of press strategies for such as B2B (business to business) or B2C (business to consumer). Business to business publicity highlights service providers who provide services and products to other businesses. Business to Consumer publicizes products and services for regular consumers, such as toys, travel, food, entertainment, personal electronics and music.\n\n\n=== Other techniques ===\nLitigation public relations is the management of the communication process during the course of any legal dispute or adjudicatory processing so as to affect the outcome or its effect on the client's overall reputation (Haggerty, 2003).\n\n\n== Ethics ==\nPublic relations professionals both serve the public's interest and private interests of businesses, associations, non-profit organizations, and governments. This dual obligation gave rise to heated debates among scholars of the discipline and practitioners over its fundamental values. This conflict represents the main ethical predicament of public relations. In 2000, the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) responded to the controversy by acknowledging in its new code of ethics \"advocacy\" \u2013 for the first time \u2013 as a core value of the discipline.The field of public relations is generally highly un-regulated, but many professionals voluntarily adhere to the code of conduct of one or more professional bodies to avoid exposure for ethical violations. The Chartered Institute of Public Relations, the Public Relations Society of America, and The Institute of Public Relations are a few organizations that publish an ethical code. Still, Edelman's 2003 semi-annual trust survey found that only 20 percent of survey respondents from the public believed paid communicators within a company were credible. Individuals in public relations are growing increasingly concerned with their company's marketing practices, questioning whether they agree with the company's social responsibility. They seek more influence over marketing and more of a counseling and policy-making role. On the other hand, individuals in marketing are increasingly interested in incorporating publicity as a tool within the realm marketing.According to Scott Cutlip, the social justification for public relations is the right for an organization to have a fair hearing of their point of view in the public forum, but to obtain such a hearing for their ideas requires a skilled advocate.Marketing and communications strategist, Ira Gostin, believes there is a code of conduct when conducting business and using public relations. Public relations specialists have the ability to influence society. Fact-checking and presenting accurate information is necessary to maintain credibility with employers and clients.\n\n\n=== Public Relation Code of Ethics ===\nThe Public Relation Student Society of America has established a set of fundamental guidelines that people within the public relations professions should practice and use in their business atmosphere. These values are:\n\nAdvocacy: Serving the public interest by acting as responsible advocates for the clientele. This can occur by displaying the marketplace of ideas, facts and viewpoints to aid informed public debate.\nHonesty: Standing by the truth and accuracy of all facts in the case and advancing those statements to the public.\nExpertise: To become and stay informed of the specialized knowledge needed in the field of Public Relations. Taking that knowledge and improving the field through development, research and education. Meanwhile, professionals also build their understanding, credibility, and relationships to understand various audiences and industries.\nIndependence: Provide unbiased work to those that are represented while being accountable for all actions.\nLoyalty: Stay devoted to the client while remembering that there is a duty to still serve the public interest.\nFairness: Honorably conduct business with any and all clients, employers, competitors, peers, vendors, media and general public. Respecting all opinions and right of free expression.\n\n\n=== Spin ===\n\nSpin has been interpreted historically to mean overt deceit that is meant to manipulate the public, but since the 1990s has shifted to describing a \"polishing of the truth.\" Today, spin refers to providing a certain interpretation of information meant to sway public opinion. Companies may use spin to create the appearance of the company or other events are going in a slightly different direction than they actually are. Within the field of public relations, spin is seen as a derogatory term, interpreted by professionals as meaning blatant deceit and manipulation. Skilled practitioners of spin are sometimes called \"spin doctors.\"\nIn Stuart Ewen's PR! A Social History of Spin, he argues that public relations can be a real menace to democracy as it renders the public discourse powerless. Corporations are able to hire public relations professionals and transmit their messages through the media channels and exercise a huge amount of influence upon the individual who is defenseless against such a powerful force. He claims that public relations is a weapon for capitalist deception and the best way to resist is to become media literate and use critical thinking when interpreting the various mediated messages.According to Jim Hoggan, \" public relations is not by definition 'spin'. Public relations is the art of building good relationships. You do that most effectively by earning trust and goodwill among those who are important to you and your business... Spin us to public relations what manipulation is to interpersonal communications. It's a diversion whose primary effect is ultimately to undermine the central goal of building trust and nurturing a good relationship.\"The techniques of spin include selectively presenting facts and quotes that support ideal positions (cherry picking), the so-called \"non-denial denial,\" phrasing that in a way presumes unproven truths, euphemisms for drawing attention away from items considered distasteful, and ambiguity in public statements. Another spin technique involves careful choice of timing in the release of certain news so it can take advantage of prominent events in the news.\n\n\n=== Negative ===\n\nNegative public relations, also called dark public relations (DPR), 'black hat PR' and in some earlier writing \"Black PR\", is a process of destroying the target's reputation and/or corporate identity. The objective in DPR is to discredit someone else, who may pose a threat to the client's business or be a political rival. DPR may rely on IT security, industrial espionage, social engineering and competitive intelligence. Common techniques include using dirty secrets from the target, producing misleading facts to fool a competitor. In politics, a decision to use negative PR is also known as negative campaigning.\n\n\n=== T.A.R.E.S. ===\nThe T.A.R.E.S. is a five-point test that evaluates ethical persuasion and provides boundaries in persuasive practices.\n\nTruthfulness (of the message) examples\nIs this communicating something factually true and accurate?\nDoes this downplay or diminish evidence?\nAm I creating a false narrative or image?\nDoes this influence people to believe something that I do not believe myself?\nAuthenticity (of the persuader) examples\nWill people question my honesty or integrity from this?\nDo I truly believe that what is being presented will benefit those who are reading?\nDo I support or advocate in the statement, person, or product?\nRespect (for the persuadee) examples\nAm I presenting statements in self-interest, or do I genuinely care about the issue, person, or product?\nIs this presented to persuadees who are rational, self-thinking beings?\nWhat ethical responsibility do I hold by presenting this information?\nEquity (of the persuasive appeal) examples\nIs this appeal fair and nondiscriminatory?\nHave I target persuadees who are not capable of understanding the claims and the context?\nAre the statements I present sensitive to various interests, needs, or concerns of the persuadees?\nSocial Responsibility (for the common good) examples\nHave I unfairly stereotyped groups of society in my statements or actions?\nWill my statements or actions cause harms to various groups of society?\nWill there be any negative consequences against a group in society based on my statements or actions?\nHave I fairly presented issues that concern groups who may have been underrepresented in society?\nAre the statements or actions that are being communicated responsible to various societal groups, public interest, and the public?\n\n\n=== Politics and civil society ===\nIn Propaganda (1928), Bernays argued that the manipulation of public opinion was a necessary part of democracy. In public relations, lobby groups are created to influence government policy, corporate policy or public opinion, typically in a way that benefits the sponsoring organization.\nIn fact, Bernays stresses that we are in fact dominated in almost every aspect of our lives, by a relatively small number of persons who have mastered the 'mental processes and social patterns of the masses,\u2019 which include our behavior, political and economic spheres or our morals. In theory, each individual chooses his own opinion on behavior and public issues. However, in practice, it is impossible for one to study all variables and approaches of a particular question and come to a conclusion without any external influence. This is the reason why the society has agreed upon an 'invisible government' to interpret on our behalf information and narrow the choice field to a more practical scale.When a lobby group hides its true purpose and support base, it is known as a front group. Front groups are a form of astroturfing, because they intend to sway the public or the government without disclosing their financial connection to corporate or political interests. They create a fake grass-roots movement by giving the appearance of a trusted organization that serves the public, when they actually serve their sponsors.\nPoliticians also employ public relations professionals to help project their views, policies and even personalities to their best advantages.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nA History of Public Relations (PDF), The Institute for Public Relations, archived from the original (PDF) on 2 June 2010\nBreakenridge, Deirdre (2012), Social media and public relations: Eight new practices for the pr professional, New jersey: FT Press\nCutlip, Scott (1994), The Unseen Power: Public Relations: A History, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, ISBN 0-8058-1464-7\nCutlip, Scott (1995), Public Relations History: from the 17th to the 20th Century, Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, ISBN 0-8058-1780-8\nHeitmueller, Lars M. (2012), Corporate Communication Map: Outline of an interactive Overview of the fundamental Models and Theories of Public RelationsKelleher, T. (2018). Public Relations (1st ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.\nStoykov, Lubomir (2016). Public Relations Management (2nd ed.). Sofia: Alma communication.", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/FEMA_-_42468_-_Participants_at_Joint_Field_Office_News_Media_Conference.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Mergefrom.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "Public relations (PR) is the practice of managing and disseminating information from an individual or an organization (such as a business, government agency, or a nonprofit organization) to the public in order to affect public perception. Public relations (PR) and publicity differ in that PR is controlled internally, whereas publicity is not controlled and contributed by external parties. Public relations may include an organization or individual gaining exposure to their audiences using topics of public interest and news items that do not require direct payment. This differentiates it from advertising as a form of marketing communications. Public relations aims to create or obtain coverage for clients for free, also known as earned media, rather than paying for marketing or advertising. But in the early 21st century, advertising is also a part of broader PR activities.An example of good public relations would be generating an article featuring a PR firm's client, rather than paying for the client to be advertised next to the article. The aim of public relations is to inform the public, prospective customers, investors, partners, employees, and other stakeholders, and ultimately persuade them to maintain a positive or favorable view about the organization, its leadership, products, or political decisions. Public relations professionals typically work for PR and marketing firms, businesses and companies, government, and public officials as public information officers and nongovernmental organizations, and nonprofit organizations. Jobs central to public relations include account coordinator, account executive, account supervisor, and media relations manager.Public relations specialists establish and maintain relationships with an organization's target audience, the media, relevant trade media, and other opinion leaders. Common responsibilities include designing communications campaigns, writing press releases and other content for news, working with the press, arranging interviews for company spokespeople, writing speeches for company leaders, acting as an organization's spokesperson, preparing clients for press conferences, media interviews and speeches, writing website and social media content, managing company reputation (crisis management), managing internal communications, and marketing activities like brand awareness and event management. Success in the field of public relations requires a deep understanding of the interests and concerns of each of the company's many stakeholders. The public relations professional must know how to effectively address those concerns using the most powerful tool of the public relations trade, which is publicity."}, "Alternative_facts": {"links": ["Snopes.com", "The Guardian", "Active measures", "The Tonight Show", "False flag", "Orwellian", "Cyberwarfare by Russia", "Cherry picking", "Jihadunspun.com", "First inauguration of Barack Obama", "Operation Neptune ", "The Kansas City Star", "State-sponsored Internet propaganda", "Los Angeles Times", "NPR", "Quoting out of context", "WMATA", "Seat twelve", "Bolivarian Army of Trolls", "Bestseller", "BuzzFeed", "Fear, uncertainty, and doubt", "The Freedom Fighter's Manual", "The Late Show with Stephen Colbert", "Public Relations Society of America", "Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority", "Operation Shocker", "QAnon", "YouTube", "PLA Unit sixty-one thousand, three hundred and ninety-eight", "George Orwell", "Veracity of statements by Donald Trump", "COVID-nineteen misinformation by governments", "New York ", "Germany", "COVID-nineteen misinformation", "Conspiracy theories", "Truthiness", "Tony Schwartz ", "Clarence Page", "two thousand and seven cyberattacks on Estonia", "Mexico", "Soviet Union", "Disinformation", "Making false statements", "Un-word of the year", "China", "Circular reporting", "Lie", "Nineteen Eighty-Four", "Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting conspiracy theories", "Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests", "Social bot", "Reuters", "Psychological Warfare Division", "Tampa Bay Times", "Turkey", "Factual relativism", "Indiana Pi Bill", "Russian interference in the twenty eighteen United States elections", "Denialism", "Clockwork Orange ", "nineteen ninety-five CIA disinformation controversy", "Internet censorship in China", "Habbush letter", "Climate change denial", "Post-truth politics", "Press briefing", "Chris Cillizza", "Washington Metro", "American political conspiracy theories", "Dezinformatsia ", "OpIndia", "Russian interference in the twenty twenty United States elections", "USA Today", "Opinion journalism", "South Africa", "Pope Pius XII and Russia", "Chuck Todd", "Operation INFEKTION", "Steven Spielberg", "India", "Half-truth", "Bowling Green massacre", "Zinoviev letter", "Doublethink", "FactCheck.org", "Dan Rather", "Bowling Green, Kentucky", "2 + 2 = five", "Fake news", "Historical negationism", "Infodemic", "Funkspiel", "Smear campaign", "Counselor to the President", "Credibility gap", "Haaretz", "Reality-based community", "Political gaffe", "Attempts to overturn the twenty twenty United States presidential election", "Propaganda", "Fortune ", "9/eleven conspiracy theories", "Misinformation", "Black propaganda", "Short film", "Distinction without a difference", "D Magazine", "Forgery as covert operation", "HIV/AIDS denialism", "Conspiracy theories in Turkey", "Bar Association", "White House Press Secretary", "Jill Abramson", "PolitiFact", "nine/11 conspiracy theories", "Media manipulation", "Alternative pleading", "Breitbart News", "Inspector Gadget", "The New York Times", "Oxymoron", "Genocide denial", "COVID-nineteen misinformation by China", "K-one thousand battleship", "U.S. Army Field Manual 30-thirty-oneB", "U.S. News & World Report", "American Thinker", "Counter Misinformation Team", "Internet Water Army", "Fallacy", "Sean Spicer", "List of fake news websites", "The Seattle Times", "Fake news in India", "Executive Order thirteen thousand, seven hundred and sixty-nine", "Disinformation ", "Internet manipulation", "Penguin Random House", "Pe\u00f1abot", "United States", "Inauguration of Donald Trump", "fifty Cent Party", "Snopes", "Propaganda in Nazi Germany", "Internet Research Agency", "Trump administration", "False accusation", "Cyberattacks during the Russo-Georgian War", "Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection", "Chinese cyberwarfare", "Russian web brigades", "Fox News Channel", "Birtherism", "Twitter", "Spin ", "ISBN ", "Great Firewall", "DC Metro", "Politifact", "False equivalence", "Ghostwriter", "Fact checking", "Information Operations Roadmap", "The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark", "CNN", "Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act", "Military deception", "View from nowhere", "Psychology Today", "CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory", "Venezuela", "Memetic warfare", "Neue Z\u00fcrcher Zeitung", "New York Post", "Operation Toucan ", "Kellyanne Conway", "Strategy of tension", "Terminological inexactitude", "Lancet MMR autism fraud", "National Board of Review", "Carl Sagan", "Right-wing antiscience", "Second inauguration of George W. Bush", "Jimmy Fallon", "Joel Pollak", "Newspeak", "Entertainment Weekly", "Chinese information operations and information warfare", "Soviet influence on the peace movement", "United States Information Agency", "Meet the Press", "Gaslighting", "Canada", "Doublespeak", "District of Columbia", "Fake news in the United States", "Who's Who in the CIA", "Russian interference in the twenty sixteen United States elections", "Merriam-Webster", "Politico", "Fabrication ", "The Post ", "Niger uranium forgeries", "East StratCom Task Force", "Alternative reality", "Godi-media", "Euromyth", "United Kingdom", "Yellow rain", "Big lie", "The Washington Post", "Donald Trump", "The Hill ", "Yellow journalism", "USAFacts", "Counterpropaganda", "two + two = 5", "Anti-vaccination", "Fake news websites in the United States", "Fake news website", "Potemkin village", "The Atlantic", "Bell Pottinger", "Trump: The Art of the Deal", "Consensus reality", "NBC News", "Hoax", "The Hollywood Reporter", "Deception", "List of conspiracy theories", "Whataboutism", "The KGB and Soviet Disinformation", "U.S. Army Field Manual thirty-31B", "Double-Cross System", "Tobacco industry playbook", "Trumpism", "Czechoslovakia", "Active Measures Working Group", "Vaccines and autism", "Chicago Tribune", "Psychological warfare", "Global Times", "Little Pink", "Meme", "HIV/AIDS denialism in South Africa", "Second inauguration of Barack Obama", "Russia", "Misinformation related to vaccination", "Disinformation attack", "Russian interference in the twenty sixteen Brexit referendum", "Amazon.com", "COVID-nineteen misinformation by the United States", "Robert De Niro", "Factoid", "Stephen Colbert", "Paid news in India", "Euphemistic misspeaking"], "content": "\"Alternative facts\" was a phrase used by U.S. Counselor to the President, Kellyanne Conway, during a Meet the Press interview on January 22, 2017, in which she defended White House Press Secretary Sean Spicer's false statement about the attendance numbers of Donald Trump's inauguration as President of the United States. When pressed during the interview with Chuck Todd to explain why Spicer would \"utter a provable falsehood\", Conway stated that Spicer was giving \"alternative facts\". Todd responded, \"Look, alternative facts are not facts. They're falsehoods.\"Conway's use of the phrase \"alternative facts\" for demonstrable falsehoods was widely mocked on social media and sharply criticized by journalists and media organizations, including Dan Rather, Jill Abramson, and the Public Relations Society of America. The phrase was extensively described as Orwellian, particularly in reference to the term doublethink. Within four days of the interview, sales of George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four had increased 95-fold, which The New York Times and others attributed to Conway's use of the phrase, making it the number-one bestseller on Amazon.com.Conway later defended her choice of words, defining \"alternative facts\" as \"additional facts and alternative information\".\n\n\n== Background ==\nOn January 21, 2017, while White House Press Secretary Sean Spicer held his first press briefing, he accused the media of deliberately underestimating the size of the crowd for President Trump's inaugural ceremony and stated that the ceremony had drawn the \"largest audience to ever witness an inauguration \u2013 period \u2013 both in person and around the globe\". According to rapid transit ridership data and photographic evidence Spicer's claims and allegations were false. Aerial images showed that the turnout for Trump's inauguration was lower than the turnout for the 2009 inauguration of Barack Obama. Spicer claimed that 420,000 people rode the DC Metro on inauguration day 2017, compared to 317,000 in 2013. He did not offer a source for his claim, or clarify the time periods being compared. Actual ridership figures between midnight and 11 AM were 193,000 in 2017, 317,000 in 2013. Full-day ridership was 570,557 in 2017, 782,000 in 2013.\nSpicer also gave incorrect information about the use of white ground coverings during the inauguration. He stated that they were used for the first time during the Trump inauguration and were to blame for a visual effect that made the audience look smaller. The white ground coverings, however, had been used in 2013 when Obama was sworn in for the second term. Spicer did not take questions from the media at the press briefing.\n\nTrump's campaign strategist and counselor, Kellyanne Conway, defended Spicer's statements in a Meet the Press interview. In response to a question from Todd about Trump's false claims regarding the inauguration crowd and the loss of credibility, Conway said:\"Our press secretary, Sean Spicer, gave alternative facts to that, but the point remains that...\"\nTodd interrupted her by saying \"Wait a minute. Alternative facts? ... Alternative facts are not facts. They're falsehoods.\" In her answer Conway argued that crowd numbers in general could not be assessed with certainty and objected to what she described as Todd's trying to make her look ridiculous.Conway later defended her choice of words, defining \"alternative facts\" as \"additional facts and alternative information\".Two days later, Spicer corrected his statements concerning the WMATA ridership levels, stating that he had been relying on statistics \"given to him\". He stood by his widely disputed claim that the inauguration was the most-viewed, stating he also included online viewership in addition to in-person and television in his figures.During the week following Conway's comments, she discussed \"alternative facts\", substituting the phrases \"alternative information\" and \"incomplete information\". Two days after the Todd interview she defended Trump's travel restrictions by talking about a nonexistent \"Bowling Green massacre\" (she later said she was referring to the arrest of two Iraqis in Bowling Green, Kentucky, for sending aid to insurgents in Iraq), and by falsely claiming that President Obama in 2011 had \"banned visas for refugees from Iraq for six months\". Her false statements were described as having \"taken 'alternative facts' to a new level\".The phrase \"alternative facts\" was claimed to be similar to a phrase used in Trump's 1987 book, Trump: The Art of the Deal. In that book, \"truthful hyperbole\" was described as \"an innocent form of exaggeration\u2014and ... a very effective form of promotion\". The book claimed that \"people want to believe that something is the biggest and the greatest and the most spectacular.\" The ghostwriter of the book, Tony Schwartz, said he coined that phrase and claimed that Trump \"loved it\".Conway later defended her remarks in an interview published in March 2017: \"Two plus two is four. Three plus one is four. Partly cloudy, partly sunny. Glass half full, glass half empty. Those are alternative facts.\" In a radio interview with Mark Simone that was described by Salon in February 2018, she claimed that professional fact-checkers tend to be political liberals and are \"selecting what [they] think should be fact-checked...Americans are their own fact checkers. People know, they have their own facts and figures, in terms of meaning which facts and figures are important to them.\"\n\n\n== Reactions ==\n\n\n=== Criticism ===\nSpicer's press conference and Conway's follow-up comments drew quick reactions on social media. Journalist Dan Rather posted a criticism of the incoming Trump administration on his Facebook page. Rather wrote:\nThese are not normal times. These are extraordinary times. And extraordinary times call for extraordinary measures. When you have a spokesperson for the president of the United States wrap up a lie in the Orwellian phrase \"alternative facts\".... When you have a press secretary in his first appearance before the White House reporters threaten, bully, lie, and then walk out of the briefing room without the cojones to answer a single question... Facts and the truth are not partisan. They are the bedrock of our democracy. And you are either with them, with us, with our Constitution, our history, and the future of our nation, or you are against it. Everyone must answer that question.\n\nThe New York Times responded with a fact check of statements made during Spicer's press conference. This included a side-by-side photographic comparison of the crowds from Obama's 2009 inauguration and that of Trump.\nJournalist and former New York Times executive editor Jill Abramson characterized Conway's comments about alternative facts as \"Orwellian newspeak\", and said \"'Alternative facts' are just lies\". NBC News quoted two experts on the psychology of lying who said that the Trump administration was engaging in gaslighting, and reported that the domain name alternativefacts.com had been purchased and redirected to an article on the subject.The Merriam-Webster dictionary website reported that lookups for the word \"fact\" spiked after Conway used the phrase \"alternative facts\". They also got involved by tweeting about it: \"A fact is a piece of information presented as having objective reality.\" The tweet included a link to their article about Conway's use of the term.Following Conway's Meet the Press interview and the viral response on social media in which \"alternative facts\" was likened to Doublethink and Newspeak, terms from George Orwell's dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, sales of the book increased by more than 9,500 percent, rising to the number one best-selling book on Amazon.com. The New York Times and others attributed this to Conway's statement. Penguin, the book's publisher, ordered a 75,000 unit reprint to meet demand.Snopes's journalist Alex Kasprak noted Carl Sagan's words in Sagan's book The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark became a viral meme about alternative facts after the inauguration of Trump, Kasprak commented \"the proffered description of that nightmare was authentic\".On January 24, 2017, the Public Relations Society of America, a public relations trade group, put out a statement that said \"Encouraging and perpetuating the use of alternative facts by a high-profile spokesperson reflects poorly on all communications professionals.\"\n\n\n=== Legal usage ===\nIn a Breitbart News article dated January 23, 2017, editor Joel Pollak defended Conway's use of \"alternative facts\" by arguing that it was a \"harmless, and accurate term in a legal setting, where each side of a dispute will lay out its own version of the facts for the court to decide.\" However, The Guardian noted that \"[a] search of several online legal dictionaries did not yield any results for the term.\"A week later, the conservative daily magazine American Thinker published an article asserting that \"it seems eminently possible that Ms. Conway knew exactly what it was she was saying\". After providing a single example of a legal use of the phrase \"alternative facts\", the author conceded that its citation demanded \"plausible evidence to support both alternatives\" and did not attempt to provide such evidence.On February 23, 2017, fifteen professors of law, some of whom are themselves obliged to adhere to the District of Columbia Bar Association's Rule of Professional Conduct, rule 8.4(a), filed a disciplinary complaint with the D.C. Bar's Office of Disciplinary Conduct. Their complaint applies against Conway, a lawyer in public office, on the grounds that under rule 8.4(c): \"It is professional misconduct for a lawyer to engage in conduct involving dishonesty, fraud, deceit, or misrepresentation\", because of Conway's pattern of misrepresentation as well as her misuse of words such as \"massacre\" at a time when she holds high public office. The letter of complaint makes a specific reference to the use of the phrase \"alternative facts\" as being involved in one of the cases of alleged misconduct, citing as a reference for its claim an opinion article by a New York Times Op-Ed columnist.\n\n\n=== In popular culture ===\nThe term alternative facts became a mainstay in popular culture, from late night comedians to serious news outlets. Jimmy Fallon created a segment \"Two Truths and an Alternative Fact\" on The Tonight Show. Stephen Colbert criticized Conway for saying she was not Inspector Gadget or \"in the job of having evidence\" on The Late Show, claiming \"Kellyanne Conway has only one move: 'Go, go, alternative facts!'\"CNN's ad campaign \"Facts First\" was a direct response to the concept of alternative facts and fake news. USA Today listed it in their \"Glossary of Trump terms.\"Both Robert De Niro and Steven Spielberg referred to alternative facts in their speech at the National Board of Review awards for the Spielberg film The Post. \"We are in a fight and it's a fight not just about alternative facts but it's a fight for the objective truth\" said Spielberg after accepting the award.The 2017 short film Alternative Math is a satire about the absurdity of the concept of alternative facts.On January 16, 2018, German linguists declared the phrase \"alternative facts\" the non-word of the year 2017. It was also chosen by Austrian linguists as the non-word of the year in December 2017.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nd'Ancona, Matthew (2017), Post-Truth: The New War on Truth and How to Fight Back, ISBN 978-1785036873\nGoodspeed, William (2017), Alternative Facts: Fake News, Tweets & the 2016 Election Paperback, Satirical Press International, ISBN 978-0998885308\nNoterie, Abrams (2017), Alternative Facts Journal, Harry N. Abrams, ISBN 978-1419728846\n\n\n== External links ==\nKellyanne Conway Meet the Press interview with Chuck Todd on YouTube\n\"Trump's Long Embrace of Alternative Facts\" Bloomberg View", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Kellyanne_Conway_by_Gage_Skidmore_3.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/White_House_Spokesman_Spicer_Holds_News_Conference.webm", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"], "summary": "\"Alternative facts\" was a phrase used by U.S. Counselor to the President, Kellyanne Conway, during a Meet the Press interview on January 22, 2017, in which she defended White House Press Secretary Sean Spicer's false statement about the attendance numbers of Donald Trump's inauguration as President of the United States. When pressed during the interview with Chuck Todd to explain why Spicer would \"utter a provable falsehood\", Conway stated that Spicer was giving \"alternative facts\". Todd responded, \"Look, alternative facts are not facts. They're falsehoods.\"Conway's use of the phrase \"alternative facts\" for demonstrable falsehoods was widely mocked on social media and sharply criticized by journalists and media organizations, including Dan Rather, Jill Abramson, and the Public Relations Society of America. The phrase was extensively described as Orwellian, particularly in reference to the term doublethink. Within four days of the interview, sales of George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four had increased 95-fold, which The New York Times and others attributed to Conway's use of the phrase, making it the number-one bestseller on Amazon.com.Conway later defended her choice of words, defining \"alternative facts\" as \"additional facts and alternative information\".\n\n"}, "Circular_reporting": {"links": ["Zinoviev letter", "Bob Drogin", "Operation Toucan ", "CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory", "List of conspiracy theories", "Chinese cyberwarfare", "COVID-nineteen misinformation by the United States", "Czechoslovakia", "Who's Who in the CIA", "Black propaganda", "Germany", "Social bot", "Pe\u00f1abot", "Niger uranium forgeries", "Soviet influence on the peace movement", "Strategy of tension", "Venezuela", "USAFacts", "Soviet Union", "Conspiracy theories in Turkey", "Tom Hamburger", "Fabrication ", "HIV/AIDS denialism in South Africa", "fifty Cent Party", "Iraq", "Wikipedia", "Canadian Army Journal", "Tobacco industry playbook", "Self-reference", "Military intelligence", "Great Firewall", "Fallacy", "Slate ", "Anti-vaccination", "Deception", "Doublespeak", "Whataboutism", "Paid news in India", "Cherry picking", "Slashdot", "The Daily Telegraph", "Don't repeat yourself", "Intelligence assessment", "Ars Technica", "Dezinformatsia ", "Genocide denial", "QAnon", "Russian web brigades", "PLA Unit sixty-one thousand, three hundred and ninety-eight", "Seat twelve", "United States Information Agency", "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant", "Potemkin village", "Quoting out of context", "Metro ", "Source criticism", "Denialism", "Psychological Warfare Division", "Citation", "Memetic warfare", "Spin ", "Niger", "FactCheck.org", "TED ", "COVID-nineteen misinformation", "Little Pink", "North East England", "Mexico", "System of record", "View from nowhere", "Operation INFEKTION", "The KGB and Soviet Disinformation", "Historical negationism", "South Africa", "Yellow journalism", "Yellowcake uranium", "Coati", "Los Angeles Times", "The New Yorker", "India", "Single version of the truth", "U.S. Army Field Manual thirty-31B", "Rumor", "Habbush letter", "Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act", "Single source of truth", "Internet censorship in China", "Double-Cross System", "Iraq disarmament crisis", "nine/11 conspiracy theories", "BBC", "Canada", "HIV/AIDS denialism", "Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting conspiracy theories", "9/eleven conspiracy theories", "Media manipulation", "Clockwork Orange ", "Fake news website", "Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection", "Factoid", "Russian interference in the twenty twenty United States elections", "Russian interference in the twenty eighteen United States elections", "Dave Gorman", "Operation Shocker", "Fake news websites in the United States", "Truthiness", "Attempts to overturn the twenty twenty United States presidential election", "Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests", "Russia", "American political conspiracy theories", "Climate change denial", "OpIndia", "Fog of war", "Randall Munroe", "IUniverse", "Chinese information operations and information warfare", "Abu Huzaifa al-Kanadi", "Reliability of Wikipedia", "Forgery as covert operation", "Misinformation related to vaccination", "China", "ISBN ", "The Northern Echo", "Global Times", "Casio F-ninety-oneW", "Half-truth", "U.S. Army Field Manual 30-thirty-oneB", "Godi-media", "Disinformation", "The Freedom Fighter's Manual", "Active measures", "Fear, uncertainty, and doubt", "Wikiality", "nineteen ninety-five CIA disinformation controversy", "United States", "Circular reasoning", "State-sponsored Internet propaganda", "Jihadunspun.com", "Snopes.com", "Military deception", "Mother Jones ", "Internet Water Army", "The New York Times", "Big lie", "Fake news in the United States", "University of Chicago", "Bolivarian Army of Trolls", "Gaslighting", "Lancet MMR autism fraud", "Disinformation attack", "The Independent", "False accusation", "Operation Neptune ", "University of Cambridge", "Circular reference", "Ghost word", "Goldman Sachs", "COVID-nineteen misinformation by China", "Counterpropaganda", "Vaccines and autism", "Bell Pottinger", "Funkspiel", "Internet Research Agency", "Active Measures Working Group", "United Kingdom", "Daily Mail", "KSNV", "two thousand and seven cyberattacks on Estonia", "Daily Express", "Pan American World Airways", "Self-reference effect", "Yellow rain", "Euromyth", "SISMI", "Hoax", "Sacha Baron Cohen", "Cyberattacks during the Russo-Georgian War", "Infodemic", "False flag", "Information Operations Roadmap", "Xkcd", "Echo chamber ", "PolitiFact", "Fake news in India", "Conspiracy theories", "Fake news", "Psychological warfare", "Misinformation", "Cyberwarfare by Russia", "Media echo chamber", "K-one thousand battleship", "Pope Pius XII and Russia", "Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg", "Russian interference in the twenty sixteen Brexit referendum", "List of fake news websites", "Dave Gorman: Modern Life Is Goodish", "Alternative facts", "Turkey", "Post-truth politics", "Research", "Propaganda", "East StratCom Task Force", "Disinformation ", "Woozle effect", "Russian interference in the twenty sixteen United States elections", "Euphemistic misspeaking", "Cytogenesis", "Smear campaign", "COVID-nineteen misinformation by governments", "Counter Misinformation Team", "Propaganda in Nazi Germany", "Internet manipulation", "Citogenesis", "Saddam Hussein"], "content": "Circular reporting, or false confirmation, is a situation in source criticism where a piece of information appears to come from multiple independent sources, but in reality comes from only one source. In many cases, the problem happens mistakenly through sloppy intelligence-gathering practices. However, at other times the situation can be intentionally contrived by the original source as a way of reinforcing the widespread belief in its information.This problem occurs in a variety of fields, including intelligence gathering, journalism, and scholarly research. It is of particular concern in military intelligence because the original source has a higher likelihood of wanting to pass on misinformation, and because the chain of reporting is more prone to being obscured. It is also a problem in journalism and the development of conspiracy theories, in which the primary goal of a source spreading unlikely or hard-to-believe information is to make it appear to be widely known.\nThe case of the 2002 Niger uranium forgeries was a classic instance of circular reporting by intelligence agencies.\n\n\n== Circular reporting on Wikipedia ==\n\nWikipedia is sometimes criticized for being used as a source of circular reporting, particularly a variant where an unsourced claim in a Wikipedia article is repeated by a reliable source, citing the article; which is then added as a source to the initial claim.\n\n\n=== History of citogenesis ===\n\nIn November 2011, Randall Munroe coined the term citogenesis to describe this phenomenon in an xkcd comic strip, as wordplay on cytogenesis (the original process for the creation of cells) except for citations (often shortened to \"cites\"). The popularity of the comic brought the term into common use, and raised awareness about the risks of Wikipedia-mediated citogenesis for readers and journalists alike. \nThe four-step process illustrated by the comic has been referenced as the typical way that circular reporting develops via Wikipedia.  This has been described as particularly hard-to-catch because of the speed of revisions of modern webpages, and the lack of \"as of\" timestamps in citations and \"last updated\" timestamps on pages online.Inspired by the comic, Wikipedia editors have since maintained an internal list of citogenesis incidents, to monitor its prevalence.Wikipedia advises researchers and journalists to be wary of, and generally avoid, using Wikipedia as a direct source, and to focus instead on verifiable information found in an article's cited references. Researchers and Wikipedians alike are advised to note the retrieved-on date of any web citation, to support identification of the earliest source of a claim.\n\n\n=== Examples on Wikipedia ===\n\nProminent examples of false claims that were propagated on Wikipedia and in news sources because of circular reporting:\n\n2007: Wikipedia and The Independent propagated the false information that comedian Sacha Baron Cohen had worked at Goldman Sachs.\n2008: A student arbitrarily added \"also known as....Brazilian Aardvarks\" to the article on the coati, leading to subsequent commentary on the mammal that mentioned this nickname. Outlets repeating the nickname included The Independent, the Daily Express, the Metro, The Daily Telegraph, the Daily Mail, a book published by the University of Chicago, and a scholarly work published by the University of Cambridge.\n2009: The middle name \"Wilhelm\" was falsely added into Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg's name. This was propagated by a raft of publications, including German and international press.\n2009: An incorrect release year of 1991 was added to the Wikipedia article of the Casio F-91W watch. The BBC repeated this in a 2011 article. Communication with primary sources repeatedly confirmed a 1989 release year, but as a reliable secondary source, the BBC's use of 1991 made the misinformation difficult to remove. In 2019, KSNV cited this incident as another example of citogenesis.  The correct year was only restored after that review, with the KSNV article becoming cited in the article to support restoring the 1989 release date.\n2014: A statement was anonymously added to the Wikipedia page on UK comedian Dave Gorman stating that he had \"taken a career break for a sponsored hitch-hike around the Pacific Rim countries\". When this was questioned, an article published at a later date (September 2014) in The Northern Echo, a daily regional newspaper in North East England was cited as evidence. Gorman repudiated the claim in an episode of his UK television show Modern Life Is Goodish (first broadcast 22 November 2016).\n\n\n== Examples outside Wikipedia ==\nIn 2001, the Niger uranium forgeries, documents initially released by SISMI (the former military intelligence agency of Italy), seemed to depict an attempt made by Saddam Hussein in Iraq to purchase yellowcake uranium powder from Niger during the Iraq disarmament crisis. They were referenced by other intelligence agencies to convince their governments or publics that such a purchase had taken place.\nIn 2018, Shehroze Chaudhry was identified as an active member of the Islamic State who participated in the killing of several individuals, through reporting involving a The New York Times podcast, among others. The podcast and other outlets referenced blog posts authored by Chaudhry starting in 2016. The podcast was taken by government officials and others as evidence of the crime; however, the original posts were unverified and later renounced by the author.\n\n\n== See also ==\nCircular reasoning\nCircular reference\nDon't repeat yourself (DRY)\nGhost word\nHoax\nMedia echo chamber\nReliability of Wikipedia\nRumor\nSelf-reference\nSelf-reference effect\nSingle source of truth\nSingle version of the truth\nSystem of record\nWikiality\nWoozle effect\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Circular_reporting.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Relationship_between_Wikipedia_and_the_press.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b6/Citogenesis.png"], "summary": "Circular reporting, or false confirmation, is a situation in source criticism where a piece of information appears to come from multiple independent sources, but in reality comes from only one source. In many cases, the problem happens mistakenly through sloppy intelligence-gathering practices. However, at other times the situation can be intentionally contrived by the original source as a way of reinforcing the widespread belief in its information.This problem occurs in a variety of fields, including intelligence gathering, journalism, and scholarly research. It is of particular concern in military intelligence because the original source has a higher likelihood of wanting to pass on misinformation, and because the chain of reporting is more prone to being obscured. It is also a problem in journalism and the development of conspiracy theories, in which the primary goal of a source spreading unlikely or hard-to-believe information is to make it appear to be widely known.\nThe case of the 2002 Niger uranium forgeries was a classic instance of circular reporting by intelligence agencies.\n\n"}, "World_War_Two": {"links": ["Russian Empire", "Vatican City in World War II", "Superpower", "Department of the Army", "Danish resistance movement", "Alessandro Portelli", "Prisoner-of-war camp", "Second Battle of El Alamein", "The Historical Journal", "World War II casualties of Poland", "Yalta Conference", "Pomerania", "South Korea", "Allied-occupied Germany", "End of World War II in Europe", "Red Army", "Bibcode ", "Sheldon H. Harris", "Close combat", "Japan\u2013United States relations", "Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine", "Neutrality Acts of the nineteen thirtys", "Nevile Henderson", "East Pomeranian Offensive", "United States Army Air Forces", "Nepal in World War II", "Johns Hopkins University Press", "Military alliance", "Clarendon Press", "Crimean campaign", "Kuban", "Viking Press", "Infectious disease", "Japanese Imperial Army", "Freemasons", "RAF Fighter Command", "Battle of Okinawa", "List of battles by casualties", "South West Pacific theatre of World War II", "Werner Rahn", "Soviet\u2013Japanese Neutrality Pact", "Galicia and World War II", "Europe-Asia Studies", "Curzon line", "Cold War", "Norwegian resistance movement", "World War II", "The Emergency ", "Battle of Moscow", "Amnon Sella", "Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan", "Panzer III", "Armistice", "Union of South Africa", "United Nations", "John W. 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Dear", "The Japan Times Online", "Attrition warfare", "Viet Minh", "Assault rifle", "Ethiopian Empire", "Hideki Tojo", "Syria\u2013Lebanon campaign", "Amphibious warfare", "Central Plains War", "Consequences of Nazism", "nineteen thirty-nine\u201340 Winter Offensive", "October Revolution", "Plenipotentiary", "Mariana and Palau Islands campaign", "The Blitz", "Italian occupation of France", "Aerial warfare", "Public Opinion Quarterly", "Romani people", "Comparative officer ranks of World War II", "Stalingrad ", "Polish Armed Forces in the East", "Continuum International Publishing Group", "Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki", "Polish Underground State", "Battle of Mount Song", "Japanese invasion of Thailand", "One-party period of the Republic of Turkey", "Remagen", "German prisoners of war in the United Kingdom", "Black May ", "Stavka", "Post\u2013World War II baby boom", "USS Arizona ", "Dutch East Indies campaign", "Appeasement", "List of wars by death toll", "U-boat", "Events preceding World War II in Europe", "Vienna offensive", "Yale University Press", "William B. 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Berend", "Norman Naimark", "Nation-states", "Gulag: A History", "Hamish Hamilton", "Battle of the Kerch Peninsula", "German-occupied Europe", "Allied invasion of Italy", "People's Socialist Republic of Albania", "South Sakhalin", "Commonwealth of the Philippines", "Gold Coast in World War II", "Colonial empire", "The English Historical Review", "History of penicillin", "Stalin's ten blows", "Treaty of London ", "Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust", "Battle of Monte Cassino", "United States war crimes", "Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy", "Belgium", "Proxy war", "Timeline of the Manhattan Project", "Italian East Africa", "Da Capo Press", "Nazism", "Military history of Newfoundland during World War II", "Operation Husky", "Tripartite Pact", "MBI Publishing Company", "Yasuji Okamura", "First Jassy\u2013Kishinev Offensive", "Spencer C. 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Payne", "Operation Silver Fox", "John Erickson ", "Potsdam Agreement", "Military history of Gibraltar during World War II", "Separate peace", "Invasion of Lingayen Gulf", "Canada in World War II", "Belgium in World War II", "Independent Operational Group Polesie", "Polish army order of battle in nineteen thirty-nine", "History of the Jews in Romania", "Tanggu Truce", "Vargas Era", "Central Powers", "Rump state", "Czechoslovak Socialist Republic", "Battle of Nanking", "Charles de Gaulle", "Ianjo", "Timeline of the surrender of Axis forces at the end of World War II", "Potsdam Conference", "Allied war crimes during World War II", "Arbegnoch", "Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina", "Casablanca Conference", "Tuva in World War II", "Urban warfare", "Planned destruction of Warsaw", "Baltic region", "Burma campaign", "Missile", "Battle of the Atlantic", "Morocco in World War II", "Burma campaign ", "War crimes", "Rowman & Littlefield", "Operation Ichi-Go", "Combined arms", "University of Georgia Press", "Lvov\u2013Sandomierz offensive", "Indiana University Press", "Operation Pluto", "Antwerp", "Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany", "Battle of Changde", "Strategic goal ", "Battleship", "Venezuela during World War II", "Conscription", "Victory Day ", "Ultra", "Mongolian People's Republic", "Jehovah's Witnesses", "Tanks in World War II", "Close air support", "Self-propelled gun", "Crimes against humanity", "Winter campaign of 1941\u2013forty-two", "Romania", "Aftermath of World War I", "Second Battle of Kharkov", "Belgrade offensive", "Operation Dragoon", "People's Republic of Mongolia", "Bombing of Guernica", "World War I", "Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union", "Battles of Khalkhin Gol", "List of air operations during the Battle of Europe", "NKVD prisoner massacres", "Battle of Greece", "Mongolia in World War II", "Iris Chang", "Western New Guinea campaign", "Dutch famine of nineteen forty-four\u20131945", "Rape during the liberation of France", "Military history of Australia during World War II", "International humanitarian law", "WWII ", "Vistula\u2013Oder Offensive", "Operation Queen", "Surrender of Caserta", "History of Slovakia", "Romanian Bridgehead", "World War II in the Basque Country", "Battle of Taierzhuang", "German invasion of the Netherlands", "Casemate Publishers", "Naval Institute Press", "Arakan Campaign nineteen forty-two\u201343", "Independence Hall ", "Japanese dissidence in twentyth-century Imperial Japan", "Taylor & Francis", "Nazi Germany", "Cryptanalysis", "MGthirty-four", "Operation Mars", "Armistice of 22 June nineteen forty", "German invasion of Luxembourg", "Creation of Israel", "Kingdom of Italy", "East Asia Development Board", "Labour force", "German prisoners of war in the United States", "BBC", "Alfred A. 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Morrow", "Frank Cass", "Soviet prisoners of war in Finland", "Counter-offensive", "Berghahn Books", "Heinemann ", "Second Happy Time", "Anti-submarine warfare", "Ulrich Herbert", "New Mexico", "Romania in World War II", "Korean Liberation Army", "Civitella in Val di Chiana", "Army Group South Ukraine", "Anti-Comintern Pact", "Battle of the Java Sea", "Battle of Britain", "Xuzhou", "Battle of Midway", "Penguin Books", "Czes\u0142awa Kwoka", "World War II cryptography", "Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II", "Wilhelm Keitel", "Japanese occupation of Singapore", "Spanish Civil War", "Vichy France", "Submarine", "Atomic Age", "Eswatini in World War II", "Battle of Luzon", "Operation Sonnenblume", "Richard Overy", "Democratic Federal Yugoslavia", "Greenwood Publishing Group", "Opposition to World War II", "Referendum", "Siege of Warsaw ", "Warsaw Uprising", "John Wiley & Sons", "Assam", "Kwantung Army", "Forced labour under German rule during World War II", "Switzerland during the World Wars", "Rhine-Ruhr", "Greek Civil War", "Battle of Madagascar", "International response to the Holocaust", "Statism in Sh\u014dwa Japan", "Drang nach Osten", "Rutgers University Press", "Steppe", "Karl D\u00f6nitz", "Decolonization", "Totalitarianism", "Soviet occupation of the Baltic states ", "Battle of the Dnieper", "Slovak invasion of Poland", "Trente Glorieuses", "Madagascar in World War II", "German re-armament", "Guangxi", "Harvard University Press", "Sierra Leone in World War II", "Jet aircraft", "Operation Panzerfaust", "Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia", "United States Marine Corps", "Battle of Smolensk ", "South-East Asian theatre of World War II", "Division of Korea", "British Empire", "Soviet partisans", "Armistice of twenty-two June 1940", "Kenya in World War II", "List of World War II military operations", "Akira Iriye", "Annexation", "Polity", "Class collaboration", "University of California", "Benito Mussolini", "Home Army", "Ukraine", "Soviet invasion of Manchuria", "United States Pacific Fleet", "Jonathan Steinberg", "Siege of Sevastopol ", "World War II in the Slovene Lands", "Basic Books", "Persian Corridor", "Axis leaders of World War II", "Battle casualties of World War II", "Women in World War II", "Adlertag", "Marzabotto massacre", "Operation Cottage", "Extermination camp", "Frank Cass Publishers", "Rana Mitter", "ASIN ", "Palgrave Macmillan", "Chongqing", "Latin America during World War II", "Imperial Japanese Army", "Volga", "First Battle of Kharkov", "Free French Forces", "French Indochina in World War II", "Operation Compass", "Satellite state", "German military administration in occupied France during World War II", "German war crimes", "Emperor Hirohito", "Munich Agreement", "Kuril Islands", "Arizona during World War II", "Reichstag building", "Hungarian People's Republic", "Niall Ferguson", "List of Allied World War II conferences", "Battle of Gabon", "Aleutian Islands campaign", "Sant'Anna di Stazzema massacre", "Austrian resistance", "Events preceding World War II in Asia", "Military history of New Zealand during World War II", "Mental disorder", "Philippines campaign ", "Radar", "Port Moresby", "Export Control Act", "Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire", "World War II by country", "Allied-occupied Austria", "Battle of Hong Kong", "United States declaration of war on Japan", "United Kingdom", "Sphere of influence", "Second United Front", "German colonial empire", "Egypt in World War II", "Lebensraum", "Manchukuo", "Kokoda Track campaign", "Allied invasion of Sicily", "Flight and expulsion of Germans ", "Anne Applebaum", "Military production during World War II", "Greece", "John K. Fairbank", "Peenem\u00fcnde", "SS", "Italian Eritrea", "Operation Wilfred", "Battle of Gazala", "Japanese occupation of Kiska", "Marshall Plan", "St Nazaire Raid", "Case Anton", "Lists of World War II military equipment", "Jeffrey Herf", "Operation Kutuzov", "North African Campaign", "Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia", "Allied submarines in the Pacific War", "University of Nebraska Press", "Battle of Xinkou", "Empire of Japan", "Pacific Ocean theater of World War II", "Battle of Wake Island", "The Third Reich at War", "Airlift", "USS Lexington ", "Europe first", "Chinese Civil War", "Hippocrene Books", "Operation Crossbow", "Nanking Massacre", "Japanese occupation of the Gilbert Islands", "Warsaw", "Scuttling of the French fleet at Toulon", "Blackwell Publishing", "European integration", "World War I reparations", "Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council", "Geoffrey Roberts", "Japanese occupation of Burma", "Bombing of Darwin", "Uruguay during World War II", "Wehrmacht", "Carpathian Ruthenia during World War II", "Anti-tank warfare", "Japanese invasion of Manchuria", "Warsaw Pact", "German Empire", "Manchester University Press", "Java", "French West Africa in World War II", "Borneo campaign", "Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union", "Transaction Publishers", "Operation Plunder", "Ottoman Empire", "Second Spanish Republic", "Bomber", "twond Panzer Army", "Four Policemen"], "content": "World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries\u2014including all of the great powers\u2014forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis powers. In a total war directly involving more than 100 million personnel from more than 30 countries, the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, blurring the distinction between civilian and military resources. Aircraft played a major role in the conflict, enabling the strategic bombing of population centres and the only two uses of nuclear weapons in war to this day. World War II was by far the deadliest conflict in human history, and resulted in 70 to 85 million fatalities, a majority being civilians. Tens of millions of people died due to genocides (including the Holocaust), starvation, massacres, and disease.  In the wake of the Axis defeat, Germany and Japan were occupied, and war crimes tribunals were conducted against German and Japanese leaders.\nWorld War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany, under Adolf Hitler, invaded Poland. The United Kingdom and France subsequently declared war on Germany on the 3rd. Under the Molotov\u2013Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union had partitioned Poland and marked out their \"spheres of influence\" across Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan (along with other countries later on). Following the onset of campaigns in North Africa and East Africa, and the fall of France in mid-1940, the war continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the British Empire, with war in the Balkans, the aerial Battle of Britain, the Blitz of the UK, and the Battle of the Atlantic. On 22 June 1941, Germany led the European Axis powers in an invasion of the Soviet Union, opening the Eastern Front, the largest land theatre of war in history and trapping the Axis powers, crucially the German Wehrmacht, in a war of attrition.\nJapan, which aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific, was at war with the Republic of China by 1937. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, including an attack on the US fleet at Pearl Harbor which forced the US to declare war against Japan; the European Axis powers declared war on the US in solidarity. Japan soon captured much of the western Pacific, but its advances were halted in 1942 after losing the critical Battle of Midway; later, Germany and Italy were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943\u2014including a series of German defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasions of Sicily and the Italian mainland, and Allied offensives in the Pacific\u2014cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced it into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained its territorial losses and turned towards Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and captured key western Pacific islands.\nThe war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories, and the invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, culminating in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, Hitler's suicide and the German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945. Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender on its terms, the United States dropped the first atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima, on 6 August, and Nagasaki, on 9 August. Faced with an imminent invasion of the Japanese archipelago, the possibility of additional atomic bombings, and the Soviet entry into the war against Japan and its invasion of Manchuria, Japan announced its intention to surrender on 15 August, then signed the surrender document on 2 September 1945, cementing total victory in Asia for the Allies.\nWorld War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the globe. The United Nations (UN) was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts, and the victorious great powers\u2014China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States\u2014became the permanent members of its Security Council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the nearly half-century-long Cold War. In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and Asia. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion. Political integration, especially in Europe, began as an effort to forestall future hostilities, end pre-war enmities and forge a sense of common identity.\n\n\n== Chronology ==\n\nThe war in Europe is generally considered to have started on 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland; the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria, on 19 September 1931.Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and the two wars merged in 1941. This article uses conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II.The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945 (V-J Day), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia. A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place and resolved most post-World War II issues. No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed.\n\n\n== Background ==\n\n\n=== Europe ===\nWorld War I had radically altered the political European map, with the defeat of the Central Powers\u2014including Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire\u2014and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia, which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman and Russian Empires.\n\nTo prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was created during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military and naval disarmament, and settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration.\nDespite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I, irredentist and revanchist nationalism emerged in several European states in the same period. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions, while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces.The German Empire was dissolved in the German Revolution of 1918\u20131919, and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian, and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, and promising the creation of a \"New Roman Empire\".\n\nAdolf Hitler, after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933 when Paul Von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. He abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massive rearmament campaign. Meanwhile, France, to secure its alliance, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription.The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year.Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement. In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome\u2013Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy joined the following year.\n\n\n=== Asia ===\nThe Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party allies and new regional warlords. In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan, which had long sought influence in China as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia, staged the Mukden Incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo.China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai, Rehe and Hebei, until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan. After the 1936 Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan.\n\n\n== Pre-war events ==\n\n\n=== Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) ===\n\nThe Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy (Regno d'Italia), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant. The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria.\n\n\n=== Spanish Civil War (1936\u20131939) ===\n\nWhen civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels, led by General Francisco Franco. Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis did: altogether Mussolini sent to Spain more than 70,000 ground troops and 6,000 aviation personnel, as well as about 720 aircraft. The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic. More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis. His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front.\n\n\n=== Japanese invasion of China (1937) ===\n\nIn July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China. The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior co-operation with Germany. From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan, engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou, and fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan. Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai, but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were murdered by the Japanese.In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by the Japanese in May. In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan, but the city was taken by October. Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war.\n\n\n=== Soviet\u2013Japanese border conflicts ===\n\nIn the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia. The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron, which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. With the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets, this policy would prove difficult to maintain. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward, eventually leading to its war with the United States and the Western Allies.\n\n\n=== European occupations and agreements ===\n\nIn Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria, again provoking little response from other European powers. Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland, an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed Czechoslovakia's Zaolzie region.Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish \"war-mongers\" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state, the Slovak Republic. Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaip\u0117da Region, formerly the German Memelland.\n\nGreatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig, the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece. Shortly after the Franco-British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel. Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to \"encircle\" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German\u2013Polish Non-Aggression Pact.The situation reached a general crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August, when tripartite negotiations about a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom and Soviet Union stalled, the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany. This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet \"spheres of influence\" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I. Immediately after that, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it.In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which only served as a pretext to worsen relations. On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig, and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30\u201331 August in a stormy meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected.\n\n\n== Course of the war ==\n\n\n=== War breaks out in Europe (1939\u201340) ===\n\nOn 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defenses at Westerplatte. The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum to Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, France and Britain declared war on Germany, followed by Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Canada. The alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland. The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and the war effort. Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic.\n\nOn 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw. The Polish counter offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht. Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw. On 17 September 1939, after signing a cease-fire with Japan, the Soviet Union invaded Eastern Poland under a pretext that the Polish state had ostensibly ceased to exist. On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October. Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and the Baltic countries; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war.Germany annexed the western and occupied the central part of Poland, and the Soviet Union annexed its eastern part; small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected, and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather.\n\nThe Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries\u2014Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, which were in the Soviet \"sphere of influence\" under the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact\u2014to sign \"mutual assistance pacts\" that stipulated stationing Soviet troops in these countries. Soon after, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, and the Soviet Union was expelled from the League of Nations. Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success was modest, and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 with minimal Finnish concessions.In June 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, and the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, northern Bukovina and Hertza. Meanwhile, Nazi-Soviet political rapprochement and economic co-operation gradually stalled, and both states began preparations for war.\n\n\n=== Western Europe (1940\u201341) ===\n\nIn April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden, which the Allies were attempting to cut off. Denmark capitulated after a few hours, and Norway was conquered within two months despite Allied support. British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the appointment of Winston Churchill as Prime Minister on 10 May 1940.On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France. To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, which was mistakenly perceived by Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. By successfully implementing new blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although abandoning almost all their equipment.On 10 June, Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones, and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany.\n\nThe air Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours. The United Kingdom rejected Hitler's peace offer, and the German air superiority campaign started in August but failed to defeat RAF Fighter Command, forcing the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain. The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz, but failed to significantly disrupt the British war effort and largely ended in May 1941.Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy, using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic. The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck.In November 1939, the United States was taking measures to assist China and the Western Allies and amended the Neutrality Act to allow \"cash and carry\" purchases by the Allies. In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased. In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases. Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. In December 1940 Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an \"arsenal of democracy\" and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of aid to support the British war effort. The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany.At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country, with the exception of the Soviet Union, which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia and Romania joined. Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union.\n\n\n=== Mediterranean (1940\u201341) ===\n\nIn early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta, a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt. In October, Italy attacked Greece, but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. Germany started preparation for an invasion of the Balkans to assist Italy, to prevent the British from gaining a foothold there, which would be a potential threat for Romanian oil fields, and to strike against the British dominance of the Mediterranean.In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa. The offensives were highly successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission by means of a carrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan.\n\nItalian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa and at the end of March 1941, Rommel's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back the Commonwealth forces. In under a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk.By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece, commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. Although the Axis victory was swift, bitter and large-scale partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war.In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria. Between June and July, they invaded and occupied the French possessions Syria and Lebanon, with the assistance of the Free French.\n\n\n=== Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) ===\n\nWith the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia, the two powers signed the Soviet\u2013Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border.Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later. He, therefore, decided to try to strengthen Germany's relations with the Soviets or failing that to attack and eliminate them as a factor. In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the Tripartite Pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union.\n\nOn 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them. They were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. The primary targets of this surprise offensive were the Baltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan line, from the Caspian to the White Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate Communism, generate Lebensraum (\"living space\") by dispossessing the native population and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals.Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt a strategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre, and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially developed Eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov).\n\nThe diversion of three quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy. In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter, which outlined British and American goals for the postwar world. In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor, Iran's oil fields, and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or British India.By October Axis operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region were achieved, with only the sieges of Leningrad and Sevastopol continuing. A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops were forced to suspend their offensive. Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended.By early December, freshly mobilised reserves allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army, allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100\u2013250 kilometres (62\u2013155 mi) west.\n\n\n=== War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) ===\n\nFollowing the Japanese false flag Mukden Incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937-38 Nanjing Massacre, Japanese-American relations deteriorated. In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions, the Export Control Acts, which banned U.S. exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha, a strategically important Chinese city, but was repulsed by late September. Despite several offensives by both sides, the war between China and Japan was stalemated by 1940. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940.\n\nChinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists. The continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation. In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during Battle of Shanggao. In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces.German successes in Europe encouraged Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with some oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo. At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East, intending to capitalise off the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions.Since early 1941 the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations, Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any \"neighboring countries\".\n\nFrustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American\u2013British\u2013Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. On 20 November, a new government under Hideki Tojo presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war.Japan planned to rapidly seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific. These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines, Guam, Wake Island, landings in Malaya, Thailand and the Battle of Hong Kong.The Japanese invasion of Thailand led to Thailand's decision to ally itself with Japan and the other Japanese attacks led the United States, United Kingdom, China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt.\n\n\n=== Axis advance stalls (1942\u201343) ===\n\nOn 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four\u2014the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom and the United States\u2014and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations, thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter, and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers.During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets were also demanding a second front. The British, on the other hand, argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolster resistance forces. Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour without using large-scale armies. Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa.At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland and to invade France in 1944.\n\n\n==== Pacific (1942\u201343) ====\n\nBy the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost fully conquered Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Singapore, and Rabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces, the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean, and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha. These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, as well as overextended.In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid, was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans, having broken Japanese naval codes in late May, were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy.\n\nWith its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan chose to focus on a belated attempt to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua. The Americans planned a counter-attack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily Guadalcanal, as a first step towards capturing Rabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia.Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna\u2013Gona. Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops. In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first, an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942, went disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May 1943. The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front-lines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results.\n\n\n==== Eastern Front (1942\u201343) ====\n\nDespite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. In May the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov, and then launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia in June 1942, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga.By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting. The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad, and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously. By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov, creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk.\n\n\n==== Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942\u201343) ====\n\nExploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast. By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive, Operation Crusader, in North Africa, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. In North Africa, the Germans launched an offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. Concerns the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein. On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the disastrous Dieppe Raid, demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security.In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta. A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies. Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France; although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. The Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943.In June 1943 the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and \"de-house\" the civilian population. The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre.\n\n\n=== Allies gain momentum (1943\u201344) ===\n\nAfter the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians. Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands. By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea.In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia. On 4 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' deeply echeloned and well-constructed defences, and for the first time in the war Hitler cancelled the operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month.\n\nOn 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther\u2013Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and by the Lower Dnieper Offensive.On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland, following Italy's armistice with the Allies. Germany with the help of fascists responded by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, and creating a series of defensive lines. German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic, causing an Italian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November.German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran. The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory and the military planning for the Burma campaign, while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.\n\nFrom November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde, the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition, while awaiting Allied relief. In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio.On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region, thereby ending the most lethal siege in history. The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and made incursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops. The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, on 4 June Rome was captured.The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against British positions in Assam, India, and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima. In May 1944, British forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina. The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha.\n\n\n=== Allies close in (1944) ===\n\nOn 6 June 1944 (known as D-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure, the Western Allies invaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France. These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France. Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces, both led by General Charles de Gaulle, and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Rur river in a large offensive. In Italy, Allied advance also slowed due to the last major German defensive line.\n\nOn 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (\"Operation Bagration\") that destroyed the German Army Group Centre almost completely. Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviets formed the Polish Committee of National Liberation to control territory in Poland and combat the Polish Armia Krajowa; The Soviet Red Army remained in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula and watched passively as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Armia Krajowa. The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. The Soviet Red Army's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'\u00e9tat in Romania and in Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side.In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. By this point, the Communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito, who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia, the Soviet Red Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, although Finland was forced to fight their former ally Germany.\n\nBy the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road. In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December.In the Pacific, US forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history.\n\n\n=== Axis collapse, Allied victory (1944\u201345) ===\n\nOn 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along with the French-German border to split the Western Allies, encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp to prompt a political settlement. By January, the offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Soviets and Poles attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia. On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania, while Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling the German Army Group B. In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and to retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton. In two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna, and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured K\u00f6nigsberg, while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg. American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving several unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin.\n\nSoviet and Polish forces stormed and captured Berlin in late April. In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany, Berlin garrison surrendered on 2 May.\nSeveral changes in leadership occurred during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. Two days later, Hitler committed suicide in besieged Berlin, and he was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl D\u00f6nitz.Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May, to be effective by the end of 8 May. German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May.In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war. Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9\u201310 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history.\n\nIn May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. At the same time, American submarines cut off Japanese imports, drastically reducing Japan's ability to supply its overseas forces.On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that \"the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction\". During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election, and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force. These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands. On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered, with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war.\n\n\n== Aftermath ==\n\nThe Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany. The former became a neutral state, non-aligned with any political bloc. The latter was divided into western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union. A denazification programme in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society.Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia, Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon line, from which 2 million Poles were expelled; north-east Romania, parts of eastern Finland, and the three Baltic states were incorporated into the Soviet Union.\n\nIn an effort to maintain world peace, the Allies formed the United Nations, which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations. The great powers that were the victors of the war\u2014France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States\u2014became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council. The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state, the Russian Federation, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over.\n\nGermany had been de facto divided, and two independent states, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), were created within the borders of Allied and Soviet occupation zones. The rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence. Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Albania became Soviet satellite states. Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy, causing tension with the Soviet Union.Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. The long period of political tensions and military competition between them, the Cold War, would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world.In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War.\n\nIn China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab\u2013Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation.The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom, and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. The UK and US pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany in the years 1945\u20131948. Because of international trade interdependencies this led to European economic stagnation and delayed European recovery for several years.Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the Marshall Plan (1948\u20131951) both directly and indirectly caused. The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle. Italy also experienced an economic boom and the French economy rebounded. By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, it continued in relative economic decline for decades.The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era. Japan recovered much later. China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952.\n\n\n== Impact ==\n\n\n=== Casualties and war crimes ===\n\nEstimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded. Most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about 20 million military personnel and 40 million civilians.\nMany of the civilians died because of deliberate genocide, massacres, mass bombings, disease, and starvation.\nThe Soviet Union alone lost around 27 million people during the war, including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. A quarter of the total people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed. Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany.An estimated 11 to 17 million civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Nazi racist policies, including mass killing of around 6 million Jews, along with Roma, homosexuals, at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups. Between 1941 and 1945, more than 200,000 ethnic Serbs, along with gypsies and Jews, were persecuted and murdered by the Axis-aligned Croatian Usta\u0161e in Yugoslavia. Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres, between 1943 and 1945. At the same time, about 10,000\u201315,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other Polish units, in reprisal attacks.\n\nIn Asia and the Pacific, between 3 million and more than 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese (estimated at 7.5 million), were killed by the Japanese occupation forces. The most infamous Japanese atrocity was the Nanking Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered. Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during the Sank\u014d Sakusen. General Yasuji Okamura implemented the policy in Heipei and Shantung.Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons. The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China (see Unit 731) and in early conflicts against the Soviets. Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians, and sometimes on prisoners of war.The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, and the imprisonment or execution of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia, in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army.The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. The USAAF firebombed a total of 67 Japanese cities, killing 393,000 civilians and destroying 65% of built-up areas.\n\n\n=== Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour ===\n\nNazi Germany was responsible for the Holocaust (which killed approximately 6 million Jews) as well as for killing 2.7 million ethnic Poles and 4 million others who were deemed \"unworthy of life\" (including the disabled and mentally ill, Soviet prisoners of war, Romani, homosexuals, Freemasons, and Jehovah's Witnesses) as part of a programme of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a \"genocidal state\". Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions, and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war. In addition to concentration camps, death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers; about 12 million Europeans from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy.The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942\u201343, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939\u201340 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs. By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators.\n\nJapanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 per cent (for American POWs, 37 per cent), seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56.At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board, or K\u014dain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. In Java, between 4 and 10 million r\u014dmusha (Japanese: \"manual labourers\"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java.\n\n\n=== Occupation ===\n\nIn Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the sizeable plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on.\n\nIn the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the \"inferior people\" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass executions. Although resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the East or the West until late 1943.\nIn Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3) of oil (~5.5\u00d7105 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (~6.8\u00d710^6 t), 76 per cent of its 1940 output rate.\n\n\n=== Home fronts and production ===\n\nIn Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); if colonies are included, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included.The United States produced about two-thirds of all the munitions used by the Allies in WWII, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition.\nThough the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into one of attrition. While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis is often attributed to the Allies having more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force, Allied strategic bombing, and Germany's late shift to a war economy contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers; Germany used about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia.\n\n\n=== Advances in technology and warfare ===\n\nAircraft were used for reconnaissance, as fighters, bombers, and ground-support, and each role was advanced considerably. Innovation included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); and of strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery. The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and, though late introduction meant it had little impact, it led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. Although guided missiles were being developed, they were not advanced enough to reliably target aircraft until some years after the war.\nAdvances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare, most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines. Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor, and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship. In the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap. Carriers were also more economical than battleships because of the relatively low cost of aircraft and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured. Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War, were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog, squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious over the German submarines.\n\nLand warfare changed from the static front lines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry, to increased mobility and combined arms. The tank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. Many means of destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG34, and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. The assault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard postwar infantry weapon for most armed forces.\n\nMost major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well known being the German Enigma machine. Development of SIGINT (signals intelligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes and British Ultra, a pioneering method for decoding Enigma benefiting from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. Another aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception, which the Allies used to great effect, such as in operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard.Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear weapons, operations research and the development of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under the English Channel. Penicillin was first mass-produced and used during the war (see Stabilization and mass production of penicillin).\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nIndex of World War II articles\nLists of World War II topics\nOutline of World War II\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== Citations ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nWest Point Maps of the European War\nWest Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War\nAtlas of the World Battle Fronts (July 1943 to August 1945)\nRecords of World War II propaganda posters are held by Simon Fraser University's Special Collections and Rare Books Archived 2 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine\nMaps of World War II in Europe at Omniatlas", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/2-8_Field_Regt.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/228_regiment_in_HK.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/8th_AF_Bombing_Marienburg.JPEG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/9_Div_Tobruk%28AWM_020779%29.jpg", 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"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Nagasakibomb.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/The_USS_Arizona_%28BB-39%29_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/USS_Pennsylvania_moving_into_Lingayen_Gulf.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg"], "summary": "World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries\u2014including all of the great powers\u2014forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis powers. In a total war directly involving more than 100 million personnel from more than 30 countries, the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, blurring the distinction between civilian and military resources. Aircraft played a major role in the conflict, enabling the strategic bombing of population centres and the only two uses of nuclear weapons in war to this day. World War II was by far the deadliest conflict in human history, and resulted in 70 to 85 million fatalities, a majority being civilians. Tens of millions of people died due to genocides (including the Holocaust), starvation, massacres, and disease.  In the wake of the Axis defeat, Germany and Japan were occupied, and war crimes tribunals were conducted against German and Japanese leaders.\nWorld War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany, under Adolf Hitler, invaded Poland. The United Kingdom and France subsequently declared war on Germany on the 3rd. Under the Molotov\u2013Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union had partitioned Poland and marked out their \"spheres of influence\" across Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan (along with other countries later on). Following the onset of campaigns in North Africa and East Africa, and the fall of France in mid-1940, the war continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the British Empire, with war in the Balkans, the aerial Battle of Britain, the Blitz of the UK, and the Battle of the Atlantic. On 22 June 1941, Germany led the European Axis powers in an invasion of the Soviet Union, opening the Eastern Front, the largest land theatre of war in history and trapping the Axis powers, crucially the German Wehrmacht, in a war of attrition.\nJapan, which aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific, was at war with the Republic of China by 1937. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, including an attack on the US fleet at Pearl Harbor which forced the US to declare war against Japan; the European Axis powers declared war on the US in solidarity. Japan soon captured much of the western Pacific, but its advances were halted in 1942 after losing the critical Battle of Midway; later, Germany and Italy were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943\u2014including a series of German defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasions of Sicily and the Italian mainland, and Allied offensives in the Pacific\u2014cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced it into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained its territorial losses and turned towards Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and captured key western Pacific islands.\nThe war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories, and the invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, culminating in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, Hitler's suicide and the German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945. Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender on its terms, the United States dropped the first atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima, on 6 August, and Nagasaki, on 9 August. Faced with an imminent invasion of the Japanese archipelago, the possibility of additional atomic bombings, and the Soviet entry into the war against Japan and its invasion of Manchuria, Japan announced its intention to surrender on 15 August, then signed the surrender document on 2 September 1945, cementing total victory in Asia for the Allies.\nWorld War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the globe. The United Nations (UN) was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts, and the victorious great powers\u2014China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States\u2014became the permanent members of its Security Council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the nearly half-century-long Cold War. In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and Asia. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion. Political integration, especially in Europe, began as an effort to forestall future hostilities, end pre-war enmities and forge a sense of common identity."}, "Republic_of_China_": {"links": ["List of countries by road network size", "Dim sum bond", "War of the Eight Princes", "Unitary state", "Brahmic scripts", "Yalu River", "Economy of Algeria", "Tibetan alphabet", "Kenya", "Jinan", "Supachai Panitchpakdi", "Foreign relations of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic", ".cn", "Zhao Leji", "Abkhazia", "Socialism with Chinese characteristics", "Economy of Belgium", "East Asian cuisine", "Rainforest", "Dao County", "Jiangxi", "Health in China", "Confucianism", "Gojoseon\u2013Han War", "President of the People's Republic of China", "CIA World Factbook", "Wuhan", "Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang", "Xiangqi", "South\u2013North Water Transfer Project", "Chongqing", "Reform of the United Nations Security Council", "Zhejiang", "East Asian Yog\u0101c\u0101ra", "Yinxu", "APEC Indonesia 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University", "History of East Asia", "Science and technology of the Han dynasty", "Swimming ", "China National Highways", "Hmong\u2013Mien languages", "Figurehead", "Human rights in Tibet", "Pew Research Center", "World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of nineteen ninety-nine", "Iraq", "Chemistry World", "Hunan", "Economy of the Maldives", "Chongzhen Emperor", "Cholera", "Second Sino-Japanese War", "Shenzhen", "Xi'an", "Megadiverse countries", "ISO forty-two seventeen", "Israel", "Tajiks of Xinjiang", "Yellow River", "Economy of Benin", "Huawei", "Politburo Standing Committee", "Latin alphabet", "Changchun", "Malnutrition", "CNN", "Gtwenty", "Developing countries", "Cheongsam", "Hanyu Pinyin", "CBS News", "List of countries and dependencies by population", "Cultural Revolution", "Turkic languages", "Shandong cuisine", "Economy of Macau", "Index of China-related articles", "Fifth-generation jet fighter", "List of Chinese astronauts", "Japanese art", "Economy of Seychelles", "Yamato people", "Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei", "Traditional Chinese medicine", "Political status of Taiwan", "Media freedom in China", "List of national parks of China", "Foreign relations of South Africa", "Moon Jae-in", "First Sino-Japanese war", "Reproductive rights", "South China", "Fourteenth East Asia Summit", "Special administrative regions of China", "First Emperor", "List of BRICS leaders", "Cantonese opera", "Four Classics", "People's Republic of Bulgaria", "Negative numbers", "List of Asian stock exchanges", "Sandinista ideology", "Militia ", "List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel", "List of metro systems", "Programme for International Student Assessment", "Economy of Thailand", "Chinese people", "APEC Malaysia nineteen ninety-eight", "Mazu ", "Comprehensive Economic Partnership for East Asia", "Bibliography of China", "ASEAN", "Special Economic Zones of China", "Suzhou", "Supreme People's Procuratorate", "Hainan Province", "Chinese New Year", "Human rights in Macau", "Nobel Prize in Physics", "Deadline Hollywood", "United Nations Security Council elections", "Freedom of assembly", "STEM fields", "American Left", "Internet censorship in China", "Economy of Malawi", "Pax Sinica", "Dance in China", "Yellow Emperor", "Bolivarian Revolution", "Economy of Sweden", "Fuzhou dialect", "Alejandro Jara", "Urban rail transit in China", "Transition from Ming to Qing", "Northern and southern China", "Chinese philosophy", "Pfive+1", "Qing dynasty", "Manchus", "Indo-European language", "Xungen movement", "People's Daily", "Quantum Experiments at Space Scale", "Banpo", "Henan", "Economy of Mongolia", "Chairman of the Central Military Commission ", "Historical GDP of China", "Qin ", "Economy of Bulgaria", "Himalayas", "nineth BRICS summit", "Chinese knotting", "Heavy industry", "Shun dynasty", "Three Gorges Dam", "Spring and Autumn period", "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala", "Hundred Schools of Thought", "Foreign aid to China", "ISNI ", "List of diplomatic missions of the People's Republic of China", "Han characters", "Cambodia", "China\u2013India relations", "Five Classics", "East Asian studies", "Anti-Qing sentiment", "Hebei province", "Individualism", "Northern and Southern dynasties", "Cantonese cuisine", "History of typography in East Asia", "Harvard University Press", "Daniel C. Tsui", "Snooker", "Kyrgyzstan", "East Asian dragon", "Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures", "National People's Congress", "Bloomberg News", "Guangzhou Metro", "World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of twenty thirteen", "Human Rights Watch", "Kuantan", "Manchu language", "AP News", "Telecommunications in China", "Three Kingdoms", "Somaliland", "Tibet Autonomous Region", "Economy of Tajikistan", "Two-child policy", "China and weapons of mass destruction", "Sichuanese Mandarin", "Xiao'erjing", "threerd BRICS summit", "Martin Jacques", "One country, two systems", "Library of Alexandria", "TRIPS Agreement", "Sexual abuse", "Iran", "Chinese painting", "Five Barbarians", "Gaokao", "Dispute Settlement Body", "Mongolian People's Republic", "Emerging countries", "Kaifeng", "Progenitor", "Business Insider", "Miyamoto Musashi", "Wayback Machine", "Great Hall of the People", "Guangxu Emperor", "Yi Sun-sin", "Taiwanese indigenous peoples", "Slavery in 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Socialist Society", "Statistics of the COVID-nineteen pandemic in mainland China", "Coordinated Universal Time", "Britain's Road to Socialism", "Reconstructions of Old Chinese", "Russia\u2013South Africa relations", "Mao Zedong", "Ujamaa", "Standard Chinese", "Economy of Mexico", "Economy of Tonga", "Economy of Barbados", "Nominal GDP", "Foreign relations of Armenia", "Three teachings", "Chinese folklore", "twenty eleven Summer Universiade", "Fujian", "Hua Guofeng", "List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP", "Bibliography of Chinese history", "Third East Asia Summit", "Written vernacular Chinese", "Water pollution", "Socialism in Estonia", "Qin Shi Huang", "Chinese financial system", "Military of China", "Uyghur people", "Rice noodle roll", "Credit Suisse", "Portuguese people", "Environment of China", "Republic of Ireland", "Eurasian Steppe", "Sino-Xenic pronunciations", "Peterson Institute for International Economics", "Mongolian folk religion", "Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture", "Malays ", "Homosexuality in China", "Tian ", "Library of Congress Country Studies", "Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic", "United Nations Security Council resolution", "Mixed economy", "Xia dynasty", "List of diplomatic missions in China", "China\u2013South Africa relations", "Ming treasure voyages", "Economy of the United Kingdom", "People's Revolutionary Government ", "Economy of Namibia", "Economy of Zimbabwe", "Thailand", "Azerbaijan", "National Bureau of Statistics of China", "MBAREA ", "Xinjiang re-education camps", "Dictator", "Government-owned corporation", "Kyrgyz in China", "Old Texts", "Economy of Gabon", "Extreme points of China", "Economy of Poland", "Direct-controlled municipality of China", "Unified Task Force", "OCLC ", "Economy of Laos", "International Trade Centre", "Agreement on Government Procurement", "Infant mortality", "List of cities proper by population", "Socialism in Greece", "The Guardian", "BeiDou", "Christmas Island", 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"Associated Press", "Slovak Socialist Republic", "Chunyun", "Republic", "Chinese tea culture", "Beijing\u2013Shanghai high-speed railway", "Economy of Kuwait", "Economy of Djibouti", "List of universities in China", "Zhongnanhai", "Taoists", "Austria", "Capital punishment in the People's Republic of China", "List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions", "East Asian Judo Championships", "Gfour nations", "Democratic centralism", "East Asian Bronze Age", "Democratic Kampuchea", "Chinese Super League", "Sovereign state", "China Internet Information Center", "Christianity in China", "Conifer", "Economy of Slovenia", "CNBC", "Tibetan Plateau", "Min Chinese", "Economy of Denmark", "Two Centenaries", "Taiwan ", "Economy of Uruguay", "Typhoid", "Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions", "Proto-writing", "Patriotic Health Campaign", "Republic of Mahabad", "Argentina", "Oman", "Special drawing rights", "Scarlet fever", "Expressways of China", "Socialism", "Global Innovation Index", "Big data analysis", "Food safety in China", "Economy of Turkey", "Chang'e five", "BBC News", "Singapore", "Varieties of Chinese", "Akrotiri and Dhekelia", "TOPfive hundred", "Sui language", "List of regions of China", "Economy of Kazakhstan", "Lingua franca", "Central Plain ", "Ningxia", "Provinces of China", "Economy of Pakistan", "Andre Gunder Frank", "Laos", "Migration in China", "Pacific Ocean", "Obesity", "K\u00f6ppen climate classification", "Economy of Madagascar", "Bronze Age", "Turpan Depression", "River delta", "List of ports and harbors of the Pacific Ocean", "Kuwait", "Glaciers", "Shanxi", "Territorial changes of the People's Republic of China", "Long March", "France", "Shing-Tung Yau", "Tajikistan", "Migration Policy Institute", "APEC China twenty fourteen", "New Development Bank", "Socialism in Australia", "International recognition of Artsakh", "Qin's campaign against the Yue tribes", "Vietnam", "Compass", "Bibcode ", "Economy of Albania", "Laogai", "List of longest bridges in 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"China National Tourism Administration", "Chinese Taipei"], "content": "China (Chinese: \u4e2d\u56fd; pinyin: Zh\u014dnggu\u00f3; lit. 'Central State; Middle Kingdom'), officially the People's Republic of China (Chinese: \u4e2d\u534e\u4eba\u6c11\u5171\u548c\u56fd; pinyin: Zh\u014dnghu\u00e1 R\u00e9nm\u00edn G\u00f2ngh\u00e9gu\u00f3; PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population of more than 1.4 billion. It borders 14 countries, the second most of any country in the world, after Russia. Covering an area of approximately 9.6 million square kilometers (3.7 million mi2), it is the world's third or fourth largest country. \nThe country is officially divided into 23 provinces, five autonomous regions, and four direct-controlled municipalities of Beijing (the capital city), Tianjin, Shanghai (the largest city), and Chongqing, as well as two special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau.\nChina emerged as one of the world's first civilizations, in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. China was one of the world's foremost economic powers for most of the two millennia from the 1st until the 19th century. For millennia, China's political system was based on absolute hereditary monarchies, or dynasties, beginning with the Xia dynasty in 21st century BCE. Since then, China has expanded, fractured, and re-unified numerous times. In the 3rd century BCE, the Qin reunited core China and established the first Chinese empire. The succeeding Han dynasty (206 BCE\u2013220 CE) saw some of the most advanced technology at that time, including papermaking and the compass, along with agricultural and medical improvements. The invention of gunpowder and movable type in the Tang dynasty (618\u2013907) and Northern Song Dynasty (960\u20131127) completed the Four Great Inventions. Tang culture spread widely in Asia, as the new Silk Route brought traders to as far as Mesopotamia and the Horn of Africa. The Qing Empire, China's last dynasty, which formed the territorial basis for modern China suffered heavy losses to foreign imperialism. The Chinese monarchy collapsed in 1912 with the 1911 Revolution, when the Republic of China (ROC) replaced the Qing dynasty. China was invaded by the Empire of Japan during World War II. The Chinese Civil War resulted in a division of territory in 1949 when the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) led by Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China on mainland China while the Kuomintang-led ROC government retreated to the island of Taiwan. Both the PRC and the ROC currently claim to be the sole legitimate government of China, resulting in an ongoing dispute even after the United Nations recognized the PRC as the government to represent China at all UN conferences in 1971.\nChina is nominally a unitary one-party socialist republic. The country is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and a founding member of several multilateral and regional cooperation organizations such as the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, the Silk Road Fund, the New Development Bank, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership, and is a member of the BRICS, the G8+5, the G20, the APEC, and the East Asia Summit. It ranks among the lowest in international measurements of civil liberties, government transparency, freedom of the press, freedom of religion and ethnic minorities. Chinese authorities have been criticized by political dissidents and human rights activists for widespread human rights abuses, including political repression, mass censorship, mass surveillance of their citizens and violent suppression of protests.\nAfter economic reforms in 1978, and its entry into the World Trade Organization in 2001, China's economy became the second-largest country by nominal GDP in 2010 and grew to the largest in the world by PPP in 2014. China is the world's fastest-growing major economy, the second-wealthiest nation in the world, and the world's largest manufacturer and exporter. The nation has the world's largest standing army \u2014 the People's Liberation Army \u2014 the second-largest defense budget and is a recognized nuclear weapons state. China has been characterized as a potential superpower due to its large economy and powerful military.\n\n\n== Etymology ==\n\nThe word \"China\" has been used in English since the 16th century; however, it was not a word used by the Chinese themselves during this period in time. Its origin has been traced through Portuguese, Malay, and Persian back to the Sanskrit word Ch\u012bna, used in ancient India.\"China\" appears in Richard Eden's 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. Barbosa's usage was derived from Persian Ch\u012bn (\u0686\u06cc\u0646), which was in turn derived from Sanskrit C\u012bna (\u091a\u0940\u0928). C\u012bna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mah\u0101bh\u0101rata (5th century BCE) and the Laws of Manu (2nd century BCE). In 1655, Martino Martini suggested that the word China is derived ultimately from the name of the Qin dynasty (221\u2013206 BCE). Although usage in Indian sources precedes this dynasty, this derivation is still given in various sources. The origin of the Sanskrit word is a matter of debate, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. Alternative suggestions include the names for Yelang and the Jing or Chu state.The official name of the modern state is the \"People's Republic of China\" (simplified Chinese: \u4e2d\u534e\u4eba\u6c11\u5171\u548c\u56fd; traditional Chinese: \u4e2d\u83ef\u4eba\u6c11\u5171\u548c\u570b; pinyin: Zh\u014dnghu\u00e1 R\u00e9nm\u00edn G\u00f2ngh\u00e9gu\u00f3). The shorter form is \"China\" Zh\u014dnggu\u00f3 (\u4e2d\u56fd; \u4e2d\u570b) from zh\u014dng (\"central\") and gu\u00f3 (\"state\"), a term which developed under the Western Zhou dynasty in reference to its royal demesne. It was then applied to the area around Luoyi (present-day Luoyang) during the Eastern Zhou and then to China's Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing. It was often used as a cultural concept to distinguish the Huaxia people from perceived \"barbarians\". The name Zhongguo is also translated as \"Middle Kingdom\" in English. China (PRC) is sometimes referred to as the Mainland when distinguishing the ROC from the PRC.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Prehistory ===\n\nArchaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China 2.25 million years ago. The hominid fossils of Peking Man, a Homo erectus who used fire, were discovered in a cave at Zhoukoudian near Beijing; they have been dated to between 680,000 and 780,000 years ago. The fossilized teeth of Homo sapiens (dated to 125,000\u201380,000 years ago) have been discovered in Fuyan Cave in Dao County, Hunan. Chinese proto-writing existed in Jiahu around 7000 BCE, at Damaidi around 6000 BCE, Dadiwan from 5800 to 5400 BCE, and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BCE. Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu symbols (7th millennium BCE) constituted the earliest Chinese writing system.\n\n\n=== Early dynastic rule ===\n\nAccording to Chinese tradition, the first dynasty was the Xia, which emerged around 2100 BCE. The Xia dynasty marked the beginning of China's political system based on hereditary monarchies, or dynasties, which lasted for a millennium. The dynasty was considered mythical by historians until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou, Henan in 1959. It remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia dynasty or of another culture from the same period. The succeeding Shang dynasty is the earliest to be confirmed by contemporary records. The Shang ruled the plain of the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BCE. Their oracle bone script (from c.\u20091500 BCE) represents the oldest form of Chinese writing yet found and is a direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters.The Shang was conquered by the Zhou, who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries BCE, though centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Some principalities eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou, no longer fully obeyed the Zhou king, and continually waged war with each other in the 300-year Spring and Autumn period. By the time of the Warring States period of the 5th\u20133rd centuries BCE, there were only seven powerful states left.\n\n\n=== Imperial China ===\n\nThe Warring States period ended in 221 BCE after the state of Qin conquered the other six kingdoms, reunited China and established the dominant order of autocracy. King Zheng of Qin proclaimed himself the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty. He enacted Qin's legalist reforms throughout China, notably the forced standardization of Chinese characters, measurements, road widths (i.e., cart axles' length), and currency. His dynasty also conquered the Yue tribes in Guangxi, Guangdong, and Vietnam. The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after the First Emperor's death, as his harsh authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion.Following a widespread civil war during which the imperial library at Xianyang was burned, the Han dynasty emerged to rule China between 206 BCE and CE 220, creating a cultural identity among its populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the Han Chinese. The Han expanded the empire's territory considerably, with military campaigns reaching Central Asia, Mongolia, South Korea, and Yunnan, and the recovery of Guangdong and northern Vietnam from Nanyue. Han involvement in Central Asia and Sogdia helped establish the land route of the Silk Road, replacing the earlier path over the Himalayas to India. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world. Despite the Han's initial decentralization and the official abandonment of the Qin philosophy of Legalism in favor of Confucianism, Qin's legalist institutions and policies continued to be employed by the Han government and its successors.\n\nAfter the end of the Han dynasty, a period of strife known as Three Kingdoms followed, whose central figures were later immortalized in one of the Four Classics of Chinese literature. At its end, Wei was swiftly overthrown by the Jin dynasty. The Jin fell to civil war upon the ascension of a developmentally disabled emperor; the Five Barbarians then invaded and ruled northern China as the Sixteen States. The Xianbei unified them as the Northern Wei, whose Emperor Xiaowen reversed his predecessors' apartheid policies and enforced a drastic sinification on his subjects, largely integrating them into Chinese culture. In the south, the general Liu Yu secured the abdication of the Jin in favor of the Liu Song. The various successors of these states became known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, with the two areas finally reunited by the Sui in 581. The Sui restored the Han to power through China, reformed its agriculture, economy and imperial examination system, constructed the Grand Canal, and patronized Buddhism. However, they fell quickly when their conscription for public works and a failed war in northern Korea provoked widespread unrest.Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese economy, technology, and culture entered a golden age. The Tang Empire retained control of the Western Regions and the Silk Road, which brought traders to as far as Mesopotamia and the Horn of Africa, and made the capital Chang'an a cosmopolitan urban center. However, it was devastated and weakened by the An Lushan Rebellion in the 8th century. In 907, the Tang disintegrated completely when the local military governors became ungovernable. The Song dynasty ended the separatist situation in 960, leading to a balance of power between the Song and Khitan Liao. The Song was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade.\n\nBetween the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people, mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song dynasty also saw a revival of Confucianism, in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang, and a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, as landscape art and porcelain were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity. However, the military weakness of the Song army was observed by the Jurchen Jin dynasty. In 1127, Emperor Huizong of Song and the capital Bianjing were captured during the Jin\u2013Song Wars. The remnants of the Song retreated to southern China.The 13th century brought the Mongol conquest of China. In 1271, the Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty; the Yuan conquered the last remnant of the Song dynasty in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300. A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan in 1368 and founded the Ming dynasty as the Hongwu Emperor. Under the Ming dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that admiral Zheng He led the Ming treasure voyages throughout the Indian Ocean, reaching as far as East Africa.\n\nIn the early years of the Ming dynasty, China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing. With the budding of capitalism, philosophers such as Wang Yangming further critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of individualism and equality of four occupations. The scholar-official stratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements, which, together with the famines and defense against Japanese invasions of Korea (1592\u20131598) and Manchu invasions led to an exhausted treasury.In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of peasant rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. The Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu Qing dynasty, then allied with Ming dynasty general Wu Sangui, overthrew Li's short-lived Shun dynasty and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty.\n\n\n=== Late imperial ===\n\nThe Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. Its conquest of the Ming (1618\u20131683) cost 25 million lives and the economy of China shrank drastically. After the Southern Ming ended, the further conquest of the Dzungar Khanate added Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang to the empire. The centralized autocracy was strengthened to crack down on anti-Qing sentiment with the policy of valuing agriculture and restraining commerce, the Haijin (\"sea ban\"), and ideological control as represented by the literary inquisition, causing social and technological stagnation. In the mid-19th century, the dynasty experienced Western imperialism in the Opium Wars with Britain and France. China was forced to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Hong Kong to the British under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, the first of the Unequal Treaties. The First Sino-Japanese War (1894\u20131895) resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula, as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan.\n\nThe Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which tens of millions of people died, especially in the White Lotus Rebellion, the failed Taiping Rebellion that ravaged southern China in the 1850s and 1860s and the Dungan Revolt (1862\u20131877) in the northwest. The initial success of the Self-Strengthening Movement of the 1860s was frustrated by a series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s.In the 19th century, the great Chinese diaspora began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876\u20131879, in which between 9 and 13 million people died. The Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan in 1898 to establish a modern constitutional monarchy, but these plans were thwarted by the Empress Dowager Cixi. The ill-fated anti-foreign Boxer Rebellion of 1899\u20131901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms, the Xinhai Revolution of 1911\u20131912 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China. Puyi, the last Emperor of China, abdicated in 1912.\n\n\n=== Republic (1912\u20131949) ===\n\nOn 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president. On 12 February 1912, regent Empress Dowager Longyu sealed the imperial abdication decree on behalf of 4 year old Puyi, the last emperor of China, ending 5,000 years of monarchy in China. In March 1912, the presidency was given to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself Emperor of China. In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army, he was forced to abdicate and re-establish the republic in 1916.After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory. In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, the then Principal of the Republic of China Military Academy, was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political manoeuvrings, known collectively as the Northern Expedition. The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to Nanjing and implemented \"political tutelage\", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's San-min program for transforming China into a modern democratic state. The political division in China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the communist People's Liberation Army (PLA), against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the Chinese Civil War. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, especially after the PLA retreated in the Long March, until Japanese aggression and the 1936 Xi'an Incident forced Chiang to confront Imperial Japan.\n\nThe Second Sino-Japanese War (1937\u20131945), a theater of World War II, forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the PLA. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died. An estimated 40,000 to 300,000 Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation. During the war, China, along with the UK, the United States, and the Soviet Union, were referred to as \"trusteeship of the powerful\" and were recognized as the Allied \"Big Four\" in the Declaration by United Nations. Along with the other three great powers, China was one of the four major Allies of World War II, and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war. After the surrender of Japan in 1945, Taiwan, including the Pescadores, was returned to Chinese control. China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. Constitutional rule was established in 1947, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China.\n\n\n=== People's Republic (1949\u2013present) ===\n\nMajor combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the Communist Party in control of most of mainland China, and the Kuomintang retreating offshore to Taiwan, reducing its territory to only Taiwan, Hainan, and their surrounding islands. On 1 October 1949, Communist Party of China Chairman Mao Zedong formally proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China at the new nation's founding ceremony and inaugural military parade in Tiananmen Square, Beijing. In 1950, the People's Liberation Army captured Hainan from the ROC and incorporated Tibet. However, remaining Kuomintang forces continued to wage an insurgency in western China throughout the 1950s.\n\nThe regime consolidated its popularity among the peasants through land reform, which included the execution of between 1 and 2 million landlords. China developed an independent industrial system and its own nuclear weapons. The Chinese population increased from 550 million in 1950 to 900 million in 1974. However, the Great Leap Forward, an idealistic massive reform project, resulted in an estimated 15 to 35 million deaths between 1958 and 1961, mostly from starvation. In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval that lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council.After Mao's death, the Gang of Four was quickly arrested by Hua Guofeng and held responsible for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution. Elder Deng Xiaoping took power in 1978, and instituted significant economic reforms. The Party loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives, and the communes were gradually disbanded in favor of working contracted to households. This marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open-market environment. China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982. In 1989, the suppression of student protests in Tiananmen Square brought condemnations and sanctions against the Chinese government from various foreign countries.Jiang Zemin, Li Peng and Zhu Rongji led the nation in the 1990s. Under their administration, China's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%. The country joined the World Trade Organization in 2001, and maintained its high rate of economic growth under Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao's leadership in the 2000s. However, the growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment, and caused major social displacement.Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping has ruled since 2012 and has pursued large-scale efforts to reform China's economy  (which has suffered from structural instabilities and slowing growth), and has also reformed the one-child policy and penal system, as well as instituting a vast anti corruption crackdown. In 2013, China initiated the Belt and Road Initiative, a global infrastructure investment project. The COVID-19 pandemic broke out in Wuhan, Hubei in 2019.On 1 July 2021, the People's Republic of China celebrated the 100th anniversary of the establishment of the Communist Party of China (one of the Two Centenaries) with a huge gathering in Tiananmen Square in Beijing.\n\n\n== Geography ==\n\nChina's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in the arid north to the subtropical forests in the wetter south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, respectively, run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 km (9,000 mi) long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China connects through the Kazakh border to the Eurasian Steppe which has been an artery of communication between East and West since the Neolithic through the Steppe route \u2013 the ancestor of the terrestrial Silk Road(s).\n\n\n=== Landscape and climate ===\nThe territory of China lies between latitudes 18\u00b0 and 54\u00b0 N, and longitudes 73\u00b0 and 135\u00b0 E. The geographical center of China is marked by the Center of the Country Monument at 35\u00b050\u203240.9\u2033N 103\u00b027\u20327.5\u2033E. China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast territory. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad grasslands predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. Other major rivers include the Xi, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. To the west sit major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas. High plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. The world's highest point, Mount Everest (8,848 m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border. The country's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (\u2212154 m) in the Turpan Depression.\n\nChina's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons, which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist.A major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts, particularly the Gobi Desert. Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Japan and Korea. China's environmental watchdog, SEPA, stated in 2007 that China is losing 4,000 km2 (1,500 sq mi) per year to desertification. Water quality, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting glaciers in the Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortages for hundreds of millions of people. According to academics, in order to limit climate change in China to 1.5 \u00b0C (2.7 \u00b0F) electricity generation from coal in China without carbon capture must be phased out by 2045. Official government statistics about Chinese agricultural productivity are considered unreliable, due to exaggeration of production at subsidiary government levels. Much of China has a climate very suitable for agriculture and the country has been the world's largest producer of rice, wheat, tomatoes, eggplant, grapes, watermelon, spinach, and many other crops.\n\n\n=== Biodiversity ===\n\nChina is one of 17 megadiverse countries, lying in two of the world's major biogeographic realms: the Palearctic and the Indomalayan. By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after Brazil and Colombia. The country signed the Rio de Janeiro Convention on Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 5 January 1993. It later produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, with one revision that was received by the convention on 21 September 2010.China is home to at least 551 species of mammals (the third-highest such number in the world), 1,221 species of birds (eighth), 424 species of reptiles (seventh) and 333 species of amphibians (seventh). Wildlife in China shares habitat with, and bears acute pressure, from the world's largest population of humans. At least 840 animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction in China, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and ingredients for traditional Chinese medicine. Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and as of 2005, the country has over 2,349 nature reserves, covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area. The Baiji was confirmed extinct on 12 December 2006.China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants, and is home to a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as moose and Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species. The understory of moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo. In higher montane stands of juniper and yew, the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons. Subtropical forests, which are predominate in central and southern China, support a high density of plant species including numerous rare endemics. Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island, contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China. China has over 10,000 recorded species of fungi, and of them, nearly 6,000 are higher fungi.\n\n\n=== Environment ===\n\nIn recent decades, China has suffered from severe environmental deterioration and pollution. While regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, they are poorly enforced, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favor of rapid economic development. China is the country with the second highest death toll because of air pollution, after India. There are approximately 1 million deaths caused by exposure to ambient air pollution. China is the world's largest carbon dioxide emitter, and has been ranked as the 13th largest in emissions per capita. The country also has significant water pollution problems: 8.2% of China's rivers had been polluted by industrial and agricultural waste in 2019, and were unfit for use. China had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.14/10, ranking it 53rd globally out of 172 countries.However, China is the world's leading investor in renewable energy and its commercialization, with $52 billion invested in 2011 alone; it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects. By 2015, over 24% of China's energy was derived from renewable sources, while most notably from hydroelectric power: a total installed capacity of 197 GW makes China the largest hydroelectric power producer in the world. China also has the largest power capacity of installed solar photovoltaics system and wind power system in the world. Greenhouse gas emissions by China are the world's largest, as is renewable energy in China.\n\n\n=== Political geography ===\n\nThe People's Republic of China is the second-largest country in the world by land area after Russia, and is the third or fourth largest by total area.  China's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km2 (3,700,000 sq mi). Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) according to the Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, to 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the UN Demographic Yearbook, and the CIA World Factbook.China has the longest combined land border in the world, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi) from the mouth of the Yalu River (Amnok River) to the Gulf of Tonkin. China borders 14 nations and extends across much of East Asia, bordering Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar (Burma) in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal, Afghanistan, and Pakistan in South Asia; Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia; and Russia, Mongolia, and North Korea in Inner Asia and Northeast Asia. Additionally, China shares maritime boundaries with South Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and the Philippines.\n\n\n== Politics ==\n\nThe Chinese constitution states that The People's Republic of China \"is a socialist state governed by a people\u2019s democratic dictatorship that is led by the working class and based on an alliance of workers and peasants,\" and that the state institutions \"shall practice the principle of democratic centralism.\" The PRC is one of the world's only socialist states explicitly aiming to build communism. The Chinese government has been variously described as communist and socialist, but also as authoritarian and corporatist, with heavy restrictions in many areas, most notably against free access to the Internet, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, the right to have children, free formation of social organizations and freedom of religion. Its current political, ideological and economic system has been termed by its leaders as a \"consultative democracy\" \"people's democratic dictatorship\", \"socialism with Chinese characteristics\" (which is Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances) and the \"socialist market economy\" respectively.\n\n\n=== Communist Party ===\n\nSince 2018, the main body of the Chinese constitution declares that \"the defining feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).\" The 2018 amendments constitutionalized the de facto one-party state status of China, wherein the General Secretary (party leader) holds ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as the paramount leader of China. The current General Secretary is Xi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012 and was re-elected on 25 October 2017. The electoral system is pyramidal. Local People's Congresses are directly elected, and higher levels of People's Congresses up to the National People's Congress (NPC) are indirectly elected by the People's Congress of the level immediately below. Another eight political parties, have representatives in the NPC and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC). China supports the Leninist principle of \"democratic centralism\", but critics describe the elected National People's Congress as a \"rubber stamp\" body.\n\n\n=== Government ===\n\nChina is a one-party state led by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The National People's Congress in 2018 altered the country's constitution to remove the two-term limit on holding the Presidency of China,  permitting the current leader, Xi Jinping, to remain president of China (and General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party) for an unlimited time, governing as a dictator. The President is the titular head of state, elected by the National People's Congress. The Premier is the head of government, presiding over the State Council composed of four vice premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions. The incumbent president is Xi Jinping, who is also the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's paramount leader. The incumbent premier is Li Keqiang, who is also a senior member of the CCP Politburo Standing Committee, China's de facto top decision-making body.In 2017, Xi called on the communist party to further tighten its grip on the country, to uphold the unity of the party leadership, and achieve the \"Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation\". Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption. Nonetheless, the level of public support for the government and its management of the nation is high, with 80\u201395% of Chinese citizens expressing satisfaction with the central government, according to a 2011 survey.\n\n\n=== Administrative divisions ===\n\nThe People's Republic of China is officially divided into 23 provinces, five autonomous regions (each with a designated minority group), and four municipalities\u2014collectively referred to as \"mainland China\"\u2014as well as the special administrative regions (SARs) of Hong Kong and Macau. Geographically, all 31 provincial divisions of mainland China can be grouped into six regions: North China, Northeast China, East China, South Central China, Southwest China, and Northwest China.China considers Taiwan to be its 23rd province, although Taiwan is governed by the Republic of China (ROC), which rejects the PRC's claim. Conversely, the ROC claims sovereignty over all divisions governed by the PRC.\n\n\n=== Foreign relations ===\n\nThe PRC has diplomatic relations with 175 countries and maintains embassies in 162. In 2019, China had the largest diplomatic network in the world. Its legitimacy is disputed by the Republic of China and a few other countries; it is thus the largest and most populous state with limited recognition, with a population of more than 1.4 billion. In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. China was also a former member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, and still considers itself an advocate for developing countries. Along with Brazil, Russia, India and South Africa, China is a member of the BRICS group of emerging major economies and hosted the group's third official summit at Sanya, Hainan in April 2011.Under its interpretation of the One-China policy, Beijing has made it a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and severs official ties with the government of the Republic of China. Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan, especially in the matter of armament sales.Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and is also driven by the concept of \"harmony without uniformity\", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences. This policy may have led China to support states that are regarded as dangerous or repressive by Western nations, such as Zimbabwe, North Korea and Iran. China has a close economic and military relationship with Russia, and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council.\n\n\n==== Trade relations ====\n\nChina became the world's largest trading nation in 2013, as measured by the sum of imports and exports, as well as the world's biggest commodity importer. comprising roughly 45% of maritime's dry-bulk market.\nBy 2016, China was the largest trading partner of 124 other countries. China is the largest trading partner for the ASEAN nations, with a total trade value of $345.8 billion in 2015 accounting for 15.2% of ASEAN's total trade. ASEAN is also China's largest trading partner. In 2020, China became the largest trading partner of the European Union for goods, with the total value of goods trade reaching nearly $700 billion. China, along with ASEAN, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand, is a member of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership, the world's largest free-trade area covering 30% of the world's population and economic output. China became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001. In 2004, it proposed an entirely new East Asia Summit (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues. The EAS, which includes ASEAN Plus Three, India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005.China has had a long and complex trade relationship with the United States. In 2000, the United States Congress approved \"permanent normal trade relations\" (PNTR) with China, allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries. China has a significant trade surplus with the United States, its most important export market. In the early 2010s, US politicians argued that the Chinese yuan was significantly undervalued, giving China an unfair trade advantage.Since the turn of the century, China has followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation; in 2019, Sino-African trade totalled $208 billion, having grown 20 times over two decades. According to Madison Condon \"China finances more infrastructure projects in Africa than the World Bank and provides billions of dollars in low-interest loans to the continent\u2019s emerging economies.\" China maintains extensive and highly diversified trade links with the European Union. China has furthermore strengthened its trade ties with major South American economies, and is the largest trading partner of Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, and several others.\n\nChina's Belt and Road Initiative has expanded significantly over the last six years and, as of April 2020, includes 138 countries and 30 international organizations. In addition to intensifying foreign policy relations, the focus here is particularly on building efficient transport routes. The focus is particularly on the maritime Silk Road with its connections to East Africa and Europe and there are Chinese investments or related declarations of intent at numerous ports such as Gwadar, Kuantan, Hambantota, Piraeus and Trieste. However many of these loans made under the Belt and Road program are unsustainable and China has faced a number of calls for debt relief from debtor nations.\n\n\n==== Territorial disputes ====\n\n\n===== Taiwan =====\n\nEver since its establishment after the Chinese Civil War, the PRC has claimed the territories governed by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity today commonly known as Taiwan, as a part of its territory. It regards the island of Taiwan as its Taiwan Province, Kinmen and Matsu as a part of Fujian Province and islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a part of Hainan Province and Guangdong Province. These claims are controversial because of the complicated Cross-Strait relations, with the PRC treating the One-China policy as one of its most important diplomatic principles.\n\n\n===== Land border disputes =====\nChina has resolved its land borders with 12 out of 14 neighboring countries, having pursued substantial compromises in most of them. As of 2020, China currently has a disputed land border with only India and Bhutan.\n\n\n===== Maritime border disputes =====\nChina is additionally involved in maritime disputes with multiple countries over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas, such as the Senkaku Islands and the Scarborough Shoal.\n\n\n=== Sociopolitical issues and human rights ===\n\nChina uses a massive espionage network of cameras, facial recognition software, sensors, surveillance of personal technology, and a social credit system as a means of social control of persons living in China. The Chinese democracy movement, social activists, and some members of the Chinese Communist Party believe in the need for social and political reform. While economic and social controls have been significantly relaxed in China since the 1970s, political freedom is still tightly restricted. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China states that the \"fundamental rights\" of citizens include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal suffrage, and property rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state. Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling Communist Party are tolerated, censorship of political speech and information, most notably on the Internet, are routinely used to prevent collective action. By 2020, China plans to give all its citizens a personal \"Social Credit\" score based on how they behave. The Social Credit System, now being piloted in a number of Chinese cities, is considered a form of mass surveillance which uses big data analysis technology.A number of foreign governments, foreign press agencies, and NGOs have criticized China's human rights record, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced abortions, forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights, and excessive use of the death penalty. The government suppresses popular protests and demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to \"social stability\", as was the case with the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.\n\nThe Chinese state is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in Tibet and Xinjiang, including violent police crackdowns and religious suppression throughout the Chinese nation. At least one million members of China's Muslim Uyghur minority have been detained in mass detention camps, termed \"Vocational Education and Training Centers\", aimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs. According to the U.S. Department of State, actions including political indoctrination, torture, physical and psychological abuse, forced sterilization, sexual abuse, and forced labor are common in these facilities. The state has also sought to control offshore reporting of tensions in Xinjiang, intimidating foreign-based reporters by detaining their family members. According to a 2020 report, China's treatment of Uyghurs meets UN definition of genocide, and several groups called for a UN investigation. On 19 January 2021, the United States Secretary of State, Mike Pompeo, announced that the United States Department of State had determined that \"genocide and crimes against humanity\" had been perpetrated by China against the Uyghurs.\n\nGlobal studies from Pew Research Center in 2014 and 2017 ranked the Chinese government's restrictions on religion as among the highest in the world, despite low to moderate rankings for religious-related social hostilities in the country. The Global Slavery Index estimated that in 2016 more than 3.8 million people were living in \"conditions of modern slavery\", or 0.25% of the population, including victims of human trafficking, forced labor, forced marriage, child labor, and state-imposed forced labor. The state-imposed forced system was formally abolished in 2013 but it is not clear the extent to which its various practices have stopped. The Chinese penal system includes labor prison factories, detention centers, and re-education camps, which fall under the heading Laogai (\"reform through labor\"). The Laogai Research Foundation in the United States estimated that there were over a thousand slave labour prisons and camps, known collectively as the Laogai.In 2019, a study called for the mass retraction of more than 400 scientific papers on organ transplantation, because of fears the organs were obtained unethically from Chinese prisoners. While the government says 10,000 transplants occur each year, hospital data shows between 60,000 and 100,000 organs are transplanted each year. The report provided evidence that this gap is being made up by executed prisoners of conscience.\n\n\n== Military ==\n\nWith 2.3 million active troops, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest standing military force in the world, commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC). China has the second-biggest military reserve force, only behind North Korea. The PLA consists of the Ground Force (PLAGF), the Navy (PLAN), the Air Force (PLAAF), and the People's Liberation Army Rocket Force (PLARF). According to the Chinese government, China's military budget for 2017 totalled US$151.5 billion, constituting the world's second-largest military budget, although the military expenditures-GDP ratio with 1.3% of GDP is below world average. However, many authorities \u2013 including SIPRI and the U.S. Office of the Secretary of Defense \u2013 argue that China does not report its real level of military spending, which is allegedly much higher than the official budget.\n\n\n== Economy ==\n\nSince 2010, China had the world's second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP, totaling approximately US$15.66 trillion (101.6 trillion Yuan) as of 2020. In terms of purchasing power parity (PPP GDP), China's economy has been the largest in the world since 2014, according to the World Bank. China is also the world's fastest-growing major economy. According to the World Bank, China's GDP grew from $150 billion in 1978 to $14.28 trillion by 2019. China's economic growth has been consistently above 6 percent since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978. China is also the world's largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. Between 2010 and 2019, China's contribution to global GDP growth has been 25% to 39%.China had the largest economy in the world for most of the past two thousand years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since economic reforms began in 1978, China has developed into a highly diversified economy and one of the most consequential players in international trade. Major sectors of competitive strength include manufacturing, retail, mining, steel, textiles, automobiles, energy generation, green energy, banking, electronics, telecommunications, real estate, e-commerce, and tourism. China has three out of the ten largest stock exchanges in the world\u2014Shanghai, Hong Kong and Shenzhen\u2014that together have a market capitalization of over $15.9 trillion, as of October 2020. China has four (Shanghai, Hong Kong, Beijing, and Shenzhen) out of the world's top ten most competitive financial centers, which is more than any country in the 2020 Global Financial Centres Index. By 2035, China's four cities (Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou and Shenzhen) are projected to be among the global top ten largest cities by nominal GDP according to a report by Oxford Economics.China has been the world's No. 1 manufacturer since 2010, after overtaking the US, which had been No. 1 for the previous hundred years. China has also been No. 2 in high-tech manufacturing since 2012, according to US National Science Foundation. China is the second largest retail market in the world, next to the United States. China leads the world in e-commerce, accounting for 40% of the global market share in 2016 and more than 50% of the global market share in 2019. China is the world's leader in electric vehicles, manufacturing and buying half of all the plug-in electric cars (BEV and PHEV) in the world in 2018. China is also the leading producer of batteries for electric vehicles as well as several key raw materials for batteries. China had 174 GW of installed solar capacity by the end of 2018, which amounts to more than 40% of the global solar capacity.Foreign and Chinese sources have claimed that official Chinese government statistics overstate China's economic growth. However, several Western academics and institutions have stated that China's economic growth is higher than indicated by official figures.China has a large informal economy, which arose as a result of the country's economic opening. The informal economy is a source of employment and income for workers, but it is unrecognized and suffers from lower productivity. In 2020, hundreds of individual Chinese drug vendors illegally manufactured synthetic drugs such as fentanyl for export.\n\n\n=== Wealth in China ===\n\nAs of 2018, China was first in the world in total number of billionaires and second in millionaires\u2014there were 658 Chinese billionaires and 3.5 million millionaires. In 2019, China overtook the US as the home to the highest number of rich people in the world, according to the global wealth report by Credit Suisse. In other words, as of 2019, 100 million Chinese are in the top 10% of the wealthiest individuals in the world\u2014those who have a net personal wealth of at least $110,000. As of October 2020, China has the world's highest number of billionaires with nearly 878, increasing at the rate of roughly five per week. According to the Hurun Global Rich List 2020, China is home to five of the world's top ten cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou in the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 10th spots, respectively) by the highest number of billionaires, which is more than any other country. China had 85 female billionaires as of January 2021, two-thirds of the global total, and minted 24 new female billionaires in 2020.However, it ranks behind over 60 countries (out of around 180) in per capita economic output, making it an upper-middle income country. Additionally, its development is highly uneven. Its major cities and coastal areas are far more prosperous compared to rural and interior regions. China brought more people out of extreme poverty than any other country in history\u2014between 1978 and 2018, China reduced extreme poverty by 800 million. China reduced the extreme poverty rate\u2014per international standard, it refers to an income of less than $1.90/day\u2014from 88% in 1981 to 1.85% by 2013. According to the World Bank, the number of Chinese in extreme poverty fell from 756 million to 25 million between 1990 and 2013. The portion of people in China living below the international poverty line of $1.90 per day (2011 PPP) fell to 0.3% in 2018 from 66.3% in 1990. Using the lower-middle income poverty line of $3.20 per day, the portion fell to 2.9% in 2018 from 90.0% in 1990. Using the upper-middle income poverty line of $5.50 per day, the portion fell to 17.0% from 98.3% in 1990.\n\n\n=== Economic growth ===\n\nFrom its founding in 1949 until late 1978, the People's Republic of China was a Soviet-style centrally planned economy. Following Mao's death in 1976 and the consequent end of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping and the new Chinese leadership began to reform the economy and move towards a more market-oriented mixed economy under one-party rule. Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized, while foreign trade became a major new focus, leading to the creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs). Inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright, resulting in massive job losses. Modern-day China is mainly characterized as having a market economy based on private property ownership, and is one of the leading examples of state capitalism. The state still dominates in strategic \"pillar\" sectors such as energy production and heavy industries, but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30 million private businesses recorded in 2008. In 2018, private enterprises in China accounted for 60% of GDP, 80% of urban employment and 90% of new jobs.In the early 2010s, China's economic growth rate began to slow amid domestic credit troubles, weakening international demand for Chinese exports and fragility in the global economy. China's GDP was slightly larger than Germany's in 2007; however, by 2017, China's $12.2 trillion-economy became larger than those of Germany, UK, France and Italy combined. In 2018, the IMF reiterated its forecast that China will overtake the US in terms of nominal GDP by the year 2030. Economists also expect China's middle class to expand to 600 million people by 2025.\n\n\n=== China in the global economy ===\nChina is a member of the WTO and is the world's largest trading power, with a total international trade value of US$4.62 trillion in 2018. Its foreign exchange reserves reached US$3.1 trillion as of 2019, making its reserves by far the world's largest. In 2012, China was the world's largest recipient of inward foreign direct investment (FDI), attracting $253 billion. In 2014, China's foreign exchange remittances were $US64 billion making it the second largest recipient of remittances in the world. China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $62.4 billion in 2012, and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies. China is a major owner of US public debt, holding trillions of dollars worth of U.S. Treasury bonds. China's undervalued exchange rate has caused friction with other major economies, and it has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit goods.\n\nFollowing the 2007\u201308 financial crisis, Chinese authorities sought to actively wean off of its dependence on the U.S. dollar as a result of perceived weaknesses of the international monetary system. To achieve those ends, China took a series of actions to further the internationalization of the Renminbi. In 2008, China established dim sum bond market and expanded the Cross-Border Trade RMB Settlement Pilot Project, which helps establish pools of offshore RMB liquidity. This was followed with bilateral agreements to settle trades directly in renminbi with Russia, Japan, Australia, Singapore, the United Kingdom, and Canada. As a result of the rapid internationalization of the renminbi, it became the eighth-most-traded currency in the world, an emerging international reserve currency, and a component of the IMF's special drawing rights; however, partly due to capital controls that make the renminbi fall short of being a fully convertible currency, it remains far behind the Euro, Dollar and Japanese Yen in international trade volumes.\n\n\n=== Class and income inequality ===\n\nChina has had the world's largest middle class population since 2015, and the middle class grew to a size of 400 million by 2018. In 2020, a study by the Brookings Institution forecast that China's middle-class will reach 1.2 billion by 2027 (almost 4 times the entire U.S. population today), making up one fourth of the world total. Wages in China have grown a lot in the last 40 years\u2014real (inflation-adjusted) wages grew seven-fold from 1978 to 2007. By 2018, median wages in Chinese cities such as Shanghai were about the same as or higher than the wages in Eastern European countries. China has the world's highest number of billionaires, with nearly 878 as of October 2020, increasing at the rate of roughly five per week. China has a high level of economic inequality, which has increased in the past few decades. In 2018 China's Gini coefficient was 0.467, according to the World Bank.\n\n\n== Science and technology ==\n\n\n=== Historical ===\n\nChina was once a world leader in science and technology up until the Ming dynasty. Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later to Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers. By the 17th century, Europe and the Western world surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement. The causes of this early modern Great Divergence continue to be debated by scholars to this day.After repeated military defeats by the European colonial powers and Japan in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning. After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology was established as one of the Four Modernizations, and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.\n\n\n=== Modern era ===\n\nSince the end of the Cultural Revolution, China has made significant investments in scientific research and is quickly catching up with the US in R&D spending. In 2017, China spent $279 billion on scientific research and development. According to the OECD, China spent 2.11% of its GDP on research and development (R&D) in 2016. Science and technology are seen as vital for achieving China's economic and political goals, and are held as a source of national pride to a degree sometimes described as \"techno-nationalism\". According to the World Intellectual Property Indicators, China received 1.54 million patent applications in 2018, representing nearly half of patent applications worldwide, more than double the US. In 2019, China was No. 1 in international patents application. Chinese tech companies Huawei and ZTE were the top 2 filers of international patents in 2017. Chinese-born academicians have won the Nobel Prize in Physics four times, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine and Fields Medal once respectively, though most of them conducted their prize-winning research in western nations.\n\nChina is developing its education system with an emphasis on science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM); in 2009, China graduated over 10,000 PhD engineers, and as many as 500,000 BSc graduates, more than any other country. China also became the world's largest publisher of scientific papers in 2016. Chinese technology companies such as Huawei and Lenovo have become world leaders in telecommunications and personal computing, and Chinese supercomputers are consistently ranked among the world's most powerful. China has been the world's largest market for industrial robots since 2013 and will account for 45% of newly installed robots from 2019 to 2021. China ranks 14th on the Global Innovation Index and is the only middle-income economy, the only emerging country, and the only newly industrialized country in the top 30. China ranks first globally in the important indicators, including patents, utility models, trademarks, industrial designs, and creative goods exports and also has 2 (Shenzhen-Hong Kong-Guangzhou and Beijing in the 2nd and 4th spots respectively) of the global top 5 science and technology clusters, which is more than any country.The Chinese space program is one of the world's most active. In 1970, China launched its first satellite, Dong Fang Hong I, becoming the fifth country to do so independently. In 2003, China became the third country to independently send humans into space, with Yang Liwei's spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5; as of 2021, twelve Chinese nationals have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China's first space station module, Tiangong-1, was launched, marking the first step in a project to assemble a large crewed station by the early 2020s. In 2013, China successfully landed the Chang'e 3 lander and Yutu rover onto the lunar surface. In 2016, the first quantum science satellite was launched in partnership with Austria dedicated to testing the fundamentals of quantum communication in space. In 2019, China became the first country to land a probe\u2014Chang'e 4\u2014on the far side of the moon. In 2020, the first experimental 6G test satellite was launched and Chang'e 5 successfully returned moon samples to the Earth, making China the third country to do so independently after the United States and the Soviet Union. In 2021, China became the second nation in history to independently land a rover (Zhurong) on Mars, joining the United States.\n\n\n== Infrastructure ==\nAfter a decades-long infrastructural boom, China has produced numerous world-leading infrastructural projects: China has the world's largest bullet train network, the most supertall skyscrapers in the world, the world's largest power plant (the Three Gorges Dam), the largest energy generation capacity in the world, a global satellite navigation system with the largest number of satellites in the world, and has initiated the Belt and Road Initiative, a large global infrastructure building initiative with funding on the order of $50\u2013100 billion per year. The Belt and Road Initiative could be one of the largest development plans in modern history.\n\n\n=== Telecommunications ===\n\nChina is the largest telecom market in the world and currently has the largest number of active cellphones of any country in the world, with over 1.5 billion subscribers, as of 2018. It also has the world's largest number of internet and broadband users, with over 800 million Internet users as of 2018\u2014equivalent to around 60% of its population\u2014and almost all of them being mobile as well. By 2018, China had more than 1 billion 4G users, accounting for 40% of world's total. China is making rapid advances in 5G\u2014by late 2018, China had started large-scale and commercial 5G trials.China Mobile, China Unicom and China Telecom, are the three large providers of mobile and internet in China. China Telecom alone served more than 145 million broadband subscribers and 300 million mobile users; China Unicom had about 300 million subscribers; and China Mobile, the biggest of them all, had 925 million users, as of 2018. Combined, the three operators had over 3.4 million 4G base-stations in China. Several Chinese telecommunications companies, most notably Huawei and ZTE, have been accused of spying for the Chinese military.China has developed its own satellite navigation system, dubbed Beidou, which began offering commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012 as well as global services by the end of 2018. The 35th and final satellite of Beidou constellation was launched into orbit on 23 June 2020, thus becoming the 3rd completed global navigation satellite system in service after GPS and GLONASS.\n\n\n=== Transport ===\n\nSince the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of national highways and expressways. In 2018, China's highways had reached a total length of 142,500 km (88,500 mi), making it the longest highway system in the world. China has the world's largest market for automobiles, having surpassed the United States in both auto sales and production. A side-effect of the rapid growth of China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents, though the number of fatalities in traffic accidents fell by 20% from 2007 to 2017. In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles \u2013 as of 2012, there are approximately 470 million bicycles in China.\n\nChina's railways, which are state-owned, are among the busiest in the world, handling a quarter of the world's rail traffic volume on only 6 percent of the world's tracks in 2006. As of 2017, the country had 127,000 km (78,914 mi) of railways, the second longest network in the world. The railways strain to meet enormous demand particularly during the Chinese New Year holiday, when the world's largest annual human migration takes place.China's high-speed rail (HSR) system started construction in the early 2000s. By the end of 2019, high speed rail in China had over 35,000 kilometers (21,748 miles) of dedicated lines alone, making it the longest HSR network in the world. Services on the Beijing\u2013Shanghai, Beijing\u2013Tianjin, and Chengdu\u2013Chongqing Lines reach up to 350 km/h (217 mph), making them the fastest conventional high speed railway services in the world. With an annual ridership of over 2.29 billion passengers in 2019 it is the world's busiest. The network includes the Beijing\u2013Guangzhou\u2013Shenzhen High-Speed Railway, the single longest HSR line in the world, and the Beijing\u2013Shanghai High-Speed Railway, which has three of longest railroad bridges in the world. The Shanghai Maglev Train, which reaches 431 km/h (268 mph), is the fastest commercial train service in the world.\n\nSince 2000, the growth of rapid transit systems in Chinese cities has accelerated. As of January 2021, 44 Chinese cities have urban mass transit systems in operation and 39 more have metro systems approved. As of 2020, China boasts the five longest metro systems in the world with the networks in Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou, Chengdu and Shenzhen being the largest.\nThere were approximately 229 airports in 2017, with around 240 planned by 2020. China has over 2,000 river and seaports, about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping. In 2017, the Ports of Shanghai, Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Ningbo-Zhoushan, Guangzhou, Qingdao and Tianjin ranked in the Top 10 in the world in container traffic and cargo tonnage.\n\n\n=== Water supply and sanitation ===\n\nWater supply and sanitation infrastructure in China is facing challenges such as rapid urbanization, as well as water scarcity, contamination, and pollution. According to data presented by the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of WHO and UNICEF in 2015, about 36% of the rural population in China still did not have access to improved sanitation. The ongoing South\u2013North Water Transfer Project intends to abate water shortage in the north.\n\n\n== Demographics ==\n\nThe national census of 2010 recorded the population of the People's Republic of China as approximately 1,370,536,875. About 16.60% of the population were 14 years old or younger, 70.14% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 13.26% were over 60 years old. The population growth rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0.46%. China used to make up much of the world's poor; now it makes up much of the world's middle class. Although a middle-income country by Western standards, China's rapid growth has pulled hundreds of millions\u2014800 million, to be more precise\u2014of its people out of poverty since 1978. By 2013, less than 2% of the Chinese population lived below the international poverty line of US$1.9 per day, down from 88% in 1981. China's own standards for poverty are higher and still the country is on its way to eradicate national poverty completely by 2019. From 2009 to 2018, the unemployment rate in China has averaged about 4%.Given concerns about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the 1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family. Beginning in the mid 1980s, however, given the unpopularity of the strict limits, China began to allow some major exemptions, particularly in rural areas, resulting in what was actually a \"1.5\"-child policy from the mid-1980s to 2015 (ethnic minorities were also exempt from one child limits). The next major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child. In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of a two-child policy. Data from the 2010 census implies that the total fertility rate may be around 1.4, although due to under-reporting of births it may be closer to 1.5\u20131.6.According to one group of scholars, one-child limits had little effect on population growth or the size of the total population. However, these scholars have been challenged. Their own counterfactual model of fertility decline without such restrictions implies that China averted more than 500 million births between 1970 and 2015, a number which may reach one billion by 2060 given all the lost descendants of births averted during the era of fertility restrictions, with one-child restrictions accounting for the great bulk of that reduction.The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may have contributed to an imbalance in the sex ratio at birth. According to the 2010 census, the sex ratio at birth was 118.06 boys for every 100 girls, which is beyond the normal range of around 105 boys for every 100 girls. The 2010 census found that males accounted for 51.27 percent of the total population. However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.82 percent of the total population.\n\n\n=== Ethnic groups ===\n\nChina legally recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, who altogether comprise the Zhonghua Minzu. The largest of these nationalities are the ethnic Chinese or \"Han\", who constitute more than 90% of the total\npopulation. The Han Chinese \u2013 the world's largest single ethnic group \u2013 outnumber other ethnic groups in every provincial-level division except Tibet and Xinjiang. Ethnic minorities account for less than 10% of the population of China, according to the 2010 census. Compared with the 2000 population census, the Han population increased by 66,537,177 persons, or 5.74%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 7,362,627 persons, or 6.92%. The 2010 census recorded a total of 593,832 foreign nationals living in China. The largest such groups were from South Korea (120,750), the\nUnited States (71,493) and Japan (66,159).\n\n\n=== Languages ===\n\nThere are as many as 292 living languages in China. The languages most commonly spoken belong to the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, which contains Mandarin (spoken by 70% of the population), and other varieties of Chinese language: Yue (including Cantonese and Taishanese), Wu (including Shanghainese and Suzhounese), Min (including Fuzhounese, Hokkien and Teochew), Xiang, Gan and Hakka. Languages of the Tibeto-Burman branch, including Tibetan, Qiang, Naxi and Yi, are spoken across the Tibetan and Yunnan\u2013Guizhou Plateau. Other ethnic minority languages in southwest China include Zhuang, Thai, Dong and Sui of the Tai-Kadai family, Miao and Yao of the Hmong\u2013Mien family, and Wa of the Austroasiatic family. Across northeastern and northwestern China, local ethnic groups speak Altaic languages including Manchu, Mongolian and several Turkic languages: Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Salar and Western Yugur. Korean is spoken natively along the border with North Korea. Sarikoli, the language of Tajiks in western Xinjiang, is an Indo-European language. Taiwanese aborigines, including a small population on the mainland, speak Austronesian languages.Standard Mandarin, a variety of Mandarin based on the Beijing dialect, is the official national language of China and is used as a lingua franca in the country between people of different linguistic backgrounds. Mongolian, Uyghur, Tibetan, Zhuang and various other languages are also regionally recognized throughout the country.Chinese characters have been used as the written script for the Sinitic languages for thousands of years. They allow speakers of mutually unintelligible Chinese varieties to communicate with each other through writing. In 1956, the government introduced simplified characters, which have supplanted the older traditional characters in mainland China. Chinese characters are romanized using the Pinyin system. Tibetan uses an alphabet based on an Indic script. Uyghur is most commonly written in Persian alphabet-based Uyghur Arabic alphabet. The Mongolian script used in China and the Manchu script are both derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet. Zhuang uses both an official Latin alphabet script and a traditional Chinese character script.\n\n\n=== Urbanization ===\n\nChina has urbanized significantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 60% in 2019. It is estimated that China's urban population will reach one billion by 2030, potentially equivalent to one-eighth of the world population.China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million, including the 10 megacities(cities with a population of over 10 million) of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing, Chengdu, Harbin, Guangzhou, Tianjin, Shenzhen, Wuhan, Shijiazhuang and Suzhou. Shanghai is China's most populous urban area while Chongqing is its largest city proper. By 2025, it is estimated that the country will be home to 221 cities with over a million inhabitants. The figures in the table below are from the 2017 census, and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban and rural populations). The large \"floating populations\" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult; the figures below include only long-term residents.\n\n\n=== Education ===\n\nSince 1986, compulsory education in China comprises primary and junior secondary school, which together last for nine years. In 2010, about 82.5 percent of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school. The Gaokao, China's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. In 2010, 27 percent of secondary school graduates are enrolled in higher education. This number increased significantly over the last years, reaching a tertiary school enrolment of 50 percent in 2018. Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and tertiary level.In February 2006, the government pledged to provide completely free nine-year education, including textbooks and fees. Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$250 billion in 2011. However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled \u00a520,023, while in Guizhou, one of the poorest provinces in China, only totalled \u00a53,204. Free compulsory education in China consists of primary school and junior secondary school between the ages of 6 and 15. In 2011, around 81.4% of Chinese have received secondary education.As of 2018, 96% of the population over age 15 are literate. In 1949, only 20% of the population could read, compared to 65.5% thirty years later. In 2009, Chinese students from Shanghai achieved the world's best results in mathematics, science and literacy, as tested by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), a worldwide evaluation of 15-year-old school pupils' scholastic performance. Despite the high results, Chinese education has also faced both native and international criticism for its emphasis on rote memorization and its gap in quality from rural to urban areas.As of 2020, China had the world's second-highest number of top universities. Currently, China trails only the United States in terms of representation on lists of top 200 universities according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU). China is home to the two best universities (Tsinghua University and Peking University) in the whole Asia-Oceania region and emerging countries according to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings. Both are members of the C9 League, an alliance of elite Chinese universities offering comprehensive and leading education.\n\n\n=== Health ===\n\nThe National Health and Family Planning Commission, together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the Chinese population. An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. At that time, the Communist Party started the Patriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as cholera, typhoid and scarlet fever, which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign. After Deng Xiaoping began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared along with the People's Communes. Healthcare in China became mostly privatized, and experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a 3-year large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion. By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95% of China's population having basic health insurance coverage. In 2011, China was estimated to be the world's third-largest supplier of pharmaceuticals, but its population has suffered from the development and distribution of counterfeit medications.As of 2017, the average life expectancy at birth in China is 76 years, and the infant mortality rate is 7 per thousand. Both have improved significantly since the 1950s. Rates of stunting, a condition caused by malnutrition, have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010. Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by widespread air pollution, hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers, and an increase in obesity among urban youths. China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in recent years, such as the 2003 outbreak of SARS, although this has since been largely contained. In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China.The COVID-19 pandemic was first identified in Wuhan in December 2019. Despite this, there is no convincing scientific evidence on the virus's origin, and further studies are being carried out around the world on a possible origin for the virus. The Chinese government has been criticized for its handling of the epidemic and accused of concealing the extent of the outbreak before it became an international pandemic.\n\n\n=== Religion ===\n\nThe government of the People's Republic of China officially espouses state atheism, and has conducted antireligious campaigns to this end. Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the State Administration for Religious Affairs. Freedom of religion is guaranteed by China's constitution, although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution.Over the millennia, Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. The \"three teachings\", including Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism (Chinese Buddhism), historically have a significant role in shaping Chinese culture, enriching a theological and spiritual framework which harks back to the early Shang and Zhou dynasty. Chinese popular or folk religion, which is framed by the three teachings and other traditions, consists in allegiance to the shen (\u795e), a character that signifies the \"energies of generation\", who can be deities of the environment or ancestral principles of human groups, concepts of civility, culture heroes, many of whom feature in Chinese mythology and history. Among the most popular cults are those of Mazu (goddess of the seas), Huangdi (one of the two divine patriarchs of the Chinese race), Guandi (god of war and business), Caishen (god of prosperity and richness), Pangu and many others. China is home to many of the world's tallest religious statues, including the tallest of all, the Spring Temple Buddha in Henan.Clear data on religious affiliation in China is difficult to gather due to varying definitions of \"religion\" and the unorganized, diffusive nature of Chinese religious traditions. Scholars note that in China there is no clear boundary between three teachings religions and local folk religious practice. A 2015 poll conducted by Gallup International found that 61% of Chinese people self-identified as \"convinced atheist\", though it is worthwhile to note that Chinese religions or some of their strands are definable as non-theistic and humanistic religions, since they do not believe that divine creativity is completely transcendent, but it is inherent in the world and in particular in the human being. According to a 2014 study, approximately 74% are either non-religious or practise Chinese folk belief, 16% are Buddhists, 2% are Christians, 1% are Muslims, and 8% adhere to other religions including Taoists and folk salvationism. In addition to Han people's local religious practices, there are also various ethnic minority groups in China who maintain their traditional autochthone religions. The various folk religions today comprise 2\u20133% of the population, while Confucianism as a religious self-identification is common within the intellectual class. Significant faiths specifically connected to certain ethnic groups include Tibetan Buddhism and the Islamic religion of the Hui, Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz and other peoples in Northwest China.\n\n\n== Culture ==\n\nSince ancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious imperial examinations, which have their origins in the Han dynasty. The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief that calligraphy, poetry and painting were higher forms of art than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking national perspective. Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today.\n\nThe first leaders of the People's Republic of China were born into the traditional imperial order but were influenced by the May Fourth Movement and reformist ideals. They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and the Confucian system of education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and culture of obedience to the state. Some observers see the period following the establishment of the PRC in 1949 as a continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history, while others claim that the Communist Party's rule has damaged the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, where many aspects of traditional culture were destroyed, having been denounced as \"regressive and harmful\" or \"vestiges of feudalism\". Many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, art, literature, and performing arts like Peking opera, were altered to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time. Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted.Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise of Chinese nationalism and the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival, and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide.\n\n\n=== Tourism in China ===\n\nChina received 55.7 million inbound international visitors in 2010, and in 2012 was the third-most-visited country in the world. It also experiences an enormous volume of domestic tourism; an estimated 740 million Chinese holidaymakers travelled within the country in October 2012. China hosts the world's largest number of World Heritage Sites (55), and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world (first in the Asia-Pacific). It is forecast by Euromonitor International that China will become the world's most popular destination for tourists by 2030.\n\n\n=== Literature ===\n\nChinese literature is based on the literature of the Zhou dynasty. Concepts covered within the Chinese classic texts present a wide range of thoughts and subjects including calendar, military, astrology, herbology, geography and many others. Some of the most important early texts include the I Ching and the Shujing within the Four Books and Five Classics which served as the Confucian authoritative books for the state-sponsored curriculum in dynastic era. Inherited from the Classic of Poetry, classical Chinese poetry developed to its floruit during the Tang dynasty. Li Bai and Du Fu opened the forking ways for the poetic circles through romanticism and realism respectively. Chinese historiography began with the Shiji, the overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed the Twenty-Four Histories, which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along with Chinese mythology and folklore. Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the Ming dynasty, Chinese classical fiction rose to a boom of the historical, town and gods and demons fictions as represented by the Four Great Classical Novels which include Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West and Dream of the Red Chamber. Along with the wuxia fictions of Jin Yong and Liang Yusheng, it remains an enduring source of popular culture in the East Asian cultural sphere.In the wake of the New Culture Movement after the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese literature embarked on a new era with written vernacular Chinese for ordinary citizens. Hu Shih and Lu Xun were pioneers in modern literature. Various literary genres, such as misty poetry, scar literature, young adult fiction and the xungen literature, which is influenced by magic realism, emerged following the Cultural Revolution. Mo Yan, a xungen literature author, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012.\n\n\n=== Cuisine ===\n\nChinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history and geographical variety, in which the most influential are known as the \"Eight Major Cuisines\", including Sichuan, Cantonese, Jiangsu, Shandong, Fujian, Hunan, Anhui, and Zhejiang cuisines. All of them are featured by the precise skills of shaping, heating, and flavoring. Chinese cuisine is also known for its width of cooking methods and ingredients, as well as food therapy that is emphasized by traditional Chinese medicine. Generally, China's staple food is rice in the south, wheat-based breads and noodles in the north. The diet of the common people in pre-modern times was largely grain and simple vegetables, with meat reserved for special occasions. The bean products, such as tofu and soy milk, remain as a popular source of protein. Pork is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about three-fourths of the country's total meat consumption. While pork dominates the meat market, there is also the vegetarian Buddhist cuisine and the pork-free Chinese Islamic cuisine. Southern cuisine, due to the area's proximity to the ocean and milder climate, has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables; it differs in many respects from the wheat-based diets across dry northern China. Numerous offshoots of Chinese food, such as Hong Kong cuisine and American Chinese food, have emerged in the nations that play host to the Chinese diaspora.\n\n\n=== Music ===\n\nChinese music covers a highly diverse range of music from traditional music to modern music. Chinese music dates back before the pre-imperial times. Traditional Chinese musical instruments were traditionally grouped into eight categories known as bayin (\u516b\u97f3). Traditional Chinese opera is a form of musical theatre in China originating thousands of years and has regional style forms such as Beijing opera and Cantonese opera. Chinese pop (C-Pop) includes mandopop and cantopop. Chinese rap, Chinese hip hop and Hong Kong hip hop have become popular in contemporary times.\n\n\n=== Cinema ===\n\nCinema was first introduced to China in 1896 and the first Chinese film, Dingjun Mountain, was released in 1905.  China has the largest number of movie screens in the world since 2016, China became the largest cinema market in the world in 2020. The top 3 highest-grossing films in China currently are Wolf Warrior 2 (2017), Ne Zha (2019), and The Wandering Earth (2019).\n\n\n=== Fashion ===\n\nHanfu is the historical clothing of the Han people in China. The qipao or cheongsam is a popular Chinese female dress. The hanfu movement has been popular in contemporary times and seeks to revitalize Hanfu clothing.\n\n\n=== Sports ===\n\nChina has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the world. There is evidence that archery (sh\u00e8ji\u00e0n) was practiced during the Western Zhou dynasty. Swordplay (ji\u00e0nsh\u00f9) and cuju, a sport loosely related to association football date back to China's early dynasties as well.\n\nPhysical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such as qigong and t'ai chi ch'uan widely practiced, and commercial gyms and private fitness clubs are gaining popularity across the country. Basketball is currently the most popular spectator sport in China. The Chinese Basketball Association and the American National Basketball Association have a huge following among the people, with native or ethnic Chinese players such as Yao Ming and Yi Jianlian held in high esteem. China's professional football league, now known as Chinese Super League, was established in 1994, it is the largest football market in Asia. Other popular sports in the country include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, swimming and snooker. Board games such as go (known as w\u00e9iq\u00ed in Chinese), xiangqi, mahjong, and more recently chess, are also played at a professional level. In addition, China is home to a huge number of cyclists, with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012. Many more traditional sports, such as dragon boat racing, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are also popular.China has participated in the Olympic Games since 1932, although it has only participated as the PRC since 1952. China hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, where its athletes received 51 gold medals \u2013 the highest number of gold medals of any participating nation that year. China also won the most medals of any nation at the 2012 Summer Paralympics, with 231 overall, including 95 gold medals. In 2011, Shenzhen in Guangdong, China hosted the 2011 Summer Universiade. China hosted the 2013 East Asian Games in Tianjin and the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics in Nanjing; the first country to host both regular and Youth Olympics. Beijing and its nearby city Zhangjiakou of Hebei province will also collaboratively host the 2022 Olympic Winter Games, which will make Beijing the first city in the world to hold both the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nOutline of China\nPublic holidays in China\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n\n=== Government ===\nThe Central People's Government of People's Republic of China (in English)\n\n\n=== General information ===\nChina at a Glance from People's Daily\nBBC News \u2013 China Profile\nChina. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.\nChina, People's Republic of from UCB Libraries GovPubs\nChina at Curlie\nChina's Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica entry\n\n\n=== Maps ===\nGoogle Maps\u2014China\n Wikimedia Atlas of the People's Republic of China\n Geographic data related to China at OpenStreetMap", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/13_Peking_University.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/18th_National_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/1945_Mao_and_Chiang.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/1_li_jiang_guilin_yangshuo_2011.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28detail_of_original%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg", 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'Central State; Middle Kingdom'), officially the People's Republic of China (Chinese: \u4e2d\u534e\u4eba\u6c11\u5171\u548c\u56fd; pinyin: Zh\u014dnghu\u00e1 R\u00e9nm\u00edn G\u00f2ngh\u00e9gu\u00f3; PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population of more than 1.4 billion. It borders 14 countries, the second most of any country in the world, after Russia. Covering an area of approximately 9.6 million square kilometers (3.7 million mi2), it is the world's third or fourth largest country. \nThe country is officially divided into 23 provinces, five autonomous regions, and four direct-controlled municipalities of Beijing (the capital city), Tianjin, Shanghai (the largest city), and Chongqing, as well as two special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau.\nChina emerged as one of the world's first civilizations, in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. China was one of the world's foremost economic powers for most of the two millennia from the 1st until the 19th century. For millennia, China's political system was based on absolute hereditary monarchies, or dynasties, beginning with the Xia dynasty in 21st century BCE. Since then, China has expanded, fractured, and re-unified numerous times. In the 3rd century BCE, the Qin reunited core China and established the first Chinese empire. The succeeding Han dynasty (206 BCE\u2013220 CE) saw some of the most advanced technology at that time, including papermaking and the compass, along with agricultural and medical improvements. The invention of gunpowder and movable type in the Tang dynasty (618\u2013907) and Northern Song Dynasty (960\u20131127) completed the Four Great Inventions. Tang culture spread widely in Asia, as the new Silk Route brought traders to as far as Mesopotamia and the Horn of Africa. The Qing Empire, China's last dynasty, which formed the territorial basis for modern China suffered heavy losses to foreign imperialism. The Chinese monarchy collapsed in 1912 with the 1911 Revolution, when the Republic of China (ROC) replaced the Qing dynasty. China was invaded by the Empire of Japan during World War II. The Chinese Civil War resulted in a division of territory in 1949 when the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) led by Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China on mainland China while the Kuomintang-led ROC government retreated to the island of Taiwan. Both the PRC and the ROC currently claim to be the sole legitimate government of China, resulting in an ongoing dispute even after the United Nations recognized the PRC as the government to represent China at all UN conferences in 1971.\nChina is nominally a unitary one-party socialist republic. The country is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and a founding member of several multilateral and regional cooperation organizations such as the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, the Silk Road Fund, the New Development Bank, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership, and is a member of the BRICS, the G8+5, the G20, the APEC, and the East Asia Summit. It ranks among the lowest in international measurements of civil liberties, government transparency, freedom of the press, freedom of religion and ethnic minorities. Chinese authorities have been criticized by political dissidents and human rights activists for widespread human rights abuses, including political repression, mass censorship, mass surveillance of their citizens and violent suppression of protests.\nAfter economic reforms in 1978, and its entry into the World Trade Organization in 2001, China's economy became the second-largest country by nominal GDP in 2010 and grew to the largest in the world by PPP in 2014. China is the world's fastest-growing major economy, the second-wealthiest nation in the world, and the world's largest manufacturer and exporter. The nation has the world's largest standing army \u2014 the People's Liberation Army \u2014 the second-largest defense budget and is a recognized nuclear weapons state. China has been characterized as a potential superpower due to its large economy and powerful military."}, "Oceania": {"links": ["European Atlas of the Seas", "Moon", "English Channel", "Subsurface currents", "Wave height", "Satellite", "Climate", "Underpopulated", "Chemical element", "Gulf of Aden", "Phosphorus", "Amundsen Sea", "Shutdown of thermohaline circulation", "Naval warfare", "Outer trench swell", "Sustainable energy", "Polar regions", "Asia", "Extraterrestrial liquid water", "Gulf of Khambhat", "Quasiperiodicity", "Queen Victoria Sea", "Hadal zone", "Ecosystem", "Gulf of Kutch", "Fetch ", "Red algae", "Air pollution", "Gulf of Aqaba", "Sea urchin", "Tidal range", "Kelp", "Tidal bore", "Hydrothermal vent", "Cosmonauts Sea", "Ocean Surface Topography Mission", "Ekman layer", "Pelecaniformes", "Seabed", "Tonne", "D'Urville Sea", "Critical depensation", "Abyssal plain", "Arafura Sea", "Archipelago", "Knot ", "Seabird", "Color of water", "Oceanic crust", "Shipping lane", "Fishing 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Atlas", "Food and Agriculture Organization", "Lake", "Oil platform", "Benthic", "Cetacean", "Photic zone", "Bothnian Sea", "Cross sea", "Ekman transport", "Seto Inland Sea", "PMID ", "Water cycle", "Gull", "Africa", "Sea star", "Langmuir circulation", "Foxe Basin", "Body of water", "Gulf of Panama", "Irish Sea", "Molucca Sea", "Aegean Sea", "Algae", "Challenger Deep", "Deep ocean water", "Mariana Trench", "Humboldt Current", "Bohol Sea", "Mozambique Channel", "Brachiopod", "Wadden Sea", "Marine fungi", "Borders of the oceans", "Formation and evolution of the Solar System", "Luke's variational principle", "Seafloor", "Crustacean", "Extremes on Earth", "Tideline", "Biodiversity", "Coral Sea", "Adriatic Sea", "Bay of Fundy", "Theory of tides", "Amphidromic point", "Gravity of Earth", "Encyclopedia of Earth", "Bathyscaphe Trieste", "Wind wave", "Tide gauge", "Fresh water", "Savu Sea", "Water hemisphere", "Archaea", "Science On a Sphere", "Epipelagic", "Echinoderm", "Megatsunami", "Mesopelagic", "Ocean current", "Camotes Sea", "Municipal solid waste", "Chloride", "Geochemical Ocean Sections Study", "Seven Seas", "Trochoidal wave", "Wave action ", "Contourite", "Future of Earth", "Cartography", "Carbon cycle", "Planet", "Baffin Bay", "Habitat", "Doi ", "Cruising ", "Earth's magnetic field", "Scotia Sea", "Sea state", "Gulf of Suez", "National Oceanographic Data Center"], "content": "The ocean (also the sea or the world ocean) is the body of salt water which covers approximately 71% of the surface of the Earth. It is also \"any of the large bodies of water into which the great ocean is divided\". A common definition lists five oceans, in descending order by area, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern (Antarctic), and Arctic Oceans.Seawater covers approximately 361,000,000 km2 (139,000,000 sq mi) and is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas, with the ocean as a whole covering approximately 71% of Earth's surface and 90% of the Earth's biosphere. The world ocean contains 97% of Earth's water, and oceanographers have stated that less than 20% of the oceans have been mapped. The total volume is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers (320 million cu mi) with an average depth of nearly 3,700 meters (12,100 ft).As the world's ocean is the principal component of Earth's hydrosphere, it is integral to life, forms part of the carbon cycle, and influences climate and weather patterns. The ocean is the habitat of 230,000 known species, but because much of it is unexplored, the number of species in the ocean is much larger, possibly over two million. The origin of Earth's oceans is unknown; a sizable quantity of water would have been in the material that formed the Earth. Water molecules would have escaped Earth's gravity more easily when it was less massive during its formation due to atmospheric escape. Oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean eon and may have been the cause for the emergence of life.\nThere are numerous environmental issues for oceans which include for example marine pollution, overfishing, ocean acidification and other effects of climate change on oceans.\n\n\n== Terminology ==\n\nThe phrases \"the ocean\" or \"the sea\" used without specification refer to the interconnected body of salt water covering the majority of the Earth's surface. It includes the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Southern and Arctic Oceans. As a general term, \"the ocean\" is mostly interchangeable with \"the sea\" in American English, but not in British English. Strictly speaking, a sea is a body of water (generally a division of the world ocean) partly or fully enclosed by land. The word \"sea\" can also be used for many specific, much smaller bodies of seawater, such as the North Sea or the Red Sea. There is no sharp distinction between seas and oceans, though generally seas are smaller, and are often partly (as marginal seas) or wholly (as inland seas) bordered by land.\n\n\n=== World Ocean ===\n\nThe global, interconnected body of salt water is sometimes referred to as the \"World Ocean\" or global ocean. The concept of a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography. The contemporary concept of the World Ocean was coined in the early 20th century by the Russian oceanographer Yuly Shokalsky to refer to the continuous ocean that covers and encircles most of Earth. Plate tectonics, post-glacial rebound, and sea level rise continually change the coastline and structure of the world ocean. That said a global ocean has existed in one form or another on Earth for eons.\n\n\n=== Etymology ===\nThe word ocean comes from the figure in classical antiquity, Oceanus (; Greek: \u1f68\u03ba\u03b5\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2 \u014ckean\u00f3s, pronounced [\u0254\u02d0kean\u00f3s]), the elder of the Titans in classical Greek mythology, believed by the ancient Greeks and Romans to be the divine personification of an enormous river encircling the world.\nThe concept of \u014ckean\u00f3s has an Indo-European connection. Greek \u014ckean\u00f3s has been compared to the Vedic epithet \u0101-\u015b\u00e1y\u0101na-, predicated of the dragon V\u1e5btra-, who captured the cows/rivers. Related to this notion, the Okeanos is represented with a dragon-tail on some early Greek vases.\n\n\n== Geography ==\n\n\n=== Oceanic divisions ===\n\nThe major oceanic divisions \u2013 listed below in descending order of area and volume \u2013 are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria.Oceans average nearly four kilometers in depth and are fringed with coastlines that run for 360,000 kilometres.\n\nOceans are fringed by smaller, adjoining bodies of water such as, seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits.\n\n\n=== Ocean ridges ===\n\nThe mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form a single global mid-oceanic ridge system that is part of every ocean and the longest mountain range in the world. The continuous mountain range is 65,000 km (40,000 mi) long (several times longer than the Andes, the longest continental mountain range).\n\n\n== Physical properties ==\n\n\n=== Volumes and dimensions ===\n\nThe volume of water in all the oceans together is approximately 1.335 billion cubic kilometers (320.3 million cubic miles).\n\n\n=== Depth ===\n\nThe average depth of the oceans is about 3,688 meters (12,100 ft). Nearly half of the world's marine waters are over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep. The vast expanses of deep ocean (anything below 200 meters or 660 feet) cover about 66% of Earth's surface. This does not include seas not connected to the World Ocean, such as the Caspian Sea.\nThe deepest point in the ocean is the Mariana Trench, located in the Pacific Ocean near the Northern Mariana Islands. Its maximum depth has been estimated to be 10,971 meters (35,994 ft). The British naval vessel Challenger II surveyed the trench in 1951 and named the deepest part of the trench the \"Challenger Deep\". In 1960, the Trieste successfully reached the bottom of the trench, manned by a crew of two men.\n\n\n=== Color ===\n\nThe bluish ocean color is a composite of several contributing agents including the preferential absorption of red light by water, meaning that blue light is reflected back into the atmosphere. Prominent additional contributors to ocean color include dissolved organic matter and chlorophyll. These aspects of ocean color can be measured by satellite observations and the assessment of chlorophyll provides a measure of ocean productivity (marine primary productivity) in surface waters. In long term composite images, regions with high ocean productivity show up in yellow and green colors, and low productivity ones in blue. \nMariners and other seafarers have reported that the ocean often emits a visible glow which extends for miles at night. In 2005, scientists announced that for the first time, they had obtained photographic evidence of this glow. It is most likely caused by bioluminescence.\n\n\n=== Oceanic zones ===\n\nOceanographers divide the ocean into different vertical zones defined by physical and biological conditions. The pelagic zone includes all open ocean regions, and can be divided into further regions categorized by depth and light abundance. The photic zone includes the oceans from the surface to a depth of 200 m; it is the region where photosynthesis can occur and is, therefore, the most biodiverse. Photosynthesis by plants allows them to create organic matter from chemical precursors including water and carbon dioxide. This organic matter can then be consumed by other creatures. Much of the organic matter created in the photic zone is consumed there but some sinks into deeper waters. Life that exists deeper than the photic zone must either rely on material sinking from above (see marine snow) or find another energy source. Hydrothermal vents are a source of energy in what is known as the aphotic zone (depths exceeding 200 m). The pelagic part of the photic zone is known as the epipelagic.\nThe pelagic part of the aphotic zone can be further divided into vertical regions according to temperature.\nThe mesopelagic is the uppermost region. Its lowermost boundary is at a thermocline of 12 \u00b0C (54 \u00b0F), which, in the tropics generally lies at 700\u20131,000 meters (2,300\u20133,300 ft). Next is the bathypelagic lying between 10 and 4 \u00b0C (50 and 39 \u00b0F), typically between 700\u20131,000 meters (2,300\u20133,300 ft) and 2,000\u20134,000 meters (6,600\u201313,100 ft), lying along the top of the abyssal plain is the abyssopelagic, whose lower boundary lies at about 6,000 meters (20,000 ft). The last zone includes the deep oceanic trench, and is known as the hadalpelagic. This lies between 6,000\u201311,000 meters (20,000\u201336,000 ft) and is the deepest oceanic zone.\nThe benthic zones are aphotic and correspond to the three deepest zones of the deep-sea. The bathyal zone covers the continental slope down to about 4,000 meters (13,000 ft). The abyssal zone covers the abyssal plains between 4,000 and 6,000 m. Lastly, the hadal zone corresponds to the hadalpelagic zone, which is found in oceanic trenches.\nThe pelagic zone can be further subdivided into two sub regions: the neritic zone and the oceanic zone. The neritic zone encompasses the water mass directly above the continental shelves whereas the oceanic zone includes all the completely open water.\nIn contrast, the littoral zone covers the region between low and high tide and represents the transitional area between marine and terrestrial conditions. It is also known as the intertidal zone because it is the area where tide level affects the conditions of the region.\nIf a zone undergoes dramatic changes in temperature with depth, it contains a thermocline. The tropical thermocline is typically deeper than the thermocline at higher latitudes. Polar waters, which receive relatively little solar energy, are not stratified by temperature and generally lack a thermocline because surface water at polar latitudes are nearly as cold as water at greater depths. Below the thermocline, water is very cold, ranging from \u22121 \u00b0C to 3 \u00b0C. Because this deep and cold layer contains the bulk of ocean water, the average temperature of the world ocean is 3.9 \u00b0C. If a zone undergoes dramatic changes in salinity with depth, it contains a halocline. If a zone undergoes a strong, vertical chemistry gradient with depth, it contains a chemocline. Temperature and salinity control the density of ocean water, with colder and saltier water being more dense, and this density in turn regulates the global water circulation within the ocean.The halocline often coincides with the thermocline, and the combination produces a pronounced pycnocline.\n\n\n=== Ocean currents and global climate ===\n\nOcean currents have different origins. Tidal currents are in phase with the tide, hence are quasiperiodic; associated with the influence of the moon and sun pull on the ocean water. Tidal currents may form various complex patterns in certain places, most notably around headlands. Non-periodic or non-tidal currents are created by the action of winds and changes in density of water. In littoral zones, breaking waves are so intense and the depth measurement so low, that maritime currents reach often 1 to 2 knots.\nThe wind and waves create surface currents (designated as \"drift currents\"). These currents can decompose in one quasi-permanent current (which varies within the hourly scale) and one movement of Stokes drift under the effect of rapid waves movement (at the echelon of a couple of seconds). The quasi-permanent current is accelerated by the breaking of waves, and in a lesser governing effect, by the friction of the wind on the surface.\nThis acceleration of the current takes place in the direction of waves and dominant wind. Accordingly, when the ocean depth increases, the rotation of the earth changes the direction of currents in proportion with the increase of depth, while friction lowers their speed. At a certain ocean depth, the current changes direction and is seen inverted in the opposite direction with current speed becoming null: known as the Ekman spiral. The influence of these currents is mainly experienced at the mixed layer of the ocean surface, often from 400 to 800 meters of maximum depth. These currents can considerably alter, change and are dependent on the various yearly seasons. If the mixed layer is less thick (10 to 20 meters), the quasi-permanent current at the surface adopts an extreme oblique direction in relation to the direction of the wind, becoming virtually homogeneous, until the Thermocline.The wind blowing on the ocean surface will set the water in motion. The global pattern of winds or atmospheric circulation creates a global pattern of ocean currents driven by the wind and the effect the circulation of the earth or the coriolis force. Theses major ocean currents include the Gulf Stream, Kuroshio Aghulas and Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Collectively they move enormous amounts of water and heat around the globe influencing climate. These wind driven currents are largely confined to the top hundreds of meters of the ocean. At greater depth the drivers of water motion are the thermoahline circulation. This is driven by the cooling of surface waters at northern and southern polar latitudes creating dense water which sinks to the bottom of the ocean and moves slowly away from the poles which is why the waters in the deepest layers of the world ocean are so cold. This deep ocean water circulation is relatively slow and water at the bottom of the ocean can be isolated from the ocean surface and atmosphere for hundreds or even a few thousand years. \nThis circulation has important impacts on global climate and the uptake and redistribution of pollutants such as carbon dioxide by moving these contaminants from the surface into the deep ocean.       \nOcean currents greatly affect Earth's climate by transferring heat from the tropics to the polar regions. Transferring warm or cold air and precipitation to coastal regions, winds may carry them inland. Surface heat and freshwater fluxes create global density gradients that drive the thermohaline circulation part of large-scale ocean circulation. It plays an important role in supplying heat to the polar regions, and thus in sea ice regulation. Changes in the thermohaline circulation are thought to have significant impacts on Earth's energy budget. In so far as the thermohaline circulation governs the rate at which deep waters reach the surface, it may also significantly influence atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations.\nClimate change could, via a shutdown of the thermohaline circulation, trigger cooling in the North Atlantic, Europe, and North America.The Antarctic Circumpolar Current encircles that continent, influencing the area's climate and connecting currents in several oceans.\n\n\n=== Waves and swell ===\n\nThe motions of the ocean surface, known as undulations or wind waves, are the partial and alternate rising and falling of the ocean surface. The series of mechanical waves that propagate along the interface between water and air is called swell. These motions profoundly affect ships on the surface of the ocean and the well-being of people on those ships who might suffer from sea sickness.  \nConstructive interference can cause individual (unexpected) rogue waves much higher than normal. Most waves are less than 3 m (10 ft) high and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or triple that height. Rogue waves, however, have been documented at heights above 25 meters (82 ft).The top of a wave is known as the crest, the lowest point between waves is the trough and the distance between the crests is the wavelength. The wave is pushed across the surface of the ocean by the wind, but this represents a transfer of energy and not a horizontal movement of water. As waves approach land and move into shallow water, they change their behavior. If approaching at an angle, waves may bend (refraction) or wrap rocks and headlands (diffraction). When the wave reaches a point where its deepest oscillations of the water contact the ocean floor, they begin to slow down. This pulls the crests closer together and increases the waves' height, which is called wave shoaling. When the ratio of the wave's height to the water depth increases above a certain limit, it \"breaks\", toppling over in a mass of foaming water. This rushes in a sheet up the beach before retreating into the ocean under the influence of gravity.\n\n\n=== Weather and rainfall ===\nOceans have a significant effect on the biosphere. Oceanic evaporation, as a phase of the water cycle, is the source of most rainfall. Ocean temperatures affect climate and wind patterns that affect life on land.   \nOne of the most dramatic forms of weather occurs over the oceans: tropical cyclones (also called \"typhoons\" and \"hurricanes\" depending upon where the system forms).  \n\n\n== Chemical composition of seawater ==\n\n\n=== Salinity ===\n\nSalinity is a measure of the total amounts of dissolved salts in seawater. It was originally measured via measurement of the amount of chloride in seawater and hence termed chlorinity. It is now routinely measured by measuring electrical conductivity of the water sample. Salinity can be calculated using the chlorinity, which is a measure of the total mass of halogen ions (includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine) in seawater. By international agreement, the following formula is used to determine salinity:\nSalinity (in \u2030) = 1.80655 \u00d7 Chlorinity (in \u2030)\nThe average ocean water chlorinity is about 19.2\u2030, and, thus, the average salinity is around 34.7\u2030.Salinity has a major influence on the density of seawater. A zone of rapid salinity increase with depth is called a halocline. The temperature of maximum density of seawater decreases as its salt content increases. Freezing temperature of water decreases with salinity, and boiling temperature of water increases with salinity. Typical seawater freezes at around \u22122 \u00b0C at atmospheric pressure. If precipitation exceeds evaporation, as is the case in polar and temperate regions, salinity will be lower. If evaporation exceeds precipitation, as is the case in tropical regions, salinity will be higher. Thus, oceanic waters in polar regions have lower salinity content than oceanic waters in temperate and tropical regions. However, the formation of sea ice at high latitudes excludes salt from the ice and thereby increases salinity in the residual waters in some polar regions. \n\n\n=== Surface ===\n\n\n=== Oxygen concentrations and other dissolved gases ===\n\nOcean water contains large quantities of dissolved gases, including oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. These dissolve into ocean water via gas exchange at the ocean surface, with the solubility of these gases depending on the temperature and salinity of the water. The increasing carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere due to fossil fuel combustion lead to higher concentrations in the ocean waters and ocean acidification. The process of photosynthesis in the surface ocean also consumes some carbon dioxide and releases oxygen which may then return to the atmosphere. The subsequent bacterial decomposition of organic matter formed by photosynthesis in the ocean consumes oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. The sinking and bacterial decomposition of some organic matter in deep ocean water, at depths where the waters are out of contact with the atmosphere, leads to a reduction in oxygen concentrations. This decrease in oxygen increases with the amount of sinking organic matter and the time the water is out of contact with the atmosphere. However, most of the deep waters of the ocean still contain relatively high concentrations of oxygen sufficient for most animals to survive, but there are some ocean areas with water with very low oxygen.\n\n\n=== Residence times of chemical elements ===\nThe ocean waters contain all of the chemical elements as dissolved ions, but the concentration in which they occur range from some with very high concentrations of several grammes per liter, such as sodium and chloride, to others, such as iron, with tiny concentration of a few ng (10-9) g/l. The concentration of any element depends on its rate of supply to the ocean from rivers, the atmosphere and via mid ocean ridge vents, and the rate of removal. Hence very abundant elements in ocean water like sodium, have quite high rates of input, reflecting high abundance in rocks and relatively rapid weathering, coupled to very slow removal from the ocean because sodium ions are rather unreactive and very soluble. By contrast some other elements such as iron and aluminium are abundant in rocks but very insoluble, meaning that inputs to the ocean are low and removal is rapid. Oceanographers consider the balance of input and removal by estimating the residence time of an element as the average time the element would spend dissolved in the ocean before it is removed, usually to the sediments, but in the case of water and some gases to the atmosphere. These cycles represent part of the major global cycle of elements that has gone on since the Earth first formed. The residence times of the very abundant elements like sodium in the ocean are estimated to be millions of years, while for highly reactive and insoluble elements, residence times are only hundreds of years.A few elements such as nitrogen, silicon and phosphorus are essential for life and major components of biological material, sometimes called \u201cnutrients\u201d. The biological cycling of these elements means that this represents an important removal route from the ocean as some of the organic material sinks to the ocean floor and is buried. These elements have intermediate residence times.   \n\n\n== Marine life ==\n\nLife within the ocean evolved 3 billion years prior to life on land. Both the depth and the distance from shore strongly influence the biodiversity of the plants and animals present in each region.As it is thought that life evolved in the ocean, the diversity of life is immense, including:\n\nBacteria: ubiquitous single-celled prokaryotes found throughout the world\nArchaea: prokaryotes distinct from bacteria, that inhabit many environments of the ocean, as well as many extreme environments\nAlgae: algae is a \"catch-all\" term to include many photosynthetic, single-celled eukaryotes, such as green algae, diatoms, and dinoflagellates, but also multicellular algae, such as some red algae (including organisms like Pyropia, which is the source of the edible nori seaweed), and brown algae (including organisms like kelp).\nPlants: including sea grasses, or mangroves\nFungi: many marine fungi with diverse roles are found in oceanic environments\nAnimals: most animal phyla have species that inhabit the ocean, including many that are only found in marine environments such as sponges, Cnidaria (such as corals and jellyfish), comb jellies, Brachiopods, and Echinoderms (such as sea urchins and sea stars). Many other familiar animal groups primarily live in the ocean, including cephalopods (includes octopus and squid), crustaceans (includes lobsters, crabs, and shrimp), fish, sharks, cetaceans (includes whales, dolphins, and porpoises).In addition, many land animals have adapted to living a major part of their life on the oceans. For instance, seabirds are a diverse group of birds that have adapted to a life mainly on the oceans. They feed on marine animals and spend most of their lifetime on water, many only going on land for breeding. Other birds that have adapted to oceans as their living space are penguins, seagulls and pelicans. Seven species of turtles, the sea turtles, also spend most of their time in the oceans.\n\n\n== Human uses of the oceans ==\n\nHumans have been using the ocean for a variety of purposes, for example navigation and exploration, naval warfare, travel, shipping and trade, food production (e.g. fishing, whaling, seaweed farming, aquaculture), leisure (cruising, sailing, recreational boat fishing, scuba diving), power generation (see marine energy and offshore wind power), extractive industries (offshore drilling and deep sea mining), freshwater production via desalination. \nMany of the world's goods are moved by ship between the world's seaports. Large quantities of goods are transported across the ocean, especially across the Atlantic and around the Pacific Rim. Shipping lanes are the routes on the open ocean used by cargo vessels, traditionally making use of trade winds and currents. Over 60 percent of the world's container traffic is conveyed on the top twenty trade routes. A lot of cargo, such as manufactured goods, is usually transported within standard sized, lockable containers, loaded on purpose-built container ships at dedicated terminals. Containerization greatly increased the efficiency and decreased the cost of moving goods by sea, and was a major factor leading to the rise of globalization and exponential increases in international trade in the mid-to-late 20th century.Oceans are also the major supply source for the fishing industry. Some of the major harvests are shrimp, fish, crabs, and lobster. The biggest commercial fishery globally is for anchovies, Alaska pollock and tuna. A report by FAO in 2020 stated that \"in 2017, 34 percent of the fish stocks of the world\u2019s marine fisheries were classified as overfished\". Fish and other fishery products are among the most widely consumed sources of protein and other essential nutrients. Data in 2017 showed that \"fish consumption accounted for 17 percent of the global population\u2019s intake of animal proteins\". In order to fulfill this need, coastal countries have exploited marine resources in their exclusive economic zone, although fishing vessels are increasingly venturing further afield to exploit stocks in international waters.\"Freedom of the seas\" is a principle in international law dating from the seventeenth century. It stresses freedom to navigate the oceans and disapproves of war fought in international waters. Today, this concept is enshrined in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The safety of shipping is regulated by the International Maritime Organization.The ocean offers a very large supply of energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity differences, and ocean temperature differences which can be harnessed to generate electricity. Forms of sustainable marine energy include tidal power, ocean thermal energy and wave power. Offshore wind power is captured by wind turbines placed out on the ocean; it has the advantage that wind speeds are higher than on land, though wind farms are more costly to construct offshore. There are large deposits of petroleum, as oil and natural gas, in rocks beneath the ocean floor. Offshore platforms and drilling rigs extract the oil or gas and store it for transport to land. Offshore oil and gas production can be difficult due to the remote, harsh environment.\n\n\n== Threats ==\n\nHuman activities affect marine life and marine habitats through overfishing, habitat loss, the introduction of invasive species, ocean pollution, ocean acidification and ocean warming. These impact marine ecosystems and food webs and may result in consequences as yet unrecognized for the biodiversity and continuation of marine life forms.\n\n\n=== Marine pollution ===\nThe impact of pollutants depends on their mode of interaction with biota and also their concentration. Hence many marine pollution problems are greater nearer to input sources. Since most inputs come from land, either via the rivers, sewage or the atmosphere, it means that continental shelves are more vulnerable to pollution.\n\nA particular concern is the runoff of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) from agriculture and untreated sewage. These nutrients stimulate phytoplankton growth, which can provide more food for other marine life, but in excess can lead to harmful algal blooms (eutrophication) which can be harmful to humans as well as marine creatures. Such blooms are naturally occurring but may be increasing as a result of anthropogenic inputs or alternatively may be something that is now more closely monitored and so more frequently reported. A second major concern is that the degradation of algal blooms can lead to depletion of oxygen in coastal waters, a situation that may be exacerbated by climate change as warming reduces vertical mixing of the water column.\n\n\n==== Marine debris ====\n\n\n==== Microplastics ====\n\n\n=== Overfishing ===\n\n\n=== Climate change ===\n\n\n==== Ocean acidification ====\n\n\n== Extraterrestrial oceans ==\n\nExtraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds. The only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, although there is evidence for oceans' existence elsewhere in the Solar System.\nAlthough Earth is the only known planet with large stable bodies of liquid water on its surface and the only one in the Solar System, other celestial bodies are thought to have large oceans. In June 2020, NASA scientists reported that it is likely that exoplanets with oceans may be common in the Milky Way galaxy, based on mathematical modeling studies.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nNOAA \u2013 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \u2013 Ocean\nOrigins of the oceans and continents\". UN Atlas of the Oceans.\nGlobal Ocean Commission", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Clouds_over_the_Atlantic_Ocean.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Global_Temperature_Anomaly_1880-2010_%28Fig.A%29.gif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Global_thinking.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/M2_tidal_constituent.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Mizen_Head_2695.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Ocean_gravity_map.gif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Oceanic_divisions.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Oceanus.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Pacific-garbage-patch-map_2010_noaamdp.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Season-long_composites_of_ocean_chlorophyll_%288161799575%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Tectonic_plate_boundaries.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Terra.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Upwelling.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/World_Distribution_of_Mid-Oceanic_Ridges.gif", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/World_map_ocean_locator-en.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"], "summary": "The ocean (also the sea or the world ocean) is the body of salt water which covers approximately 71% of the surface of the Earth. It is also \"any of the large bodies of water into which the great ocean is divided\". A common definition lists five oceans, in descending order by area, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern (Antarctic), and Arctic Oceans.Seawater covers approximately 361,000,000 km2 (139,000,000 sq mi) and is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas, with the ocean as a whole covering approximately 71% of Earth's surface and 90% of the Earth's biosphere. The world ocean contains 97% of Earth's water, and oceanographers have stated that less than 20% of the oceans have been mapped. The total volume is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers (320 million cu mi) with an average depth of nearly 3,700 meters (12,100 ft).As the world's ocean is the principal component of Earth's hydrosphere, it is integral to life, forms part of the carbon cycle, and influences climate and weather patterns. The ocean is the habitat of 230,000 known species, but because much of it is unexplored, the number of species in the ocean is much larger, possibly over two million. The origin of Earth's oceans is unknown; a sizable quantity of water would have been in the material that formed the Earth. Water molecules would have escaped Earth's gravity more easily when it was less massive during its formation due to atmospheric escape. Oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean eon and may have been the cause for the emergence of life.\nThere are numerous environmental issues for oceans which include for example marine pollution, overfishing, ocean acidification and other effects of climate change on oceans."}, "Africa": {"links": ["The Pentagon", "Lawrence of Arabia ", "Frank Gehry", "American cuisine", "Work ethic", "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "George H. W. 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Vann Woodward", "Stagflation", "National Broadcasting Company", "Executive Office of the President of the United States", "Modern liberalism in the United States", "seventy-fiveth Ranger Regiment", "Melting pot", "Agnosticism", "George Washington", "Unified combatant commands", "Apple Inc.", "Michael Collins ", "nineteen seventy United States census", "Japan\u2013United States relations", "Philippines", "Atlantic coastal plain", "Robert Leckie ", "American Community Survey", "Marsden Hartley", "Progressive tax", "eighteen ten United States census", "De facto", "Literacy", "Naming of the Americas", "California Genocide", "Dot-com bubble", "ISO 3166-two:US", "Environmental Performance Index", "Wealth inequality in the United States", "Denali", "Colonial colleges", "NATO", "Amerigo Vespucci", "Holikachuk language", "Illinois", "South America", "United States Space Surveillance Network", "White House", "American system of manufacturing", "Columbia River", "Texas A&M University Press", "Jim Crow laws", "Moody's Investors Service", "Fauna of the United States", "Reaganomics", "Third party ", "Kelly Clarkson", "Korean War", "George Gershwin", "Old-time music", "Settlement of the Americas", "Tlingit language", "List of largest companies in the United States by revenue", "Chinese language in the United States", "nineteen forty-eight United States presidential election", "nineteen hundred United States census", "National Security of the United States", "European colonization of the Americas", "House of Burgesses", "War in Afghanistan ", "Virginia", "James Cameron", "Arabic language in the United States", "Jackson Pollock", "Capitalism", "Province of Pennsylvania", "Iran\u2013United States relations", "Time Magazine", "Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council", "Unincorporated territories of the United States", "Woodrow Wilson", "Yankee", "Stroke", "Beyonc\u00e9", "Alzheimer's disease", "Reconstruction era", "Personal computer", "United States Reports", "Mexican\u2013American War", "Missouri", "Federal enclave", "Home-ownership in the United States", "United States military deployments", "Pew Research Center", "Politics of the Northeastern United States", "Criticism of the United States government", "American poetry", "Civil Rights Movement", "List of statutory minimum employment leave by country", "Chinese Americans", "List of endangered species in North America", "District of Columbia", "Corruption Perceptions Index", "Archaeology", "Four Corners", "Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Cherokee language", "Homeschooling in the United States", "European American", "Canada", "President of the United States", "Santa Fe, New Mexico", "Christianity by country", "Commander-in-chief", "Hawaiian language", "Outline of United States history", "List of airlines of the United States"], "content": "The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territories, 326 Indian reservations, and some minor possessions. At 3.8 million square miles (9.8 million square kilometers), it is the world's third- or fourth-largest country by total area. It borders Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. With a population of more than 331 million people, it is the third most populous country in the world. The national capital is Washington, D.C., and the most populous city is New York City.\nPaleo-Indians migrated from Siberia to the North American mainland at least 12,000 years ago, and European colonization began in the 16th century. The United States emerged from the thirteen British colonies established along the East Coast. Disputes over taxation and political representation with Great Britain led to the American Revolutionary War (1775\u20131783), which established independence. In the late 18th century, the U.S. began expanding across North America, gradually obtaining new territories, sometimes through war, frequently displacing Native Americans, and admitting new states; by 1848, the United States spanned the continent. Slavery was legal in the southern United States until the second half of the 19th century when the American Civil War led to its abolition. The Spanish\u2013American War and World War I established the U.S. as a world power, a status confirmed by the outcome of World War II.\nDuring the Cold War, the United States fought the Korean War and the Vietnam War but avoided direct military conflict with the Soviet Union. The two superpowers competed in the Space Race, culminating in the 1969 spaceflight that first landed humans on the Moon. The Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991 ended the Cold War, leaving the United States as the world's sole superpower.\nThe United States is a federal republic and a representative democracy with three separate branches of government, including a bicameral legislature. It is a founding member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States, NATO, and other international organizations. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. Considered a melting pot of cultures and ethnicities, its population has been profoundly shaped by centuries of immigration. The U.S. ranks high in international measures of economic freedom, quality of life, education, and human rights, and has low levels of perceived corruption. However, the country has received criticism concerning inequality related to race, wealth and income, the use of capital punishment, high incarceration rates, and lack of universal health care.\nThe United States is a highly developed country, and continuously ranks high in measures of socioeconomic performance. It accounts for approximately a quarter of global GDP and is the world's largest economy by GDP at market exchange rates. By value, the United States is the world's largest importer and the second-largest exporter of goods. Although its population is only 4.2% of the world's total, it holds 29.4% of the total wealth in the world, the largest share held by any country. Making up more than a third of global military spending, it is the foremost military power in the world and is a leading political, cultural, and scientific force internationally.\n\n\n== Etymology ==\n\nThe first known use of the name \"America\" dates back to 1507, when it appeared on a world map produced by the German cartographer Martin Waldseem\u00fcller. On his map, the name is shown in large letters on what would now be considered South America, in honor of Amerigo Vespucci. The Italian explorer was the first to postulate that the West Indies did not represent Asia's eastern limit but were part of a previously unknown landmass. In 1538, the Flemish cartographer Gerardus Mercator used the name \"America\" on his own world map, applying it to the entire Western Hemisphere.The first documentary evidence of the phrase \"United States of America\" dates from a January 2, 1776 letter written by Stephen Moylan to George Washington's aide-de-camp Joseph Reed. Moylan expressed his wish to go \"with full and ample powers from the United States of America to Spain\" to seek assistance in the revolutionary war effort. The first known publication of the phrase \"United States of America\" was in an anonymous essay in The Virginia Gazette newspaper in Williamsburg, Virginia, on April 6, 1776.The second draft of the Articles of Confederation, prepared by John Dickinson and completed no later than June 17, 1776, declared \"The name of this Confederation shall be the 'United States of America'.\" The final version of the Articles, sent to the states for ratification in late 1777, stated that \"The Stile of this Confederacy shall be 'The United States of America'.\" In June 1776, Thomas Jefferson wrote the phrase \"UNITED STATES OF AMERICA\" in all capitalized letters in the headline of his \"original Rough draught\" of the Declaration of Independence. This draft of the document did not surface until June 21, 1776, and it is unclear whether it was written before or after Dickinson used the term in his June 17 draft of the Articles of Confederation.The short form \"United States\" is also standard. Other common forms are the \"U.S.\", the \"USA\", and \"America\". Colloquial names are the \"U.S. of A.\" and, internationally, the \"States\". \"Columbia\", a name popular in American poetry and songs of the late 18th century, derives its origin from Christopher Columbus; both \"Columbus\" and \"Columbia\" appear frequently in U.S. place-names, including Columbus, Ohio, Columbia, South Carolina, and the District of Columbia. Places and institutions throughout the Western Hemisphere bear the two names, including Col\u00f3n, Panama, the country of Colombia, the Columbia River, and Columbia University.\nThe phrase \"United States\" was originally plural in American usage. It described a collection of states\u2014e.g., \"the United States are.\" The singular form became popular after the end of the Civil War and is now standard usage in the U.S. A citizen of the United States is an \"American\". \"United States\", \"American\" and \"U.S.\" refer to the country adjectivally (\"American values\", \"U.S. forces\"). In English, the word \"American\" rarely refers to topics or subjects not directly connected with the United States.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Indigenous peoples and pre-Columbian history ===\n\nIt has been generally accepted that the first inhabitants of North America migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 12,000 years ago; however, some evidence suggests an even earlier date of arrival. The Clovis culture, which appeared around 11,000 BC, is believed to represent the first wave of human settlement of the Americas. This was likely the first of three major waves of migration into North America; later waves brought the ancestors of present-day Athabaskans, Aleuts, and Eskimos.Over time, indigenous cultures in North America grew increasingly complex, and some, such as the pre-Columbian Mississippian culture in the southeast, developed advanced agriculture, architecture, and complex societies. The city-state of Cahokia is the largest, most complex pre-Columbian archaeological site in the modern-day United States. In the Four Corners region, Ancestral Puebloan culture developed from centuries of agricultural experimentation. The Haudenosaunee, located in the southern Great Lakes region, was established at some point between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries. Most prominent along the Atlantic coast were the Algonquian tribes, who practiced hunting and trapping, along with limited cultivation.\nEstimating the native population of North America at the time of European contact is difficult. Douglas H. Ubelaker of the Smithsonian Institution estimated that there was a population of 92,916 in the south Atlantic states and a population of 473,616 in the Gulf states, but most academics regard this figure as too low. Anthropologist Henry F. Dobyns believed the populations were much higher, suggesting around 1.1 million along the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, 2.2 million people living between Florida and Massachusetts, 5.2 million in the Mississippi Valley and tributaries, and around 700,000 people in the Florida peninsula.\n\n\n=== European settlements ===\n\nClaims of very early colonization of coastal New England by the Norse are disputed and controversial. The first documented arrival of Europeans in the continental United States is that of Spanish conquistadors such as Juan Ponce de Le\u00f3n, who made his first expedition to Florida in 1513. Even earlier, Christopher Columbus had landed in Puerto Rico on his 1493 voyage, and San Juan was settled by the Spanish a decade later. The Spanish set up the first settlements in Florida and New Mexico, such as Saint Augustine, often considered the nation's oldest city, and Santa Fe. The French established their own settlements along the Mississippi River, notably New Orleans. Successful English settlement of the eastern coast of North America began with the Virginia Colony in 1607 at Jamestown and with the Pilgrims' colony at Plymouth in 1620. The continent's first elected legislative assembly, Virginia's House of Burgesses, was founded in 1619. Documents such as the Mayflower Compact and the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut established precedents for representative self-government and constitutionalism that would develop throughout the American colonies. Many settlers were dissenting Christians who came seeking religious freedom. In 1784, the Russians were the first Europeans to establish a settlement in Alaska, at Three Saints Bay. Russian America once spanned much of the present-day state of Alaska.In the early days of colonization, many European settlers were subject to food shortages, disease, and attacks from Native Americans. Native Americans were also often at war with neighboring tribes and European settlers. In many cases, however, the natives and settlers came to depend on one another. Settlers traded for food and animal pelts; natives for guns, tools and other European goods. Natives taught many settlers to cultivate corn, beans, and other foodstuffs. European missionaries and others felt it was important to \"civilize\" the Native Americans and urged them to adopt European agricultural practices and lifestyles. However, with the increased European colonization of North America, the Native Americans were displaced and often killed. The native population of America declined after European arrival for various reasons, primarily diseases such as smallpox and measles.\n\nEuropean settlers also began trafficking of African slaves into Colonial America via the transatlantic slave trade. Because of a lower prevalence of tropical diseases and better treatment, slaves had a much higher life expectancy in North America than in South America, leading to a rapid increase in their numbers. Colonial society was largely divided over the religious and moral implications of slavery, and several colonies passed acts both against and in favor of the practice. However, by the turn of the 18th century, African slaves had supplanted European indentured servants as cash crop labor, especially in the American South.The Thirteen Colonies (New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia) that would become the United States of America were administered by the British as overseas dependencies. All nonetheless had local governments with elections open to most free men. With extremely high birth rates, low death rates, and steady settlement, the colonial population grew rapidly, eclipsing Native American populations. The Christian revivalist movement of the 1730s and 1740s known as the Great Awakening fueled interest both in religion and in religious liberty.During the Seven Years' War (1756\u20131763), known in the U.S. as the French and Indian War, British forces captured Canada from the French. With the creation of the Province of Quebec, Canada's francophone population would remain isolated from the English-speaking colonial dependencies of Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and the Thirteen Colonies. Excluding the Native Americans who lived there, the Thirteen Colonies had a population of over 2.1 million in 1770, about a third that of Britain. Despite continuing new arrivals, the rate of natural increase was such that by the 1770s only a small minority of Americans had been born overseas. The colonies' distance from Britain had allowed the development of self-government, but their unprecedented success motivated British monarchs to periodically seek to reassert royal authority.\n\n\n=== Independence and expansion ===\n\nThe American Revolutionary War fought by the Thirteen Colonies against the British Empire was the first successful war of independence by a non-European entity against a European power in modern history. Americans had developed an ideology of \"republicanism\", asserting that government rested on the will of the people as expressed in their local legislatures. They demanded their \"rights as Englishmen\" and \"no taxation without representation\". The British insisted on administering the empire through Parliament, and the conflict escalated into war.The Second Continental Congress unanimously adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776; this day is celebrated annually as Independence Day. In 1777, the Articles of Confederation established a decentralized government that operated until 1789.After its defeat at the Siege of Yorktown in 1781, Britain signed a peace treaty. American sovereignty became internationally recognized, and the country was granted all lands east of the Mississippi River. Tensions with Britain remained, however, leading to the War of 1812, which was fought to a draw. Nationalists led the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 in writing the United States Constitution, ratified in state conventions in 1788. The federal government was reorganized into three branches in 1789, on the principle of creating salutary checks and balances. George Washington, who had led the Continental Army to victory, was the first president elected under the new constitution. The Bill of Rights, forbidding federal restriction of personal freedoms and guaranteeing a range of legal protections, was adopted in 1791.\n\nAlthough the federal government outlawed American participation in the Atlantic slave trade in 1807, after 1820, cultivation of the highly profitable cotton crop exploded in the Deep South, and along with it, the slave population. The Second Great Awakening, especially in the period 1800\u20131840, converted millions to evangelical Protestantism. In the North, it energized multiple social reform movements, including abolitionism; in the South, Methodists and Baptists proselytized among slave populations.Beginning in the late 18th century, American settlers began to expand westward, prompting a long series of American Indian Wars. The 1803 Louisiana Purchase almost doubled the nation's area, Spain ceded Florida and other Gulf Coast territory in 1819, the Republic of Texas was annexed in 1845 during a period of expansionism, and the 1846 Oregon Treaty with Britain led to U.S. control of the present-day American Northwest. Victory in the Mexican\u2013American War resulted in the 1848 Mexican Cession of California and much of the present-day American Southwest, making the U.S. span the continent.The California Gold Rush of 1848\u20131849 spurred migration to the Pacific coast, which led to the California Genocide and the creation of additional western states. The giving away of vast quantities of land to white European settlers as part of the Homestead Acts, nearly 10% of the total area of the United States, and to private railroad companies and colleges as part of land grants spurred economic development. After the Civil War, new transcontinental railways made relocation easier for settlers, expanded internal trade, and increased conflicts with Native Americans. In 1869, a new Peace Policy nominally promised to protect Native Americans from abuses, avoid further war, and secure their eventual U.S. citizenship. Nonetheless, large-scale conflicts continued throughout the West into the 1900s.\n\n\n=== Civil War and Reconstruction era ===\n\nIrreconcilable sectional conflict regarding the enslavement of Africans and African Americans ultimately led to the American Civil War. With the 1860 election of Republican Abraham Lincoln, conventions in thirteen slave states declared secession and formed the Confederate States of America (the \"South\" or the \"Confederacy\"), while the federal government (the \"Union\") maintained that secession was illegal. In order to bring about this secession, military action was initiated by the secessionists, and the Union responded in kind. The ensuing war would become the deadliest military conflict in American history, resulting in the deaths of approximately 618,000 soldiers as well as many civilians. The Union initially simply fought to keep the country united. Nevertheless, as casualties mounted after 1863 and Lincoln delivered his Emancipation Proclamation, the main purpose of the war from the Union's viewpoint became the abolition of slavery. Indeed, when the Union ultimately won the war in April 1865, each of the states in the defeated South was required to ratify the Thirteenth Amendment, which prohibited slavery except as penal labor. Two other amendments were also ratified, ensuring citizenship for blacks and, at least in theory, voting rights for them as well.\nReconstruction began in earnest following the war. While President Lincoln attempted to foster friendship and forgiveness between the Union and the former Confederacy, his assassination on April 14, 1865 drove a wedge between North and South again. Republicans in the federal government made it their goal to oversee the rebuilding of the South and to ensure the rights of African Americans. They persisted until the Compromise of 1877 when the Republicans agreed to cease protecting the rights of African Americans in the South in order for Democrats to concede the presidential election of 1876.\nSouthern white Democrats, calling themselves \"Redeemers\", took control of the South after the end of Reconstruction, beginning the nadir of American race relations. From 1890 to 1910, the Redeemers established so-called Jim Crow laws, disenfranchising most blacks and some poor whites throughout the region. Blacks would face racial segregation nationwide, especially in the South. They also occasionally experienced vigilante violence, including lynching.\n\n\n=== Further immigration, expansion, and industrialization ===\n\nIn the North, urbanization and an unprecedented influx of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe supplied a surplus of labor for the country's industrialization and transformed its culture. National infrastructure, including telegraph and transcontinental railroads, spurred economic growth and greater settlement and development of the American Old West. The later invention of electric light and the telephone would also affect communication and urban life.The United States fought Indian Wars west of the Mississippi River from 1810 to at least 1890. Most of these conflicts ended with the cession of Native American territory and their confinement to Indian reservations. Additionally, the Trail of Tears in the 1830s exemplified the Indian removal policy that forcibly resettled Indians. This further expanded acreage under mechanical cultivation, increasing surpluses for international markets. Mainland expansion also included the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867. In 1893, pro-American elements in Hawaii overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy and formed the Republic of Hawaii, which the U.S. annexed in 1898. Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines were ceded by Spain in the same year, following the Spanish\u2013American War. American Samoa was acquired by the United States in 1900 after the end of the Second Samoan Civil War. The U.S. Virgin Islands were purchased from Denmark in 1917.Rapid economic development during the late 19th and early 20th centuries fostered the rise of many prominent industrialists. Tycoons like Cornelius Vanderbilt, John D. Rockefeller, and Andrew Carnegie led the nation's progress in the railroad, petroleum, and steel industries. Banking became a major part of the economy, with J. P. Morgan playing a notable role. The American economy boomed, becoming the world's largest. These dramatic changes were accompanied by social unrest and the rise of populist, socialist, and anarchist movements. This period eventually ended with the advent of the Progressive Era, which saw significant reforms including women's suffrage, alcohol prohibition, regulation of consumer goods, and greater antitrust measures to ensure competition and attention to worker conditions.\n\n\n=== World War I, Great Depression, and World War II ===\n\nThe United States remained neutral from the outbreak of World War I in 1914 until 1917 when it joined the war as an \"associated power\" alongside the Allies of World War I, helping to turn the tide against the Central Powers. In 1919, President Woodrow Wilson took a leading diplomatic role at the Paris Peace Conference and advocated strongly for the U.S. to join the League of Nations. However, the Senate refused to approve this and did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles that established the League of Nations.In 1920, the women's rights movement won passage of a constitutional amendment granting women's suffrage. The 1920s and 1930s saw the rise of radio for mass communication and the invention of early television. The prosperity of the Roaring Twenties ended with the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression. After his election as president in 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt responded with the New Deal. The Great Migration of millions of African Americans out of the American South began before World War I and extended through the 1960s; whereas the Dust Bowl of the mid-1930s impoverished many farming communities and spurred a new wave of western migration.\n\nAt first effectively neutral during World War II, the United States began supplying materiel to the Allies in March 1941 through the Lend-Lease program. On December 7, 1941, the Empire of Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, prompting the United States to join the Allies against the Axis powers, and in the following year, to intern about 120,000 U.S. residents (including American citizens) of Japanese descent. Although Japan attacked the United States first, the U.S. nonetheless pursued a \"Europe first\" defense policy. The United States thus left its vast Asian colony, the Philippines, isolated and fighting a losing struggle against Japanese invasion and occupation. During the war, the United States was one of the \"Four Powers\" who met to plan the postwar world, along with Britain, the Soviet Union, and China. Although the nation lost around 400,000 military personnel, it emerged relatively undamaged from the war with even greater economic and military influence.The United States played a leading role in the Bretton Woods and Yalta conferences, which signed agreements on new international financial institutions and Europe's postwar reorganization. As an Allied victory was won in Europe, a 1945 international conference held in San Francisco produced the United Nations Charter, which became active after the war. The United States and Japan then fought each other in the largest naval battle in history, the Battle of Leyte Gulf. The United States developed the first nuclear weapons and used them on Japan in the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945; the Japanese surrendered on September 2, ending World War II.\n\n\n=== Cold War and civil rights era ===\n\nAfter World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union competed for power, influence, and prestige during what became known as the Cold War, driven by an ideological divide between capitalism and communism. They dominated the military affairs of Europe, with the U.S. and its NATO allies on one side and the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies on the other. The U.S. developed a policy of containment towards the expansion of communist influence. While the U.S. and Soviet Union engaged in proxy wars and developed powerful nuclear arsenals, the two countries avoided direct military conflict.The United States often opposed Third World movements that it viewed as Soviet-sponsored and occasionally pursued direct action for regime change against left-wing governments, occasionally supporting authoritarian right-wing regimes. American troops fought communist Chinese and North Korean forces in the Korean War of 1950\u20131953. The Soviet Union's 1957 launch of the first artificial satellite and its 1961 launch of the first crewed spaceflight initiated a \"Space Race\" in which the United States became the first nation to land a man on the Moon in 1969. The United States became increasingly involved in the Vietnam War (1955\u20131975), introducing combat forces in 1965.At home, the U.S. had experienced sustained economic expansion and a rapid growth of its population and middle class following World War II. After a surge in female labor participation, especially in the 1970s, by 1985, the majority of women aged 16 and over were employed. Construction of an Interstate Highway System transformed the nation's infrastructure over the following decades. Millions moved from farms and inner cities to large suburban housing developments. In 1959, the United States formally expanded beyond the contiguous United States when the territories of Alaska and Hawaii became, respectively, the 49th and 50th states admitted into the Union. The growing Civil Rights Movement used nonviolence to confront segregation and discrimination, with Martin Luther King Jr. becoming a prominent leader and figurehead. A combination of court decisions and legislation, culminating in the Civil Rights Act of 1968, sought to end racial discrimination. Meanwhile, a counterculture movement grew, which was fueled by opposition to the Vietnam war, the Black Power movement, and the sexual revolution.The launch of a \"War on Poverty\" expanded entitlements and welfare spending, including the creation of Medicare and Medicaid, two programs that provide health coverage to the elderly and poor, respectively, and the means-tested Food Stamp Program and Aid to Families with Dependent Children.The 1970s and early 1980s saw the onset of stagflation. The United States supported Israel during the Yom Kippur war and in response, the country faced an oil embargo from OPEC oil exporting countries, this sparked the 1973 Oil Crisis. In 1979, President Jimmy Carter brokered a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel, this was the first time an Arab nation recognized Israeli existence. After his election, President Ronald Reagan responded to economic stagnation with free-market oriented reforms. Following the collapse of d\u00e9tente, he abandoned \"containment\" and initiated the more aggressive \"rollback\" strategy towards the Soviet Union. The late 1980s brought a \"thaw\" in relations with the Soviet Union, and its collapse in 1991 finally ended the Cold War. This brought about unipolarity with the U.S. unchallenged as the world's dominant superpower.\n\n\n=== Contemporary history ===\n\nAfter the Cold War, the conflict in the Middle East triggered a crisis in 1990, when Iraq invaded and annexed Kuwait, an ally of the United States. Fearing the spread of instability, in August, President George H. W. Bush launched and led the Gulf War against Iraq; waged until January 1991 by coalition forces from 34 nations, it ended in the expulsion of Iraqi forces from Kuwait and restoration of the monarchy.Originating within U.S. military defense networks, the Internet spread to international academic platforms and then to the public in the 1990s, greatly affecting the global economy, society, and culture. Due to the dot-com boom, stable monetary policy, and reduced social welfare spending, the 1990s saw the longest economic expansion in modern U.S. history. Beginning in 1994, the U.S. signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), causing trade among the U.S., Canada, and Mexico to soar.On September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda terrorist hijackers flew passenger planes into the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon near Washington, D.C., killing nearly 3,000 people. In response, President George W. Bush launched the War on Terror, which included a war in Afghanistan and the 2003\u20132011 Iraq War. A 2011 military operation in Pakistan led to the death of the leader of Al-Qaeda.Government policy designed to promote affordable housing, widespread failures in corporate and regulatory governance, and historically low interest rates set by the Federal Reserve led to the mid-2000s housing bubble, which culminated with the 2008 financial crisis, the nation's largest economic contraction since the Great Depression. During the crisis, assets owned by Americans lost about a quarter of their value. Barack Obama, the first multiracial president, with African-American ancestry was elected in 2008 amid the crisis, and subsequently passed stimulus measures and the Dodd\u2013Frank Act in an attempt to mitigate its negative effects and ensure there would not be a repeat of the crisis. In 2010, President Obama led efforts to pass the Affordable Care Act, the most sweeping reform to the nation's healthcare system in nearly five decades.In the presidential election of 2016, Republican Donald Trump was elected as the 45th president of the United States, a result viewed as one of the biggest political upsets since the 1948 election. In the presidential election of 2020, Democrat Joe Biden was elected as the 46th president. On January 6, 2021, supporters of outgoing President Trump stormed the United States Capitol in an unsuccessful effort to disrupt the presidential Electoral College vote count.\n\n\n== Geography ==\n\nThe 48 contiguous states and the District of Columbia occupy a combined area of 3,119,885 square miles (8,080,470 km2). Of this area, 2,959,064 square miles (7,663,940 km2) is contiguous land, composing 83.65% of total U.S. land area. Hawaii, occupying an archipelago in the central Pacific, southwest of North America, is 10,931 square miles (28,311 km2) in area. The five populated but unincorporated territories of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, and U.S. Virgin Islands together cover 9,185 square miles (23,789 km2). Measured by only land area, the United States is third in size behind Russia and China, just ahead of Canada.The United States is the world's third- or fourth-largest nation by total area (land and water), ranking behind Russia and Canada and nearly equal to China. The ranking varies depending on how two territories disputed by China and India are counted, and how the total size of the United States is measured.The coastal plain of the Atlantic seaboard gives way further inland to deciduous forests and the rolling hills of the Piedmont. The Appalachian Mountains divide the eastern seaboard from the Great Lakes and the grasslands of the Midwest. The Mississippi\u2013Missouri River, the world's fourth longest river system, runs mainly north\u2013south through the heart of the country. The flat, fertile prairie of the Great Plains stretches to the west, interrupted by a highland region in the southeast.The Rocky Mountains, west of the Great Plains, extend north to south across the country, peaking around 14,000 feet (4,300 m) in Colorado. Farther west are the rocky Great Basin and deserts such as the Chihuahua and Mojave. The Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountain ranges run close to the Pacific coast, both ranges reaching altitudes higher than 14,000 feet (4,300 m). The lowest and highest points in the contiguous United States are in the state of California, and only about 84 miles (135 km) apart. At an elevation of 20,310 feet (6,190.5 m), Alaska's Denali is the highest peak in the country and in North America. Active volcanoes are common throughout Alaska's Alexander and Aleutian Islands, and Hawaii consists of volcanic islands. The supervolcano underlying Yellowstone National Park in the Rockies is the continent's largest volcanic feature.The United States, with its large size and geographic variety, includes most climate types. To the east of the 100th meridian, the climate ranges from humid continental in the north to humid subtropical in the south. The Great Plains west of the 100th meridian are semi-arid. Much of the Western mountains have an alpine climate. The climate is arid in the Great Basin, desert in the Southwest, Mediterranean in coastal California, and oceanic in coastal Oregon and Washington and southern Alaska. Most of Alaska is subarctic or polar. Hawaii and the southern tip of Florida are tropical, as well as its territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific. States bordering the Gulf of Mexico are prone to hurricanes, and most of the world's tornadoes occur in the country, mainly in Tornado Alley areas in the Midwest and South. Overall, the United States receives more high-impact extreme weather incidents than any other country in the world.\n\n\n=== Wildlife and conservation ===\n\nThe U.S. is one of 17 megadiverse countries containing a large amount of endemic species: about 17,000 species of vascular plants occur in the contiguous United States and Alaska, and more than 1,800 species of flowering plants are found in Hawaii, few of which occur on the mainland. The United States is home to 428 mammal species, 784 bird species, 311 reptile species, and 295 amphibian species, as well as about 91,000 insect species.There are 62 national parks and hundreds of other federally managed parks, forests, and wilderness areas. Altogether, the government owns about 28% of the country's land area, mostly in the western states. Most of this land is protected, though some is leased for oil and gas drilling, mining, logging, or cattle ranching, and about .86% is used for military purposes.Environmental issues include debates on oil and nuclear energy, dealing with air and water pollution, the economic costs of protecting wildlife, logging and deforestation, and climate change. The most prominent environmental agency is the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), created by presidential order in 1970. The idea of wilderness has shaped the management of public lands since 1964, with the Wilderness Act. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 is intended to protect threatened and endangered species and their habitats, which are monitored by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.The United States is ranked 24th among nations in the Environmental Performance Index. The country joined the Paris Agreement on climate change in 2016 and has many other environmental commitments. It left the Paris Agreement in 2020, and rejoined it in 2021.\n\n\n== Demographics ==\n\n\n=== Population ===\n\nThe U.S. Census Bureau reported 331,449,281 residents as of April 1, 2020. This figure, like most official data for the United States as a whole, excludes the five unincorporated territories (Puerto Rico, Guam, the U.S. Virgin Islands, American Samoa, and the Northern Mariana Islands) and minor island possessions. According to the Bureau's U.S. Population Clock, on January 28, 2021, the U.S. population had a net gain of one person every 100 seconds, or about 864 people per day. The United States is the third most populous nation in the world, after China and India. In 2020 the median age of the United States population was 38.5 years.In 2018, there were almost 90 million immigrants and U.S.-born children of immigrants in the United States, accounting for 28% of the overall U.S. population. The United States has a diverse population; 37 ancestry groups have more than one million members. White Americans of European ancestry, mostly German, Irish, English, Italian, Polish and French, including White Hispanic and Latino Americans from Latin America, form the largest racial group, at 73.1% of the population. African Americans constitute the nation's largest racial minority and third-largest ancestry group, and are around 13% of the total U.S. population. Asian Americans are the country's second-largest racial minority (the three largest Asian ethnic groups are Chinese, Filipino, and Indian).In 2017, out of the U.S. foreign-born population, some 45% (20.7 million) were naturalized citizens, 27% (12.3 million) were lawful permanent residents, 6% (2.2 million) were temporary lawful residents, and 23% (10.5 million) were unauthorized immigrants. Among current living immigrants to the U.S., the top five countries of birth are Mexico, China, India, the Philippines and El Salvador. Until 2017, the United States led the world in refugee resettlement for decades, admitting more refugees than the rest of the world combined.About 82% of Americans live in urban areas, including suburbs; about half of those reside in cities with populations over 50,000. In 2008, 273 incorporated municipalities had populations over 100,000, nine cities had more than one million residents, and four cities had over two million (namely New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Houston). Many U.S. metropolitan populations are growing rapidly, particularly in the South and West.As of 2018, 52% of Americans age 15 and over were married, 6% were widowed, 10% were divorced, and 32% had never been married. As of 2020, the total fertility rate stood at 1.64 children per woman. In 2013, the average age at first birth was 26, and 41% of births were to unmarried women. In 2019, the U.S. had the world's highest rate (23%) of children living in single-parent households; the rates in Canada and Mexico were 15% and 7%, respectively.\n\n\n=== Language ===\n\nEnglish (specifically, American English) is the de facto national language of the United States. Although there is no official language at the federal level, some laws\u2014such as U.S. naturalization requirements\u2014standardize English, and many states have declared English as the official language. Three states and four U.S. territories have recognized local or indigenous languages in addition to English, including Hawaii (Hawaiian), Alaska (twenty Native languages), South Dakota (Sioux), American Samoa (Samoan), Puerto Rico (Spanish), Guam (Chamorro), and the Northern Mariana Islands (Carolinian and Chamorro). In Puerto Rico, Spanish is more widely spoken than English.According to the American Community Survey, in 2010 some 229 million people (out of the total U.S. population of 308 million) spoke only English at home. More than 37 million spoke Spanish at home, making it the second most commonly used language in the United States. Other languages spoken at home by one million people or more include Chinese (2.8 million), Tagalog (1.6 million), Vietnamese (1.4 million), French (1.3 million), Korean (1.1 million), and German (1 million).The most widely taught languages other than English in the United States, in terms of enrollment numbers from kindergarten through university undergraduate education, are Spanish (around 7.2 million students), French (1.5 million), and German (500,000). Other commonly taught languages include Latin, Japanese, American Sign Language, Italian, and Chinese. 18% of all Americans claim to speak both English and another language.\n\n\n=== Religion ===\n\nThe First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution guarantees the free exercise of religion and forbids Congress from passing laws respecting its establishment.\nThe United States has the world's largest Christian population. In a 2014 survey, 70.6% of adults in the United States identified themselves as Christians; Protestants accounted for 46.5%, while Catholics, at 20.8%, formed the largest single Christian denomination. In 2014, 5.9% of the U.S. adult population claimed a non-Christian religion. These include Judaism (1.9%), Islam (0.9%), Hinduism (0.7%), and Buddhism (0.7%). The survey also reported that 22.8% of Americans described themselves as agnostic, atheist or simply having no religion\u2014up from 8.2% in 1990. Membership in a house of worship fell from 70% in 1999 to 47% in 2020, much of the decline related to the number of Americans expressing no religious preference. However, membership also fell among those who identified with a specific religious group.Protestantism is the largest Christian religious grouping in the United States, accounting for almost half of all Americans. Baptists collectively form the largest branch of Protestantism at 15.4%, and the Southern Baptist Convention is the largest individual Protestant denomination at 5.3% of the U.S. population. Apart from Baptists, other Protestant categories include nondenominational Protestants, Methodists, Pentecostals, unspecified Protestants, Lutherans, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, other Reformed, Episcopalians/Anglicans, Quakers, Adventists, Holiness, Christian fundamentalists, Anabaptists, Pietists, and multiple others.The Bible Belt is an informal term for a region in the Southern United States in which socially conservative evangelical Protestantism is a significant part of the culture and Christian church attendance across the denominations is generally higher than the nation's average. By contrast, religion plays the least important role in New England and in the Western United States.\n\n\n=== Health ===\n\nThe Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that the United States had an average life expectancy at birth of 78.8 years in 2019 (76.3 years for men and 81.4 years for women), up 0.1 year from 2018. This was the second year that overall U.S. life expectancy rose slightly after three years of overall declines that followed decades of continuous improvement. The recent decline, primarily among the age group 25 to 64, was largely due to record highs in the drug overdose and suicide rates; the country still has one of the highest suicide rates among wealthy countries. From 1999 to 2019, more than 770,000 Americans died from drug overdoses. Life expectancy was highest among Asians and Hispanics and lowest among blacks.Increasing obesity in the United States and improvements in health and longevity outside the U.S. contributed to lowering the country's rank in life expectancy from 11th in the world in 1987 to 42nd in 2007. In 2017, the United States had the lowest life expectancy among Japan, Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, and seven nations in western Europe. Obesity rates have more than doubled in the last 30 years and are the highest in the industrialized world. Approximately one-third of the adult population is obese and an additional third is overweight. Obesity-related type 2 diabetes is considered epidemic by health care professionals.In 2010, coronary artery disease, lung cancer, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, and traffic accidents caused the most years of life lost in the U.S. Low back pain, depression, musculoskeletal disorders, neck pain, and anxiety caused the most years lost to disability. The most harmful risk factors were poor diet, tobacco smoking, obesity, high blood pressure, high blood sugar, physical inactivity, and alcohol use. Alzheimer's disease, substance use disorders, kidney disease, cancer, and falls caused the most additional years of life lost over their age-adjusted 1990 per-capita rates. U.S. teenage pregnancy and abortion rates are substantially higher than in other Western nations, especially among blacks and Hispanics.Government-funded health care coverage for the poor (Medicaid, established in 1965) and for those age 65 and older (Medicare, begun in 1966) is available to Americans who meet the programs' income or age qualifications. Nonetheless, the United States remains the only developed nation without a system of universal health care. In 2017, 12.2% of the population did not carry health insurance. The subject of uninsured and underinsured Americans is a major political issue. The Affordable Care Act (ACA), passed in early 2010 and informally known as \"ObamaCare\", roughly halved the uninsured share of the population. The bill and its ultimate effect are still issues of controversy in the United States. The U.S. health care system far outspends that of any other nation, measured both in per capita spending and as a percentage of GDP. However, the U.S. is a global leader in medical innovation.\n\n\n=== Education ===\n\nAmerican public education is operated by state and local governments and regulated by the United States Department of Education through restrictions on federal grants. In most states, children are required to attend school from the age of five or six (beginning with kindergarten or first grade) until they turn 18 (generally bringing them through twelfth grade, the end of high school); some states allow students to leave school at 16 or 17.About 12% of children are enrolled in parochial or nonsectarian private schools. Just over 2% of children are homeschooled. The U.S. spends more on education per student than any nation in the world, spending an average of $12,794 per year on public elementary and secondary school students in the 2016\u20132017 school year. Some 80% of U.S. college students attend public universities.Of Americans 25 and older, 84.6% graduated from high school, 52.6% attended some college, 27.2% earned a bachelor's degree, and 9.6% earned graduate degrees. The basic literacy rate is approximately 99%. The United Nations assigns the United States an Education Index of 0.97, tying it for 12th in the world.The United States has many private and public institutions of higher education. The majority of the world's top universities, as listed by various ranking organizations, are in the U.S. There are also local community colleges with generally more open admission policies, shorter academic programs, and lower tuition.\nIn 2018, U21, a network of research-intensive universities, ranked the United States first in the world for breadth and quality of higher education, and 15th when GDP was a factor. As for public expenditures on higher education, the U.S. trails some other OECD (Organization for Cooperation and Development) nations but spends more per student than the OECD average, and more than all nations in combined public and private spending. As of 2018, student loan debt exceeded 1.5 trillion dollars.\n\n\n== Government and politics ==\n\nThe United States is a federal republic of 50 states, a federal district, five territories and several uninhabited island possessions. It is the world's oldest surviving federation. It is a federal republic and a representative democracy \"in which majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law.\" Since 2015, the U.S. has ranked 25th on the Democracy Index, and is described as a \"flawed democracy\". On Transparency International's 2019 Corruption Perceptions Index, its public sector position deteriorated from a score of 76 in 2015 to 69 in 2019.In the American federalist system, citizens are usually subject to three levels of government: federal, state, and local. The local government's duties are commonly split between county and municipal governments. In almost all cases, executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district.\nThe government is regulated by a system of checks and balances defined by the U.S. Constitution, which serves as the country's supreme legal document. The original text of the Constitution establishes the structure and responsibilities of the federal government and its relationship with the individual states. Article One protects the right to the writ of habeas corpus. The Constitution has been amended 27 times; the first ten amendments, which make up the Bill of Rights, and the Fourteenth Amendment form the central basis of Americans' individual rights. All laws and governmental procedures are subject to judicial review, and any law can be voided if the courts determine that it violates the Constitution. The principle of judicial review, not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, was established by the Supreme Court in Marbury v. Madison (1803) in a decision handed down by Chief Justice John Marshall.The federal government comprises three branches:\n\nLegislative: The bicameral Congress, made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives, makes federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse, and has the power of impeachment, by which it can remove sitting members of the government.\nExecutive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto legislative bills before they become law (subject to congressional override), and appoints the members of the Cabinet (subject to Senate approval) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.\nJudicial: The Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the president with Senate approval, interpret laws and overturn those they find unconstitutional.The House of Representatives has 435 voting members, each representing a congressional district for a two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population. Each state then draws single-member districts to conform with the census apportionment. The District of Columbia and the five major U.S. territories each have one member of Congress\u2014these members are not allowed to vote.The Senate has 100 members with each state having two senators, elected at-large to six-year terms; one-third of Senate seats are up for election every two years. The District of Columbia and the five major U.S. territories do not have senators. The president serves a four-year term and may be elected to the office no more than twice. The president is not elected by direct vote, but by an indirect electoral college system in which the determining votes are apportioned to the states and the District of Columbia. The Supreme Court, led by the chief justice of the United States, has nine members, who serve for life.\n\n\n=== Political divisions ===\n\nThe 50 states are the principal political divisions in the country. Each state holds jurisdiction over a defined geographic territory, where it shares sovereignty with the federal government. They are subdivided into counties or county equivalents and further divided into municipalities. The District of Columbia is a federal district that contains the capital of the United States, the city of Washington. The states and the District of Columbia choose the president of the United States. Each state has presidential electors equal to the number of their representatives and senators in Congress; the District of Columbia has three because of the 23rd Amendment. Territories of the United States such as Puerto Rico do not have presidential electors, and so people in those territories cannot vote for the president.The United States also observes tribal sovereignty of the American Indian nations to a limited degree, as it does with the states' sovereignty. American Indians are U.S. citizens and tribal lands are subject to the jurisdiction of the U.S. Congress and the federal courts. Like the states they have a great deal of autonomy, but also like the states, tribes are not allowed to make war, engage in their own foreign relations, or print and issue currency.Citizenship is granted at birth in all states, the District of Columbia, and all major U.S. territories except American Samoa.\n\n\n=== Parties and elections ===\n\nThe United States has operated under a two-party system for most of its history. For elective offices at most levels, state-administered primary elections choose the major party nominees for subsequent general elections. Since the general election of 1856, the major parties have been the Democratic Party, founded in 1824, and the Republican Party, founded in 1854. Since the Civil War, only one third-party presidential candidate\u2014former president Theodore Roosevelt, running as a Progressive in 1912\u2014has won as much as 20% of the popular vote. The president and vice president are elected by the Electoral College.In American political culture, the center-right Republican Party is considered \"conservative\" and the center-left Democratic Party is considered \"liberal\". The states of the Northeast and West Coast and some of the Great Lakes states, known as \"blue states\", are relatively liberal. The \"red states\" of the South and parts of the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains are relatively conservative.\nDemocrat Joe Biden, the winner of the 2020 presidential election and former vice president, is serving as the 46th president of the United States. Leadership in the Senate includes Vice President Kamala Harris, President pro tempore Patrick Leahy, Majority Leader Chuck Schumer, and Minority Leader Mitch McConnell. Leadership in the House includes Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi, Majority Leader Steny Hoyer, and Minority Leader Kevin McCarthy.In the 117th United States Congress, the House of Representatives and the Senate are narrowly controlled by the Democratic Party. The Senate consists of 50 Republicans and 48 Democrats with two Independents who caucus with the Democrats; the House consists of 222 Democrats and 211 Republicans. Of state governors, there are 27 Republicans and 23 Democrats. Among the D.C. mayor and the five territorial governors, there are three Democrats, one Republican, and one New Progressive.\n\n\n=== Foreign relations ===\n\nThe United States has an established structure of foreign relations. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. New York City is home to the United Nations Headquarters. Almost all countries have embassies in Washington, D.C., and many have consulates around the country. Likewise, nearly all nations host American diplomatic missions. However, Iran, North Korea, Bhutan, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) do not have formal diplomatic relations with the United States (although the U.S. still maintains unofficial relations with Bhutan and Taiwan). It is a member of the G7, G20, and OECD.\nThe United States has a \"Special Relationship\" with the United Kingdom and strong ties with Canada, India, Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Japan, South Korea, Israel, and several European Union countries, including France, Italy, Germany, Spain and Poland. It works closely with fellow NATO members on military and security issues and with its neighbors through the Organization of American States and free trade agreements such as the trilateral United States\u2013Mexico\u2013Canada Agreement. Colombia is traditionally considered by the United States as its most loyal ally in South America.The U.S. exercises full international defense authority and responsibility for Micronesia, the Marshall Islands and Palau through the Compact of Free Association.\n\n\n=== Government finance ===\n\nTaxation in the United States is progressive, and is levied at the federal, state, and local government levels. This includes taxes on income, payroll, property, sales, imports, estates, and gifts, as well as various fees. Taxation in the United States is based on citizenship, not residency. Both non-resident citizens and Green Card holders living abroad are taxed on their income irrespective of where they live or where their income is earned. The United States is one of the few countries in the world to do so.In 2010 taxes collected by federal, state and municipal governments amounted to 24.8% of GDP. Based on CBO estimates, under 2013 tax law the top 1% will be paying the highest average tax rates since 1979, while other income groups will remain at historic lows. For 2018, the effective tax rate for the wealthiest 400 households was 23%, compared to 24.2% for the bottom half of U.S. households.During fiscal year 2012, the federal government spent $3.54 trillion on a budget or cash basis. Major categories of fiscal year 2012 spending included: Medicare & Medicaid (23%), Social Security (22%), Defense Department (19%), non-defense discretionary (17%), other mandatory (13%) and interest (6%).In 2018, the United States had the largest external debt in the world. As a percentage of GDP, it had the 34th largest government debt in the world in 2017; however, more recent estimates vary. The total national debt of the United States was $23.201 trillion, or 107% of GDP, in the fourth quarter of 2019. By 2012, total federal debt had surpassed 100% of U.S. GDP. The U.S. has a credit rating of AA+ from Standard & Poor's, AAA from Fitch, and AAA from Moody's.\n\n\n=== Military ===\n\nThe president is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces and appoints its leaders, the secretary of defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Department of Defense administers five of the six service branches, which are made up of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, and Space Force. The Coast Guard, also a branch of the armed forces, is normally administered by the Department of Homeland Security in peacetime and can be transferred to the Department of the Navy in wartime. In 2019, all six branches of the U.S. Armed Forces reported 1.4 million personnel on active duty. The Reserves and National Guard brought the total number of troops to 2.3 million. The Department of Defense also employed about 700,000 civilians, not including contractors.\n\nMilitary service in the United States is voluntary, although conscription may occur in wartime through the Selective Service System. From 1940 until 1973, conscription was mandatory even during peacetime. Today, American forces can be rapidly deployed by the Air Force's large fleet of transport aircraft, the Navy's 11 active aircraft carriers, and Marine expeditionary units at sea with the Navy, and Army's XVIII Airborne Corps and 75th Ranger Regiment deployed by Air Force transport aircraft. The Air Force can strike targets across the globe through its fleet of strategic bombers, maintains the air defense across the United States, and provides close air support to Army and Marine Corps ground forces. The Space Force operates the Global Positioning System, operates the Eastern and Western Ranges for all space launches, and operates the United States' Space Surveillance and Missile Warning networks. The military operates about 800 bases and facilities abroad, and maintains deployments greater than 100 active duty personnel in 25 foreign countries.The United States spent $649 billion on its military in 2019, 36% of global military spending. At 4.7% of GDP, the rate was the second-highest among the top 15 military spenders, after Saudi Arabia. Defense spending plays a major role in science and technology investment, with roughly half of U.S. federal research and development funded by the Department of Defense. Defense's share of the overall U.S. economy has generally declined in recent decades, from early Cold War peaks of 14.2% of GDP in 1953 and 69.5% of federal spending in 1954 to 4.7% of GDP and 18.8% of federal spending in 2011. In total number of personnel, the United States has the third-largest combined armed forces in the world, behind the Chinese People's Liberation Army and Indian Armed Forces.The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and one of nine countries to possess nuclear weapons. The United States possesses the second-largest stockpile of nuclear weapons in the world, behind Russia. More than 40% of the world's 14,000 nuclear weapons are held by the United States.\n\n\n=== Law enforcement and crime ===\n\nLaw enforcement in the United States is primarily the responsibility of local police departments and sheriff's offices, with state police providing broader services. Federal agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the U.S. Marshals Service have specialized duties, including protecting civil rights, national security and enforcing U.S. federal courts' rulings and federal laws. State courts conduct most criminal trials while federal courts handle certain designated crimes as well as certain appeals from the state criminal courts.\n\nA cross-sectional analysis of the World Health Organization Mortality Database from 2010 showed that United States homicide rates \"were 7.0 times higher than in other high-income countries, driven by a gun homicide rate that was 25.2 times higher.\" In 2016, the U.S. murder rate was 5.4 per 100,000. \nThe United States has the highest documented incarceration rate and largest prison population in the world. As of 2020, the Prison Policy Initiative reported that there were some 2.3 million people incarcerated. According to the Federal Bureau of Prisons, the majority of inmates held in federal prisons are convicted of drug offenses. The imprisonment rate for all prisoners sentenced to more than a year in state or federal facilities is 478 per 100,000 in 2013. About 9% of prisoners are held in privatized prisons, a practice beginning in the 1980s and a subject of contention.Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, it is sanctioned in the United States for certain federal and military crimes, and at the state level in 28 states, though three states have moratoriums on carrying out the penalty imposed by their governors. In 2019, the country had the sixth-highest number of executions in the world, following China, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Egypt. No executions took place from 1967 to 1977, owing in part to a U.S. Supreme Court ruling striking down the practice. Since the decision, however, there have been more than 1,500 executions. In recent years the number of executions and presence of capital punishment statute on whole has trended down nationally, with several states recently abolishing the penalty.\n\n\n== Economy ==\n\nAccording to the International Monetary Fund, the U.S. GDP of $22.7 trillion constitutes 24% of the gross world product at market exchange rates and over 16% of the gross world product at purchasing power parity. The United States is the largest importer of goods and second-largest exporter, though exports per capita are relatively low. In 2010, the total U.S. trade deficit was $635 billion. Canada, China, Mexico, Japan, and Germany are its top trading partners.From 1983 to 2008, U.S. real compounded annual GDP growth was 3.3%, compared to a 2.3% weighted average for the rest of the G7. The country ranks fifth in the world in nominal GDP per capita and seventh in GDP per capita at PPP. The U.S. dollar is the world's primary reserve currency.In 2009, the private sector was estimated to constitute 86.4% of the economy. While its economy has reached a postindustrial level of development, the United States remains an industrial power. In August 2010, the American labor force consisted of 154.1 million people (50%). With 21.2 million people, government is the leading field of employment. The largest private employment sector is health care and social assistance, with 16.4 million people. It has a smaller welfare state and redistributes less income through government action than most European nations.The United States is the only advanced economy that does not guarantee its workers paid vacation and is one of a few countries in the world without paid family leave as a legal right. 74% of full-time American workers get paid sick leave, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, although only 24% of part-time workers get the same benefits. In 2009, the United States had the third-highest workforce productivity per person in the world, behind Luxembourg and Norway.\n\n\n=== Science and technology ===\n\nThe United States has been a leader in technological innovation since the late 19th century and scientific research since the mid-20th century. Methods for producing interchangeable parts were developed by the U.S. War Department by the Federal Armories during the first half of the 19th century. This technology, along with the establishment of a machine tool industry, enabled the U.S. to have large-scale manufacturing of sewing machines, bicycles, and other items in the late 19th century and became known as the American system of manufacturing. Factory electrification in the early 20th century and introduction of the assembly line and other labor-saving techniques created the system of mass production. In the 21st century, approximately two-thirds of research and development funding comes from the private sector. The United States leads the world in scientific research papers and impact factor.In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell was awarded the first U.S. patent for the telephone. Thomas Edison's research laboratory, one of the first of its kind, developed the phonograph, the first long-lasting light bulb, and the first viable movie camera. The latter led to emergence of the worldwide entertainment industry. In the early 20th century, the automobile companies of Ransom E. Olds and Henry Ford popularized the assembly line. The Wright brothers, in 1903, made the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight.The rise of fascism and Nazism in the 1920s and 30s led many European scientists, including Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, and John von Neumann, to immigrate to the United States. During World War II, the Manhattan Project developed nuclear weapons, ushering in the Atomic Age, while the Space Race produced rapid advances in rocketry, materials science, and aeronautics.The invention of the transistor in the 1950s, a key active component in practically all modern electronics, led to many technological developments and a significant expansion of the U.S. technology industry. This, in turn, led to the establishment of many new technology companies and regions around the country such as Silicon Valley in California. Advancements by American microprocessor companies such as Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) and Intel, along with both computer software and hardware companies such as Adobe Systems, Apple Inc., IBM, Microsoft, and Sun Microsystems, created and popularized the personal computer. The ARPANET was developed in the 1960s to meet Defense Department requirements, and became the first of a series of networks which evolved into the Internet.\n\n\n=== Income, poverty and wealth ===\n\nAccounting for 4.24% of the global population, Americans collectively possess 29.4% of the world's total wealth, the largest percentage of any country. Americans also make up roughly half of the world's population of millionaires. The Global Food Security Index ranked the U.S. number one for food affordability and overall food security in March 2013. Americans on average have more than twice as much living space per dwelling and per person as EU residents. For 2017 the United Nations Development Programme ranked the United States 13th among 189 countries in its Human Development Index (HDI) and 25th among 151 countries in its inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI).\n\nWealth, like income and taxes, is highly concentrated; the richest 10% of the adult population possess 72% of the country's household wealth, while the bottom half possess only 2%. According to the Federal Reserve, the top 1% controlled 38.6% of the country's wealth in 2016. In 2017, Forbes found that just three individuals (Jeff Bezos, Warren Buffett and Bill Gates) held more money than the bottom half of the population. According to a 2018 study by the OECD, the United States has a larger percentage of low-income workers than almost any other developed nation, largely because of a weak collective bargaining system and lack of government support for at-risk workers. The top one percent of income-earners accounted for 52 percent of the income gains from 2009 to 2015, where income is defined as market income excluding government transfers.After years of stagnation, median household income reached a record high in 2016 following two consecutive years of record growth. Income inequality remains at record highs however, with the top fifth of earners taking home more than half of all overall income. The rise in the share of total annual income received by the top one percent, which has more than doubled from nine percent in 1976 to 20 percent in 2011, has significantly affected income inequality, leaving the United States with one of the widest income distributions among OECD nations. The extent and relevance of income inequality is a matter of debate.There were about 567,715 sheltered and unsheltered homeless persons in the U.S. in January 2019, with almost two-thirds staying in an emergency shelter or transitional housing program. In 2011, 16.7 million children lived in food-insecure households, about 35% more than 2007 levels, though only 845,000 U.S. children (1.1%) saw reduced food intake or disrupted eating patterns at some point during the year, and most cases were not chronic. As of June 2018, 40 million people, roughly 12.7% of the U.S. population, were living in poverty, including 13.3 million children. Of those impoverished, 18.5 million live in deep poverty (family income below one-half of the poverty threshold) and over five million live \"in 'Third World' conditions\". In 2017, the U.S. states or territories with the lowest and highest poverty rates were New Hampshire (7.6%) and American Samoa (65%), respectively. The economic impact and mass unemployment caused by the COVID-19 pandemic raised fears of a mass eviction crisis, with an analysis by the Aspen Institute indicating that between 30 and 40 million people were at risk for eviction by the end of 2020.\n\n\n== Infrastructure ==\n\n\n=== Transportation ===\n\nPersonal transportation is dominated by automobiles, which operate on a network of 4 million miles (6.4 million kilometers) of public roads. The United States has the world's second-largest automobile market, and has the highest vehicle ownership per capita in the world, with 816.4 vehicles per 1,000 Americans (2014). In 2017, there were 255,009,283 non-two wheel motor vehicles, or about 910 vehicles per 1,000 people.The civil airline industry is entirely privately owned and has been largely deregulated since 1978, while most major airports are publicly owned. The three largest airlines in the world by passengers carried are U.S.-based; American Airlines is number one after its 2013 acquisition by US Airways. Of the world's 50 busiest passenger airports, 16 are in the United States, including the busiest, Hartsfield\u2013Jackson Atlanta International Airport.The United States has the longest rail network in the world, nearly all standard gauge. The network handles mostly freight, with intercity passenger service provided by the government-subsidized Amtrak to all but four states.Transport is the largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions by the United States, which are the second highest by country, exceeded only by China's. The United States has historically been the world's largest producer of greenhouse gases, and greenhouse gas emissions per capita remain high.\n\n\n=== Energy ===\n\nThe United States energy market is about 29,000 terawatt hours per year. In 2018, 37% of this energy came from petroleum, 31% from natural gas, and 13% from coal. The remainder was supplied by nuclear and renewable energy sources.\n\n\n== Culture ==\n\nThe United States is home to many cultures and a wide variety of ethnic groups, traditions, and values. Aside from the Native American, Native Hawaiian, and Native Alaskan populations, nearly all Americans or their ancestors immigrated within the past five centuries. Mainstream American culture is a Western culture largely derived from the traditions of European immigrants with influences from many other sources, such as traditions brought by slaves from Africa. More recent immigration from Asia and especially Latin America has added to a cultural mix that has been described as both a homogenizing melting pot, and a heterogeneous salad bowl in which immigrants and their descendants retain distinctive cultural characteristics.Americans have traditionally been characterized by a strong work ethic, competitiveness, and individualism, as well as a unifying belief in an \"American creed\" emphasizing liberty, equality, private property, democracy, rule of law, and a preference for limited government. Americans are extremely charitable by global standards: according to a 2006 British study, Americans gave 1.67% of GDP to charity, more than any other nation studied.The American Dream, or the perception that Americans enjoy high social mobility, plays a key role in attracting immigrants. Whether this perception is accurate has been a topic of debate. While mainstream culture holds that the United States is a classless society, scholars identify significant differences between the country's social classes, affecting socialization, language, and values. Americans tend to greatly value socioeconomic achievement, but being ordinary or average is also generally seen as a positive attribute.\n\n\n=== Literature, philosophy, and visual art ===\n\nIn the 18th and early 19th centuries, American art and literature took most of its cues from Europe. Writers such as Washington Irving, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, and Henry David Thoreau established a distinctive American literary voice by the middle of the 19th century. Mark Twain and poet Walt Whitman were major figures in the century's second half; Emily Dickinson, virtually unknown during her lifetime, is now recognized as an essential American poet. A work seen as capturing fundamental aspects of the national experience and character\u2014such as Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851), Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885), F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby (1925) and Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird (1960)\u2014may be dubbed the \"Great American Novel.\"Thirteen U.S. citizens have won the Nobel Prize in Literature. William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway and John Steinbeck are often named among the most influential writers of the 20th century. Popular literary genres such as the Western and hardboiled crime fiction developed in the United States. The Beat Generation writers opened up new literary approaches, as have postmodernist authors such as John Barth, Thomas Pynchon, and Don DeLillo.The transcendentalists, led by Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson, established the first major American philosophical movement. After the Civil War, Charles Sanders Peirce and then William James and John Dewey were leaders in the development of pragmatism. In the 20th century, the work of W. V. O. Quine and Richard Rorty, and later Noam Chomsky, brought analytic philosophy to the fore of American philosophical academia. John Rawls and Robert Nozick also led a revival of political philosophy.\nIn the visual arts, the Hudson River School was a mid-19th-century movement in the tradition of European naturalism. The 1913 Armory Show in New York City, an exhibition of European modernist art, shocked the public and transformed the U.S. art scene. Georgia O'Keeffe, Marsden Hartley, and others experimented with new, individualistic styles. Major artistic movements such as the abstract expressionism of Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning and the pop art of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein developed largely in the United States. The tide of modernism and then postmodernism has brought fame to American architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright, Philip Johnson, and Frank Gehry. Americans have long been important in the modern artistic medium of photography, with major photographers including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, Edward Weston, and Ansel Adams.\n\n\n=== Food ===\n\nEarly settlers were introduced by Native Americans to such indigenous, non-European foods as turkey, sweet potatoes, corn, squash, and maple syrup. They and later immigrants combined these with foods they had known, such as wheat flour, beef, and milk to create a distinctive American cuisine.Homegrown foods are part of a shared national menu on one of America's most popular holidays, Thanksgiving, when some Americans make traditional foods to celebrate the occasion.The American fast food industry, the world's largest, pioneered the drive-through format in the 1940s. Characteristic dishes such as apple pie, fried chicken, pizza, hamburgers, and hot dogs derive from the recipes of various immigrants. French fries, Mexican dishes such as burritos and tacos, and pasta dishes freely adapted from Italian sources are widely consumed. Americans drink three times as much coffee as tea. Marketing by U.S. industries is largely responsible for making orange juice and milk ubiquitous breakfast beverages.\n\n\n=== Music ===\n\nAmong America's earliest composers was a man named William Billings who, born in Boston, composed patriotic hymns in the 1770s; Billings was a part of the First New England School, who dominated American music during its earliest stages. Anthony Heinrich was the most prominent composer before the Civil War. From the mid-late 1800s John Philip Sousa of the late Romantic era, composed numerous military songs\u2014particularly marches\u2014and is regarded as one of America's greatest composers. By the late 19th century, the Second New England School (sometimes referred to specifically as the \"Boston Six\") became prominent representatives of the classical tradition, of whom John Knowles Paine was the leading figure.\nAlthough little known at the time, Charles Ives's work of the 1910s established him as the first major U.S. composer in the classical tradition, while experimentalists such as Henry Cowell and John Cage created a distinctive American approach to classical composition. Aaron Copland and George Gershwin\u2014eventually furthered by Leonard Bernstein\u2014developed a new synthesis of popular and classical music.\nThe rhythmic and lyrical styles of African-American music have deeply influenced American music at large, distinguishing it from European and African traditions. Elements from folk idioms such as the blues and what is now known as old-time music were adopted and transformed into popular genres with global audiences. Jazz was developed by innovators such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington early in the 20th century. Country music developed in the 1920s, and rhythm and blues in the 1940s.Elvis Presley and Chuck Berry were among the mid-1950s pioneers of rock and roll. Rock bands such as Metallica, the Eagles, and Aerosmith are among the highest grossing in worldwide sales. In the 1960s, Bob Dylan emerged from the folk revival to become one of America's most celebrated songwriters and James Brown led the development of funk.\nMore recent American creations include hip hop, salsa, techno, and house music. \nMid-20th-century American pop stars such as Bing Crosby, Frank Sinatra, and Elvis Presley became global celebrities, as have artists of the late 20th century such as Michael Jackson, Prince, Madonna and Whitney Houston. Popular artists from the mid-1990s to late 2000s include Mariah Carey, Britney Spears, Justin Timberlake, Christina Aguilera, Beyonc\u00e9 and Jennifer Lopez. Well-known American singers of the 2010s include Katy Perry, Bruno Mars, Lady Gaga, Demi Lovato, Taylor Swift, Kelly Clarkson and Ariana Grande.\n\n\n=== Cinema ===\n\nHollywood, a northern district of Los Angeles, California, is one of the leaders in motion picture production. The world's first commercial motion picture exhibition was given in New York City in 1894, using Thomas Edison's Kinetoscope. Since the early 20th century, the U.S. film industry has largely been based in and around Hollywood, although in the 21st century an increasing number of films are not made there, and film companies have been subject to the forces of globalization.Director D. W. Griffith, an American filmmaker during the silent film period, was central to the development of film grammar, and producer/entrepreneur Walt Disney was a leader in both animated film and movie merchandising. Directors such as John Ford redefined the image of the American Old West, and, like others such as John Huston, broadened the possibilities of cinema with location shooting. The industry enjoyed its golden years, in what is commonly referred to as the \"Golden Age of Hollywood\", from the early sound period until the early 1960s, with screen actors such as John Wayne and Marilyn Monroe becoming iconic figures. In the 1970s, \"New Hollywood\" or the \"Hollywood Renaissance\" was defined by grittier films influenced by French and Italian realist pictures of the post-war period. In more recent times, directors such as Steven Spielberg, George Lucas and James Cameron have gained renown for their blockbuster films, often characterized by high production costs and earnings.\nNotable films topping the American Film Institute's AFI 100 list include Orson Welles's Citizen Kane (1941), which is frequently cited as the greatest film of all time, Casablanca (1942), The Godfather (1972), Gone with the Wind (1939), Lawrence of Arabia (1962), The Wizard of Oz (1939), The Graduate (1967), On the Waterfront (1954), Schindler's List (1993), Singin' in the Rain (1952), It's a Wonderful Life (1946) and Sunset Boulevard (1950). The Academy Awards, popularly known as the Oscars, have been held annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences since 1929, and the Golden Globe Awards have been held annually since January 1944.\n\n\n=== Sports ===\n\nAmerican football is by several measures the most popular spectator sport in the United States; the National Football League (NFL) has the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world, and the Super Bowl is watched by tens of millions globally. Even on the collegiate level, college football games receive millions of viewers per television broadcast; most notably the College Football Playoff, which averages 25 million viewers. Baseball has been regarded as the U.S. national sport since the late 19th century, with Major League Baseball (MLB) being the top league. Basketball and ice hockey are the country's next two leading professional team sports, with the top leagues being the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the National Hockey League (NHL). College football and basketball attract large audiences. The NCAA Final Four is one of the most watched sporting events. In soccer (a sport that has gained a footing in the United States since the mid-1990s), the country hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the men's national soccer team qualified for ten World Cups and the women's team has won the FIFA Women's World Cup four times; Major League Soccer is the sport's highest league in the United States (featuring 23 American and three Canadian teams). The market for professional sports in the United States is roughly $69 billion, roughly 50% larger than that of all of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa combined.Eight Olympic Games have taken place in the United States. The 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis, Missouri, were the first-ever Olympic Games held outside of Europe. As of 2017, the United States has won 2,522 medals at the Summer Olympic Games, more than any other country, and 305 in the Winter Olympic Games, the second most behind Norway.\nWhile most major U.S. sports such as baseball and American football have evolved out of European practices, basketball, volleyball, skateboarding, and snowboarding are American inventions, some of which have become popular worldwide. Lacrosse and surfing arose from Native American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate Western contact. The most-watched individual sports are golf and auto racing, particularly NASCAR and IndyCar.\n\n\n=== Mass media ===\n\nThe four major broadcasters in the U.S. are the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and Fox Broadcasting Company (FOX). The four major broadcast television networks are all commercial entities. Cable television offers hundreds of channels catering to a variety of niches. Americans listen to radio programming, also largely commercial, on average just over two-and-a-half hours a day.In 1998, the number of U.S. commercial radio stations had grown to 4,793 AM stations and 5,662 FM stations. In addition, there are 1,460 public radio stations. Most of these stations are run by universities and public authorities for educational purposes and are financed by public or private funds, subscriptions, and corporate underwriting. Much public radio broadcasting is supplied by NPR. NPR was incorporated in February 1970 under the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967; its television counterpart, PBS, was created by the same legislation. As of September 30, 2014, there are 15,433 licensed full-power radio stations in the U.S. according to the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC).Well-known newspapers include The Wall Street Journal, The New York Times, and USA Today. Although the cost of publishing has increased over the years, the price of newspapers has generally remained low, forcing newspapers to rely more on advertising revenue and on articles provided by a major wire service, such as the Associated Press or Reuters, for their national and world coverage. With very few exceptions, all the newspapers in the U.S. are privately owned, either by large chains such as Gannett or McClatchy, which own dozens or even hundreds of newspapers; by small chains that own a handful of papers; or in a situation that is increasingly rare, by individuals or families. Major cities often have \"alternative weeklies\" to complement the mainstream daily papers, such as New York City's The Village Voice or Los Angeles' LA Weekly. Major cities may also support a local business journal, trade papers relating to local industries, and papers for local ethnic and social groups. Aside from web portals and search engines, the most popular websites are Facebook, YouTube, Wikipedia, Yahoo!, eBay, Amazon, and Twitter.More than 800 publications are produced in Spanish, the second most commonly used language in the United States behind English.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nIndex of United States\u2013related articles\nLists of U.S. state topics\nOutline of the United States\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\nInternet sources\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nUnited States. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.\nUnited States, from the BBC News\nKey Development Forecasts for the United States from International FuturesGovernmentOfficial U.S. Government Web Portal Gateway to government sites\nHouse Official site of the United States House of Representatives\nSenate Official site of the United States Senate\nWhite House Official site of the president of the United States\nSupreme Court Official site of the Supreme Court of the United StatesHistoryHistorical Documents Collected by the National Center for Public Policy Research\nU.S. National Mottos: History and Constitutionality Analysis by the Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance\nUSA Collected links to historical dataMapsNational Atlas of the United States Official maps from the U.S. Department of the Interior\n Wikimedia Atlas of the United States\n Geographic data related to United States at OpenStreetMap\nMeasure of America A variety of mapped information relating to health, education, income, and demographics for the U.S.PhotosPhotos of the USA", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/%22The_Star-Spangled_Banner%22_-_Choral_with_band_accompaniment_-_United_States_Army_Field_Band.oga", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/66000251-2CO.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Diplomatic_relations_of_the_United_States.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Ellis_Island_in_1905.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Alabama.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Flag_of_Alaska.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Flag_of_American_Samoa.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Flag_of_Arizona.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Flag_of_Arkansas.svg", 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In the late 18th century, the U.S. began expanding across North America, gradually obtaining new territories, sometimes through war, frequently displacing Native Americans, and admitting new states; by 1848, the United States spanned the continent. Slavery was legal in the southern United States until the second half of the 19th century when the American Civil War led to its abolition. The Spanish\u2013American War and World War I established the U.S. as a world power, a status confirmed by the outcome of World War II.\nDuring the Cold War, the United States fought the Korean War and the Vietnam War but avoided direct military conflict with the Soviet Union. The two superpowers competed in the Space Race, culminating in the 1969 spaceflight that first landed humans on the Moon. The Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991 ended the Cold War, leaving the United States as the world's sole superpower.\nThe United States is a federal republic and a representative democracy with three separate branches of government, including a bicameral legislature. It is a founding member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States, NATO, and other international organizations. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. Considered a melting pot of cultures and ethnicities, its population has been profoundly shaped by centuries of immigration. The U.S. ranks high in international measures of economic freedom, quality of life, education, and human rights, and has low levels of perceived corruption. However, the country has received criticism concerning inequality related to race, wealth and income, the use of capital punishment, high incarceration rates, and lack of universal health care.\nThe United States is a highly developed country, and continuously ranks high in measures of socioeconomic performance. It accounts for approximately a quarter of global GDP and is the world's largest economy by GDP at market exchange rates. By value, the United States is the world's largest importer and the second-largest exporter of goods. Although its population is only 4.2% of the world's total, it holds 29.4% of the total wealth in the world, the largest share held by any country. Making up more than a third of global military spending, it is the foremost military power in the world and is a leading political, cultural, and scientific force internationally."}, "Carolinian_language": {"links": ["Mortlockese", "Babuza language", "Navajo language", "Southern Pomo language", "Minangkabau language", "Havasupai\u2013Hualapai language", "Kinamigin language", "Louisiana French", "Pacific", "Sabahan languages", "Shawnee language", "Kings River Yokuts", "Mapun language", "Lole language", "Columbia-Moses language", "Itneg language", "Narom language", "Onhan language", "Onondaga language", "Arikara language", "Malimpung language", "Tii language", "Loncong language", "Rota ", "American Indian English", "Nonukan Tidong language", "Wolio language", "Biloxi language", "Konkow language", "Micronesian languages", "Cocopah language", "Cruze\u00f1o language", "Yogad language", "Berawan language", "Chicano English", "Wintu language", "Erie language", "Wanukaka language", "Sajau 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"Pandan Bikol language", "Maguindanao language", "Emplawas language", "Batanic languages", "Abellen language", "Laiyolo language", "Languages of the United States", "Sakizaya language", "Moronene language", "Mansakan languages", "Southeast Babar language", "Uto-Aztecan languages", "Pohnpeic language", "Geser language", "Negeri Sembilan Malay", "Koyukon language", "Ambala language", "P\u00e1\u00e1fang language", "Manggarai language", "Keresan languages", "Tae' language", "Tunjung language", "Menominee language", "English people", "Central Luzon languages", "Masbatenyo language", "Kalabakan language", "Romang language", "Toba Batak language", "Tsat language", "Wakasihu language", "Yavapai language", "East Damar language", "Austronesian languages", "Buruese language", "Flores-Lembata languages", "Hdl ", "Karey language", "Mag-antsi language", "Gujarati language in the United States", "Mualang language", "Mingar language", "Karao language", "United States", "Taivoan language", "Caluyanon language", "Kaidipang language", "Kerinci language", "Javanese language", "Sarawak Malay", "Austronesian language", "Bati language ", "Melanau-Kajang languages", "Kinabalian language", "Northern Mindoro languages", "Winnebago language", "Mount Iraya Agta language", "T\u00fcbatulabal language", "Hebrew language in the United States", "Loup language", "Puluwatese language", "Mandan language", "Koasati language", "Mitchigamea language", "New Orleans English", "Saluan language", "Tombonuwo language", "Celebic languages", "Tontemboan language", "Kajaman language", "Budong-Budong language", "Tausug language", "Temuan language", "Tondano language", "Venture\u00f1o language", "Kayan language ", "Seit-Kaitetu language", "Hawu language", "Daro-Matu language", "Saparua language", "Bunun language", "Lundayeh language", "Uruangnirin language", "Italian language in the United States", "Atta language", "Eskimo\u2013Aleut languages", "Martha's Vineyard Sign Language", "Seko Padang language", "Bisayan languages", "Deyah language", "Ojibwe language", "Bahonsuai language", "Black American Sign Language", "Hupa language", "Mentawai language", "Eastern Kadazan language", "New Mexican Spanish", "Woleaian", "Klamath language", "Uma' Lasan language", "Aklanon language", "Maine accent", "Orang Seletar language", "Language family", "Bintauna language", "Sekar language", "Isle\u00f1o Spanish", "Washo language", "Armenian language in the United States", "Hovongan language", "Chamorro people", "Central Alaskan Yup'ik language", "Indigenous languages of the Americas", "Porohanon language", "Benyadu' language", "Kemak language", "Minahasan languages", "South Sulawesi languages", "West Damar language", "Tuscarora language", "Hidatsa language", "Kangean language", "Sandy River Valley Sign Language", "North Straits Salish language", "Yooper English", "Lipan language", "Micronesia", "Papora-Hoanya language", "Cupe\u00f1o language", "Dena'ina language", "Ratagnon language", "Calamian Tagbanwa language", "Bonggi language", "New York City English", "Glottolog", "Saaroa language", "Terengganu Malay", "BANZSL", "Arta language", "Puyuma language", "Talaud language", "Serudung language", "Kambera language", "Okanagan language", "Tiruray language", "Bikol languages", "Kelantan-Pattani Malay", "Malaysian language", "Penan language", "Capiznon language", "Central Kalapuya language", "Dicamay Agta language", "Ilianen language", "Osing dialect", "Punan Merap language", "Quinault language", "Luilang language", "Moken language", "Moklenic languages", "Hmong language in the United States", "Neutral Huron language", "Northern Kalapuya language", "Lower Tanana language", "Kiowa language", "Baltimore English", "Aborlan Tagbanwa language", "Catalogue of Endangered Languages", "Buhid language", "Kaili language", "Kaili\u2013Pamona languages", "Lolak language", "Melanau language", "Balaesang language", "Seneca language", "Muna language", "Tombulu language", "Ambelau language", "Sangiric languages", "Cayuga language", "Mi'kmaq language", "Hiligaynon language", "Wejewa language", "Yiddish language in the United States", "Batak Karo language", "American English", "Banjar language", "Batui language", "Palauan language", "Paluan language", "Bekais language", "Upper Kuskokwim language", "California English", "Batak Dairi language", "Hanuno'o language", "Kawi language", "Dela-Oenale language", "Gorontalo language", "Plains Apache language", "Manombai language", "Cahto language", "Kumeyaay language", "Luang language", "Mamanwa language", "Molbog language", "Thao language", "Missouri French", "Sumba\u2013Hawu languages", "Wenrohronon language", "Western Bukidnon language", "Umiray Dumaget language", "Lotud language", "Pamona language", "Makuva language", "Muna\u2013Buton languages", "Sa'ban language", "Burusu language", "Komodo language", "Palawan Batak language", "Tetum language", "Bakumpai language", "Samoan Sign Language", "Urak Lawoi' language", "Komering language", "Midland American English", "Ribun language", "Tsouic languages", "Amis language", "Deg Xinag language", "Ibaloi language", "Binukid language", "Unami language", "Hitu language", "Seko Tengah language", "Muskrat French", "Lawangan language", "Nanticoke language", "Pacific Northwest English", "Pekal language", "Bukar Sadong language", "Chuukese language", "Lower Chehalis language", "Moklen language", "Texan English", "Massachusett language", "Dakota language", "Luise\u00f1o language", "Dawan language", "Paku language ", "Mag-indi language", "Guam", "Colorado River Numic language", "Dakka language", "Mandar language", "Taman language ", "Tobian language", "Taos dialect", "Tonkawa language", "Carolina Algonquian language", "Brunei Malay", "Lewotobi language", "Seediq language", "Huaulu language", "Dumpas language", "Remontado Agta language", "Manusela language", "Tomadino language", "Ibanag language", "Col language", "Sumba\u2013Flores languages", "Siuslaw language", "Wakashan languages", "Tomini\u2013Tolitoli languages", "Tule-Kaweah Yokuts", "Cham language", "Greater Central Philippine languages", "Northern Luzon languages", "Satawal", "Nusa Laut language", "Manipa language", "Seluwasan language", "Kapampangan language", "Henniker Sign Language", "Brunei Bisaya language", "Japanese language in the United States", "Cree language", "Northern Pomo language", "French Sign Language family", "Old Javanese", "Fox language", "Dusun language", "Embaloh language", "Ivatan language", "Tiipai language", "Ulithian language", "Levuka language", "Tsimshianic languages", "Pangutaran Sama language", "Saisiyat language", "Waimoa language", "Paulohi language", "Tagalog language in the United States", "Greek language in the United States", "Kisar language", "Batak Simalungun language", "Spanish language in the United States", "Kedah Malay", "Kitsai language", "Bolango language", "Tolaki language", "Eastern Pomo language", "Aleut language", "Mohegan-Pequot language", "Mindanao languages", "Mongondow language", "Arabic language in the United States", "Saluan\u2013Banggai languages", "Mariana Islands", "Samoan language", "Napu language", "Jicarilla language", "Nawathinehena language", "Alsatian dialect", "Kepo' language", "Lelak language", "Cherokee language", "Cotabato Manobo language", "Mahican language", "Ngad'a language", "Ethnologue", "Masbate Sorsogon language", "Kalumpang language", "Potawatomi language", "Telugu language in the United States", "Alabama language", "Lushootseed language", "Malayic languages", "Bima language", "Kashaya language", "Adonara language", "Cagayan Aeta language", "Kamarian language", "Kanowit-Tanjong language", "Susquehannock language", "Pennsylvania German language", "Taje language", "Northern Paiute language", "Manide language", "Lio language", "Ida'an language", "Aput language", "East Formosan languages", "Kayeli language", "Wahau Kenyah language", "Chinook Jargon", "Coastal Kadazan language", "H\u00e4n language", "Kulisusu language", "Lemolang language", "Mansaka language", "Mono language ", "Palawan languages", "Serua language", "Sumbawa language", "Trukic languages", "Lara' language", "Ukit language", "Salas language", "Tela'a language", "Marshallese language", "Nisenan language", "Helong language", "Puerto Rican Spanish", "Buginese language", "Central Bikol language", "Philadelphia English", "Nez Perce language", "Ende language ", "Subject\u2013verb\u2013object", "Yuchi language", "Bantik language", "Haji language", "Tagalog language", "Koba language", "Bungku\u2013Tolaki languages", "Yurok language", "Tsou language", "Inland Northern American English", "Hopi language", "Alas language", "Cebuano language", "Maidu language", "Assiniboine language", "Chuukic languages", "Upper Chinook language", "Busoa language", "Pennsylvania Dutch English", "Metis French", "Ampanang language", "Language death", "Narragansett language", "New England French", "Pangasinan language", "Mikasuki language", "Simeulue language", "Bay Miwok language", "African-American English", "Balantak language", "Botolan language", "Bangka Malay", "Giangan language", "Keninjal language", "Wichita language", "Patwin language", "Masiwang language", "Etchemin language", "Bahau language", "Lower Chinook", "Waray-Waray language", "North Babar language", "Itawis language", "Midiki language", "Selayar language", "Cheyenne language", "Sonsorolese language", "Batak languages", "Sama-Bajaw languages", "Tuwali language", "Laotian language in the United States", "Sasak language", "Kaimbulawa language", "Navajo Family Sign", "Urdu language in the United States", "Haroi language", "Boston English", "Gros Ventre language", "Kohin language", "Quechan language", "Yeshivish", "Mori Atas language", "North-Central American English", "Pulusuk", "Atsugewi language", "Baybayanon language", "Lamalera language", "Mescalero-Chiricahua language", "Itbayat language", "Abenaki language", "Inuit language", "Kamaru language", "Osage language", "Obispe\u00f1o language", "Ngaju language", "Padoe language", "Baduy language", "Riung language", "Central Philippine languages", "Tawbuid language", "Pomoan languages", "Shoshoni language", "Maricopa language", "New Mexican English", "Kagayanen language", "Agutaynen language", "Cuyunon language", "Orang Kanaq language", "Gayo language", "World War II", "Iwaak language", "Chico language", "Tokelauan language", "Choctaw language", "Varieties of American Sign Language", "Michif language", "Kaibobo language", "Kola language", "Nage language", "Pancana language", "Polish language in the United States", "Boano language ", "Selaru languages", "Sedoa language", "Batuley language", "Kathlamet language", "Tagol language", "Bantayanon language", "Kei language", "Kodeoha language", "Northern Mariana Islands", "Dondo language ", "Cia-Cia language", "Den\u00e9\u2013Yeniseian languages", "Wiyot language", "Ati language ", "Ilongot language", "Bentong language", "African-American Vernacular English", "Kavalan language", "Makassarese language", "Iroquoian languages", "Mamuju language", "Suwawa language", "Yaqui language", "Kitanemuk language", "Buol language", "Inuit Sign Language", "Hawaiian language"], "content": "Carolinian is an Austronesian language originating in the Caroline Islands, but spoken in the Northern Mariana Islands. It is an official language (as well as English) of the Carolinian people.  Carolinian is a threatened language according to the Catalogue of Endangered Languages (ELCat), but available data is scarce. There are approximately 3,100 native speakers in the world. Carolinian has 95% lexical similarity with Satawalese, 88% with Woleaian and Puluwatese; 81% with Mortlockese; 78% with Chuukese, 74% with Ulithian.\n\n\n== Classification ==\nThe Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas occupies a chain of 14 islands in the Pacific, approximately 1,300 miles southeast of Japan. The total land areas are 183.5 square miles, and some islands are unpopulated. Most Carolinians live on Saipan, the largest island, though a very small island. Agrigan, is reported to be populated solely by Carolinians speaking Carolinian language.Carolinian language is more usually known as Saipan Carolinian, it was born from several languages in the Carolinian language continuum, due to a century of migration from the west Carolinian atolls to the Northern Marianas island of Saipan in 1815. Spoken mostly by the Carolinian people, Carolinian is the most closely related dialect to Satawalese, Woleaian, and Puluwatese languages. Nowadays, Carolinian is changing quickly due to English, which has dominated Micronesia since World War II. There are only a small percentage of Carolinian children left on Saipan who can confidently speak the traditional form of Carolinian.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Early history ===\nThe Carolinian language comes from closely related languages and dialects. It is a member of the family of Austronesian languages. The first residents were the Austronesians, who came from Taiwan. In 1652, Europeans started to live on the Caroline Islands and spoke the language. Later, people communicated with Europeans in the main linguistic areas of the Carolinian language at the end of the 1600s. Between 1795 and 1797, a Spanish official on Guam, Don Luis de Torres, began to study the Carolinian language and discovered its dialect continuum. During the 1700s, there were more than two Carolinian drift voyages to the Philippines and more than four drift voyages to Guam. The voyages spread a lot of information on Carolinian culture and language from outside islands during the same period.During the 1800s, there was a range of reasons for the maintenance of inter-island travel, and thus supporting the Carolinian language continuum. Besides the necessity to survive, it also had many benefits to communication, trade, and family relations. The evolution of the Carolinian language would have changed once the Carolinian people moved to Saipan under Chamorros occupation. However, Saipan was abandoned in approximately 1815. Due to the Spanish, Carolinians had a beautiful undisturbed frontier all to themselves. The original Carolinian speaking group to live on Saipan would be the first speaker of Saipan Carolinian. Also, every migration from additional atolls would have added many complex languages through that time. It would be good to tell the stages of speaking evolution on Saipan, based on the continued layers of \u201cblending\u201d from the beginning period until today.For that to happen, it would require detailed information on all migrations from 1815 until modern times. Nonetheless, the historical records of movements to Saipan conflict with each other at certain points along the way, and it is sometimes hard to know which group preceded which one. The form of speaking on Saipan did not have an opportunity to specify during the 19th century. Some speakers coming and going between Saipan and the atolls indicated that the language was in a constant state of changing.\n\n\n=== Late history ===\nWhen immigrations came from atolls east of Satawal, the population of Carolinians in the Northern Marianas began to have a huge change after the 1850s. From 1865 to 1868, an English entrepreneur, H. G. Johnson, moved about 1,500 Carolinians to the Marianas, to help running his plantations on Guam, Rota, and Tinian. This number population included Carolinians from Pollan is uncertain. Following the pathway of those 1,500 Carolinians from their first islands to the island of the first assignment in 1865 to 1869, and then on to their last destination by the end of the 1900s century, had so many challengings. The Spanish stone-walled until the Tinian Carolinian moved to Saipan.When the Americans took over Guam in 1898, the Carolinians of the Maria Cristina village were still there. Also, the Americans tried to require the Carolinians in Guam to give their customary dress up. That was not going too well, and the Carolinians still wore their dress. Almost all of the migrations that led to populating the Carolinian community on Saipan had happened in 1911. Additionally, any voyages had no memory existing after about 1905. Specifically, it was the biggest influx of outer island Carolinians to Saipan during 1905 and 1907. Especially when German ships using moved hundreds of Mortlockese and other atoll dwellers to Saipan because of the typhoon devastation on the outer islands in 1907. There was not any huge impact on the language traits that Carolinian language was utilized. This stems from the fact that the migrations were directed into areas of Saipan away from the established villages. Many islanders returned to their original island homes as soon as the crop on the outer islands could recover from the 1907 typhoon, which was a crucial movement for the Carolinian history to influence the language changes.  Only a few people who shared from these forced migrations remained on Saipan.Today, both northern and southern Saipan Carolinians have spread throughout populated areas of Saipan, include the new Kagman homestead areas, which built by the government on the eastern shore. Two events began the process on Saipan whereby the Saipan Carolinians began to reconnect with their outer-island roots in the 1970s. The first one was that a navigator made a voyage from the outer islands to Saipan in 1969 when after a lapse of 60 or 70 years. Saipan Carolinians were in the overpowering current of U.S., and global influence in a new political reality meant for them. The impact of radio, printed matter, and the addition of TVs, video players, video games to virtually every Carolinian home would ensure that nowadays would never subside. While it is true to say that a certain amount of authentic and entrenched aspects of Carolinian language and culture would persist far in the future, the new arrangement would have an enormous impact on the language. There was still genuine interest in preserving the native languages. However,  the reality is different from what people plan.\n\n\n== Cultures ==\nAccording to the history of the language, it is critical to show respect to the Carolinian culture, in particular for older people. First, Carolinian women must use precise words when they are speaking to their brothers and other male relatives. In addition, another way that a woman should show respect to her brothers or male relatives is when the brothers are sitting, and she needs to get up to do something, she must bend her back while walking past him, and her head should not be higher than the man. This is the norm in the Carolinian culture. Also, it is not good to go to the front of the brothers when the sisters pass; she should go around the back of them.  This shows that the language is inseparable from its culture.\nSecond, in the Carolinian culture, dishes cannot be shared between sister and brother. Dishes used by males must not be used by females except by the mother of the man. This is their custom. Additionally, female's bedrooms are restricted. For example, brothers and male relatives must not enter their sister's or female relative's bedroom. Girls should be careful about their personal things, like underwear, which should not be seen by their brothers, after washing clothes they should hang them to dry in a separate place. Females cannot slap her brother, comb his hair, scratch his back and touch his face.\nThird, there is a certain age when a girl must be doing these things. As soon as she gets her menstrual period, this is the starting age. In the outer island of the Carolines, when a girl reaches her period, she is placed in a particular house, where she is taken care of by the grandmother or old women. Her face is colored with orange coloring, and the whole community knows that she has got out of age. In Saipan, people stopped the practice of a special house and coloring the face during the Second World War. Many of Carolinians still practice all of the ways to show respect even today.\nLast, there is respect shown between older men and younger men. For instance, the younger men must not give their opinion in a meeting unless they are invited to do so by the older men. Younger men should respect the older men and keep quiet before them unless this permission to speak is granted. Usually there is a leader, who must be respected and his decision followed. Also, a husband must respect his wife's brothers and male relatives. When they need something, if the husband should have sex with his wife, he should in return help her brothers. He should make his plans fit into their plans. For instance, if they need to use his car then it is expected that he should let them use it. He should bring local food to the family party.\n\n\n== Grammar ==\n\n\n=== Phonology ===\nConsonant Phonemes TableThe table shows that alveolar ridge receives tongue-blade contact while the tongue tip makes contact at some place on the teeth.\nVowel Phonemes TableAll of the consonants may appear initially, medially, and finally. In the final position, all the obstruents are obligatorily released. All consonants except / \u00c7 / are unaspirated, and all stops and  / x / are lenis. The consonants  / bw / and / mw / have coarticulated labial closure and rounding with a raising of the back of the tongue toward the velum. the / bw / is usually spirantized to / \u03b2w/ medially. The / r / is a trill, which is voiceless word-finally. Moreover, all of the following single consonants may also be geminate initially, medially and in their abstract representation, finally: / p, t, bw, f, s, m, mw, \u014b, l /. Geminate / bw / is devoiced. in addition, Carolinian has geminate but not single / kk /. There are the five consonants / \u015f, x, r, w, y /, which may be geminated medially in productive reduplication. Geminate obstruents are tense and often give the impression of aspiration.\nIn addition to its native vocabulary, Carolinian has borrowed considerable vocabulary from Chamorro, English, and Japanese. This has led to the borrowing of some phonemes from these languages as well. Although these phonemes appear only in borrowed words, many of these words undergo regular Carolinian phonological rules, and the international segments are assigned in the same way as native speakers. For example, the Japanese word / dzori / means slipper is borrowed into Carolinian and may be reduplicated. So / dzodzdzoori / means to be wearing slippers.\n\n\n=== Syllable structure ===\nThe classic form of Carolinian syllables is either CV, CVC, CVVC, or CCVC.\n\n\n=== Morphology ===\n\n\n=== Simple sentence structure ===\nCarolinian simple sentences contain two major constituents, which are the Subject Noun Phrase and the Predicate Phrase. The word order of Carolinian language is Subject-Verb-Object. The following are some example simple sentences.\n\n\n== Vocabulary ==\nSome researchers indicate that Carolinian language with the western half of the continuum. In either case, the next sister of Carolinian is invariably described as Satawalese. Carolinian gets a little more in common with Woleaian- Mortlockese than it does either Polowat-Pulusuk or Satawalese, but with Polowat-Pulusuk showing slightly more influence than Satawalese. The lexical stock is one domain in Chuukic languages that can contribute substantially to the quest to find how Carolinian is put in order to its source languages since there is a significant amount of diversity among the languages\u2019 lexicons. That is quite true even though each Chuukic language has close to a very high 50% lexical similarity with all the other members of the Continuum. Nonetheless, that still leaves the remaining 50% in which to find differences among languages, and this will prove to be enough to refine in on Carolinian lines of lexical inheritance.\n\n\n=== Past orthographies ===\n1. Most Saipan Carolinians are bilingual or trilingual. Their writing has reflected many foreign language orthographic systems. Despite the perfection of Carolinian writing, the following generalizations can be made. First, the vulgarized consonants / bw, mw, pw / were often written as digraphs when the following vowels are unrounded. However, / w / or / u / was virtually never indicated before rounded vowels or word finally. This phenomenon can be traced to Chamorro writing, there is a rounded velar glide that occurs only after consonants and only before unrounded vowels. The Carolinians seem to have interpreted their vulgarized consonants as plain consonants followed by glides, like the Chamorro phones. For instance, libual means hole of for / libwal /, but lib means hole for / liibw / the form imual for / imwal / means his house, but imom / imw\u0254mw / means your house, puel for / pwpwel / means dirt, but po for / pwo / means pound.\n2. The geminate consonants were not represented as it initially and finally, though some people wrote geminate consonants medially. This is almost surely a result of Chamorro influence. The only geminates in Chamorro are medial and as a consequence only these geminates are reflected in writing. For example, pi / ppii / means sand, lepi, leppi for / leppi /  means beach, sand, mile, mille for / mille / means this one. lol for / ll\u0254l / means in it.\n3. Carolinian are used to the 5 vowel symbols of the Roman alphabet. These were used to identify the 9 distinctive vowels of the Carolinian language.\n4. Long vowels were not represented maybe due to Chamorro impact, as there are no distinctive long vowels in that language. For example, fi / fii / means star, set / s\u00e6\u00e6t / means sea, il for / iil / means mother.\n5. In writing morphophonemic regularities such as the predictable vowel qualities before possessive suffixes, the Carolinian paid no attention to the underlying regulations. On the order hand, they focus totally on the surface phones. This is the same as Chamorro practice as well as to most of other Micronesian orthographies.\n6. Directional suffixes were usually attached to the preceding verbs. For instance, muatiu / m\u0254\u0254ttiu / means sit down, mela / m\u00e6\u00e6ll\u0254 / means die, touo / towou / means get out.\n7. The subject pronoun was almost invariably attached to whichever part of the verb phrase immediately was following. For example, the negative marker, the aspect marker, an aspectual adverb, or the verb itself. ese / e se / means he not, ebue / e bwe / means he will, eke, eghal / e kke, e ghal / means he progressive, and emuel / e mwmwel / means he can.\n8. When the determines were singular, they were usually connected to the preceding noun. For example, mualue /mw\u00e6\u00e6l-we/ means that man, mualie /mw\u00e6\u00e6l-ie/ means this man. Plural determiners, which were generally written separated. For example, mual kal /mw\u00e6\u00e6l + kkaal/ means these men, mual kelal /mw\u00e6\u00e6l kke + laal/ means those men, mual keue /mw\u00e6\u00e6l kke + we/ means those men in the past.\n9. The longer object pronouns were sometimes separated from the preceding verb stem, while the shorter pronouns are identical attached. For example, e weriei means he sees me, versus e uri ghisch means he sees us.\n10. Sometimes morphemes were not written if they were phonologically assimilated to other morphemes. For example, ito for / i + itto / means I come.\n\n\n=== Saipan Carolinian Orthography Committee ===\nA preliminary meeting was called at the Headquarters Education Department conference room on July 21, 1976. The site was decided on in part since it was about equidistant from both the northern and southern Carolinian communities. The meeting was to review the initial steps for setting up an orthography acceptable to both communities and to select the members of the orthography committee. The official orthography conference was held from July 26 to August 4, 1976. The meeting opened with an address by the Director of Education for the Marianas. Mr. Jesus M. Conception, representatives from the Marianas Education Department and the Chamorro Orthography Committee also attacked the convention on an irregular basis. This is the first decided that no dialect would be chosen as the official dialect for school and government documents, In other words, the committee agreed to pick a standard system of presenting the pronunciations of all three dialects, and Carolinians should use that system to reflect the specific dialect pronunciations. So school teachers would not enforce the unique forms of one dialect but instead, allow students to use the spelling correctly for the dialect they speak.\n\n\n=== Alphabet ===\nThere were 28 letters in 1977 and they were expanded to 33 letters in 2004.\n\n\n== Writing system ==\nThe Carolinians use a wide range of experiences in selecting the alphabetic system they use. For example, many of the older Carolinians are at least familiar with German from the German occupation. Depending on these, people would often use umlaut diacritics for the writing some vowels. A German influence could also be detected in the writing of the coronal spirant /s/ as <sch>. However, other speakers use their knowledge of Chamorro orthography to write Carolinian. As Chamorro has three fewer phonemic vowels than Carolinian and does not include Carolinians distinctive vowel length, initial consonant gemination, or velarized labials, individual systems based on Chamorro contained many double meanings. However, other Carolinians based their spelling in English, no individual writer could make use of the system.\n\n\n== References ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Flag_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg"], "summary": "Carolinian is an Austronesian language originating in the Caroline Islands, but spoken in the Northern Mariana Islands. It is an official language (as well as English) of the Carolinian people.  Carolinian is a threatened language according to the Catalogue of Endangered Languages (ELCat), but available data is scarce. There are approximately 3,100 native speakers in the world. Carolinian has 95% lexical similarity with Satawalese, 88% with Woleaian and Puluwatese; 81% with Mortlockese; 78% with Chuukese, 74% with Ulithian."}, "Roman_Alphabet": {"links": ["Bhaiksuki script", "Bengali alphabet", "Eswatini", "Punic alphabet", "Hungary", "Wancho language", "Gabelsberger shorthand", "Mru language", "Elbasan script", "Malayanma", "Fingilish", "Traditional Chinese characters", "Djibouti", "Romanization", "Sinhala Braille", "Telegraph code", "Urdu Braille", "Navajo Braille", "Marshall Islands", "Unicode", "Jamaica", "Espanca script", "Buda script", "Old Roman cursive", "Samoan Braille", "Dogri script", "Tanzania", "Hanifi Rohingya script", "Argentina", "Kannada Braille", "Beneventan script", "Nandinagari", "Diacritic", "Fiji", "German language", "Pakistan", "Kaomoji", "List of Latin-script keyboard layouts", "Luxembourg", "SignWriting", "Cham script", "Japanese calligraphy", "Gondi writing", "Letter ", "Th ", "RoboBraille", "Latvia", "M", "Vowel", "Noun", "O", 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syllabics", "Danish orthography", "Korean Braille", "R", "Cipher runes", "List of precomposed Latin characters in Unicode", "Croatia", "Hungarian language", "List of creators of writing systems", "Europe", "Palaeography", "Aramaic alphabet", "Carolingian minuscule", "Continuant", "The Bahamas", "Capital letters", "Vietnam", "ISBN ", "Javanese script", "Mende Kikakui script", "Demotic ", "Brazil", "Attic numerals", "Latin spelling and pronunciation", "Ch\u1eef N\u00f4m", "Estonia", "Greek alphabet", "I", "Mixtec writing", "Federated States of Micronesia", "History of writing", "Ancient South Arabian script", "India", "Luxembourgish Braille", "Old Mon script", "Long vowel", "National Braille Association", "Polish Braille", "Voice ", "Cambridge University Press", "Asomtavruli", "Lisu language", "Vietnamese Braille", "Romania", "Hatran alphabet", "Neo-Tifinagh", "Guarani Braille", "Shavian alphabet", "Unicode range", "Mexico", "Slovenia", "Evenki alphabet", "Egyptian hieroglyphs", "Arabic Braille", "F", "Liechtenstein", "Claudius", "Malayalam script", "Gothic runic inscriptions", "Mahajani", "Elder Futhark", "Proto-Elamite script", "Nigerian braille", "Mozambique", "Ranjana script", "Marchen ", "G", "Faroese Braille", "List of Latin-script tetragraphs", "Italian Peninsula", "Moon type", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "La\u1e47\u1e0d\u0101 scripts", "Norwegian orthography", "Yugtun script", "Moldova", "Turkish Braille", "Central African Republic", "Bharati Braille", "African reference alphabet", "Ij ", "Kazakh Braille", "M\u0101ori Braille", "Eskayan script", "Old Turkic script", "Eveyla Akuru", "Tuvalu", "United States", "Germanic language", "Ogham", "Afroasiatic languages", "\u02bcPhags-pa script", "Old Sundanese script", "Byblos syllabary", "Accessible publishing", "V", "Pictogram", "Austronesian languages", "English Braille", "Pinyin", "Indigenous languages of the Americas", "Spain", "Syriac alphabet", "Baltic languages", "Southeastern Iberian script", "Tai Le script", "Belgium", "Hawaiian Braille", "Testerian", "Lao script", "Kana", "Netherlands", "Runic alphabet", "Sui language", "Chad", "Suriname", "German Braille", "Isotype ", "Wolof language", "ASLwrite", "Sogdian alphabet", "Christian evangelism", "Tai Tham script", "Botswana", "Latin", "Malaysia", "Coorgi\u2013Cox alphabet", "Assamese alphabet", "New Roman cursive", "Flag semaphore", "Mongolian calligraphy", "Dalecarlian runes", "Proto-Sinaitic script", "Switzerland", "History of the alphabet", "Cantonese Braille", "Braille translator", "List of writing systems", "S\u00fctterlin", "Egypt", "Ghana", "Malawi", "West Slavic languages", "Semi-syllabary", "Lithuanian Braille", "Punjabi Braille", "Blackfoot language", "Braille watch", "Leke script", "Lepcha script", "Chinese characters", "Islamic calligraphy", "Cypro-Minoan syllabary", "Mon script", "Celtic languages", "Hungarian ly", "Gadabuursi Somali Script", "Southwest Paleohispanic script", "Belize", "Maya script", "Doge ", "Nigeria", "Gabon", "Limbu script", "Adlam script", "Braille literacy", "Unified English Braille", "Visigothic script", "Taiwanese Braille", "Manichaean script", "Linear B", "Germanic languages", "Georgian Braille", "Arabic chat alphabet", "Long i", "Hebrew alphabet", "Braille Patterns", "Braille Institute of America", "Albanian Braille", "Modi script", "El Salvador", "Costa Rica", "List of Latin-script pentagraphs", "Samoa", "Tibetan script", "Gh ", "Gunjala Gondi script", "Sunwar language", "Linear Elamite", "Greeklish", "Odia script", "Latin-one", "Saint Lucia", "Helmut Rix", "Ukrainian Braille", "Cretan hieroglyphs", "French Braille", "Luo script", "Braigo", "American Braille", "Eritrea", "Gyaru-moji", "Levant", "New Epoch Notation Painting", "New York Point", "Romanian Braille", "Namibia", "Ll", "Spread of the Latin script", "Venezuela", "Cambodian Braille", "Multani script", "Teeline Shorthand", "Yugoslav Braille", "Etruscan civilization", "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "Woleai script", "Icelandic Braille", "Braille technology", "Slavic languages", "IPA Braille", "Zapotec script", "Lithuania", "Tamil-Brahmi", "ISO basic Latin alphabet", "IConji", "Dz ", "Khudabadi script", "List of constructed scripts", "Wiktionary", "List of Latin-script digraphs", "QWERTY", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Two-cell Chinese Braille", "Georgian calligraphy", "DoggoLingo", "Anatolia", "Nj ", "Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften", "Tamil Braille", "Hanunuo script", "Pahlavi scripts", "Plosives", "Denmark", "Irish Braille", "List of languages by writing system", "Middle Ages", "Chinese bronze inscriptions", "Mwangwego script", "Emoji", "Cameroon", "X", "Burmese script", "Guatemala", "Calligraphy", "Sinhala script", "Vatteluttu", "Hanja", "Braille e-book", "Burundi", "Maldivian writing systems", "Batak script", "Brahmi numerals", "Czech Republic", "Paraguay", "Translit", "List of typographical symbols and punctuation marks", "Panama", "Takri script", "Thaana", "Republic of the Congo", "D\u017e ", "Euboean alphabet", "Madagascar", "Marcomannic runes", "Tagbanwa script", "Roman square capitals", "Zimbabwe", "Tzsch", "Portuguese Braille", "Nh ", "Solomon Islands", "Claudian letters", "Kazakhstan", "Sylheti Nagri", "Estonian Braille", "Nilo-Saharan languages", "N\u0101gar\u012b script", "Russian Braille", "Welsh Braille", "Gupta script", "Sharada script", "Armenian alphabet", "Bulgarian Braille", "Ol Chiki script", "Q", "Latvian Braille", "Cumae alphabet", "Hieratic", "Gurmukhi", "Brahmi script", "B", "Ecuador", "Undeciphered writing systems", "Medieval Latin", "B\u00c9PO", "Pau Cin Hau script", "S", "Sabriye Tenberken", "Uchen script", "South Africa", "Akkadian cuneiform", "Arabic calligraphy", "Roman Emperor", "American Printing House for the Blind", "Katakana", "Thai script", "eighteen twenty-nine braille", "Simplified Chinese characters", "International uniformity of braille alphabets", "Portugal", "Consonant", "Hiragana", "Kawi script", "Shan script", "Telugu Braille", "Nicaragua", "Kenya", "Cuneiform Luwian", "Western Roman Empire", "Avestan alphabet", "Medieval runes", "S\u014dgana", "Slovakia", "Kurrent", "Italian Braille", "Etruscans", "Saint Kitts and Nevis", "Lesotho", "Afaka syllabary", "Jeton", "Emoticon", "Louis Braille", "Tigalari script", "Esperanto Braille", "Tibetan calligraphy", "Uralic languages", "Kharosthi", "Siddha\u1e43 script", "Linguistics", "Italy", "Ahom script", "Andorra", "Lingua franca", "Grantha script", "AZERTY", "Isthmian script", "Meitei script", "Pseudo-Chinese", "Osage alphabet", "Duenos inscription", "Samaritan script", "Rashi script", "Canada", "Osage script", "Liberia", "Boyd's syllabic shorthand", "Carian alphabets", "Coptic alphabet", "Majuscule", "Pitman shorthand", "Sudan", "Thomas Natural Shorthand", "Braille music", "Jindai moji", "Benin", "Braille kanji", "Qu ", "Togo", "B\u00e9t\u00e9 syllabary", "Uncial script", "Norway", "Bolivia", "Latin script", "Latin-script alphabet", "Ugaritic alphabet", "Republic of Ireland", "Sierra Leone", "Proto-Sinaitic alphabet", "Lycian alphabet", "Alay", "Blissymbols", "Bopomofo", "Decapoint", "Braille embosser", "International Phonetic Alphabet", "Vietnamese alphabet", "Germany", "Hungarian Braille", "Canadian Aboriginal syllabics", "N'Ko script", "Vagindra script", "Japan Braille Library", "Bengali Braille", "Cypriot syllabary", "Languages of Africa", "Mali", "Younger Futhark", "Sifives", "Hungarian dzs", "Greece", "Georgian alphabet", "Man'y\u014dgana", "Jejemon", "Ersu Shaba script", "South African braille", "Western calligraphy", "Angola", "Cherokee syllabary", "Assyrian cuneiform", "Night writing", "Ideogram", "Sorang Sompeng script", "Chinese calligraphy", "Finnish language", "Malayalam Braille", "Seal script", "Cyrillic alphabets", "Mainland Chinese Braille", "Old Latin", "Phonetic transcription", "Sodales Augustales", "Chakma script", "Mainz", "Khom script", "Dzongkha Braille", "Niger\u2013Congo languages", "Fakkham script", "Psalter Pahlavi", "Tamil script", "Mountbatten Brailler", "Goykanadi", "H", "Fox language", "Northern Sami Braille", "Indonesia", "Jurchen script", "Barbados", "Senegal", "Byzantine Empire", "Runes", "Serbia", "Classical Latin alphabet", "Algerian Braille", "Soyombo script", "Paleo-Hebrew alphabet", "Old Italic script", "Kulitan", "Persian Braille", "Syllabary", "Makasar script", "N\u00fcshu", "Grenada", "Alphabet", "Dutch Braille", "Guinea", "Kurukh language", "Pyu script", "Tironian notes", "Sz ", "Chile", "T", "United Kingdom", "Anglo-Saxon runes", "East Timor", "Antigua and Barbuda", "List of languages by first written accounts", "Nabataean alphabet", "Merovingian script", "Ancient Rome", "San Marino", "Dominican Republic", "Paleohispanic scripts", "Western Christianity", "Capitalization", "Ge\u02bdez script", "Guyana", "Insular script", "Roman Empire", "Saurashtra script", "Mediterranean Sea", "Balinese script", "New Tai Lue alphabet", "The Gambia", "Western Latin character sets ", "Poland", "Sundanese script", "Thai and Lao Braille", "Nwagu Aneke script", "U", "Yerkish", "Latin script in Unicode", "Pracalit script", "Indian calligraphy", "Tifinagh", "Bamum script", "Abugida", "Haiti", "E", "Colemak", "Volapuk encoding", "Blackletter", "Somali alphabets", "Singapore", "Allography", "Azeri Braille", "Greek language", "Gujarati script", "O RLY?", "Odia Braille", "Specials ", "W. Sidney Allen", "Nuskhuri", "Tangut script", "Tocharian script", "Early Cyrillic alphabet", "Iban language", "Internet slang", "Telugu script", "Roman conquest of Greece", "Um\u00ea script", "Archaic Greek alphabets", "Turkmenistan", "Colombia", "History of Rome", "Pahawh Hmong", "Siglas poveiras", "Ancient North Arabian", "Austroasiatic languages", "Old Italic alphabet", "Warang Citi", "Burmese Braille", "Kiribati", "Stokoe notation", "Vatican City", "Kpelle syllabary", "W", "Pallava script", "Kalends", "Gothic alphabet", "Nuremberg", "Tai Viet script", "L", "Zanabazar square script", "Equatorial Guinea", "France", "Khojki script", "K", "J", "Khitan large script", "Idu script", "Ch ", "South Sudan", "Etruscan alphabet", "Rencong script", "Chinese family of scripts", "Vai syllabary", "Bagam script", "Old Hungarian script", "Albania", "Azerbaijan", "Kaid\u0101 glyphs", "Leet", "Dominica", "Denglisch", "seven hundred BC", "Catholic Church", "Finland", "Czech Braille", "Malta", "Solitreo", "Perkins Brailler", "Cumae", "Brahmic family of scripts", "Interpunct", "N", "D", "Ktav Ashuri", "Latin characters in Unicode", "Old Permic script", "Abjad", "Apex ", "United States Constitution", "Philippines", "Ojibwe writing systems", "Bhattiprolu script", "Cuba", "Deseret alphabet", "Sawndip", "Montenegro", "Vibratese", "Duployan shorthand", "First wave of European colonization", "Greco-Iberian alphabet", "Kyrgyz Braille", "Renaissance", "Staveless runes", "Karani script", "Zambia", "Kayah Li alphabet", "Pegon script", "Palmyrene alphabet", "Sukhothai script", "Padonkaffsky jargon", "Ivory Coast", "Latin letters used in mathematics", "Lontara Bilang-bilang script", "Manchu alphabet", "S'gaw Karen alphabet", "Cuneiform", "I\u00f1upiaq Braille", "Dvorak keyboard layout", "Trinidad and Tobago", "Sweden"], "content": "The Latin alphabet or Roman alphabet is the collection of letters originally used by the ancient Romans to write the Latin language and its extensions used to write modern languages.\n\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe term Latin alphabet may refer to either the alphabet used to write Latin (as described in this article) or other alphabets based on the Latin script, which is the basic set of letters common to the various alphabets descended from the classical Latin alphabet, such as the English alphabet. These Latin-script alphabets may discard letters, like the Rotokas alphabet, or add new letters, like the Danish and Norwegian alphabets. Letter shapes have evolved over the centuries, including the development in Medieval Latin of lower-case, forms which did not exist in the Classical period alphabet.\n\n\n== Evolution ==\nThe Latin alphabet evolved from the visually similar Etruscan alphabet, which evolved from the Cumaean Greek version of the Greek alphabet, which was itself descended from the Phoenician alphabet, which in turn derived from Egyptian hieroglyphics. The Etruscans ruled early Rome; their alphabet evolved in Rome over successive centuries to produce the Latin alphabet.\nDuring the Middle Ages, the Latin alphabet was used (sometimes with modifications) for writing Romance languages, which are direct descendants of Latin, as well as Celtic, Germanic, Baltic and some Slavic languages. With the age of colonialism and Christian evangelism, the Latin script spread beyond Europe, coming into use for writing indigenous American, Australian, Austronesian, Austroasiatic and African languages. More recently, linguists have also tended to prefer the Latin script or the International Phonetic Alphabet (itself largely based on the Latin script) when transcribing or creating written standards for non-European languages, such as the African reference alphabet.\n\n\n=== Signs and abbreviations ===\nAlthough Latin did not use diacritical signs, signs of truncation of words, often placed above the truncated word or at the end of it, were very common. Furthermore, abbreviations or smaller overlapping letters were often used. This was due to the fact that if the text was engraved on the stone, the number of letters to be written was reduced, while if it was written on paper or parchment, it was spared the space, which was very precious. This habit continued even in the Middle Ages. Hundreds of symbols and abbreviations exist, varying from century to century.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Origins ===\nIt is generally believed that the Latin alphabet used by the Romans was derived from the Old Italic alphabet used by the Etruscans.\nThat alphabet was derived from the Euboean alphabet used by the Cumae, which in turn was derived from the Phoenician alphabet.\n\n\n==== Old Italic alphabet ====\n\n\n==== Archaic Latin alphabet ====\n\n\n==== Old Latin alphabet ====\nLatin included 21 different characters. The letter \u27e8C\u27e9 was the western form of the Greek gamma, but it was used for the sounds /\u0261/ and /k/ alike, possibly under the influence of Etruscan, which might have lacked any voiced plosives. Later, probably during the 3rd century BC, the letter \u27e8Z\u27e9 \u2013 unneeded to write Latin properly \u2013 was replaced with the new letter \u27e8G\u27e9, a \u27e8C\u27e9 modified with a small vertical stroke, which took its place in the alphabet. From then on, \u27e8G\u27e9 represented the voiced plosive /\u0261/, while \u27e8C\u27e9 was generally reserved for the voiceless plosive /k/. The letter \u27e8K\u27e9 was used only rarely, in a small number of words such as Kalendae, often interchangeably with \u27e8C\u27e9.\n\n\n==== Classical Latin alphabet ====\n\nAfter the Roman conquest of Greece in the 1st century BC, Latin adopted the Greek letters \u27e8Y\u27e9 and \u27e8Z\u27e9 (or readopted, in the latter case) to write Greek loanwords, placing them at the end of the alphabet. An attempt by the emperor Claudius to introduce three additional letters did not last. Thus it was during the classical Latin period that the Latin alphabet contained 23 letters:\n\nThe Latin names of some of these letters are disputed; for example, \u27e8H\u27e9 may have been called Latin pronunciation: [\u02c8aha] or Latin pronunciation: [\u02c8aka]. In general the Romans did not use the traditional (Semitic-derived) names as in Greek: the names of the plosives were formed by adding /e\u02d0/ to their sound (except for \u27e8K\u27e9 and \u27e8Q\u27e9, which needed different vowels to be distinguished from \u27e8C\u27e9) and the names of the continuants consisted either of the bare sound, or the sound preceded by /e/.\nThe letter \u27e8Y\u27e9 when introduced was probably called \"hy\" /hy\u02d0/ as in Greek, the name upsilon not being in use yet, but this was changed to \"i Graeca\" (Greek i) as Latin speakers had difficulty distinguishing its foreign sound /y/ from /i/. \u27e8Z\u27e9 was given its Greek name, zeta. This scheme has continued to be used by most modern European languages that have adopted the Latin alphabet. For the Latin sounds represented by the various letters see Latin spelling and pronunciation; for the names of the letters in English see English alphabet.\nDiacritics were not regularly used, but they did occur sometimes, the most common being the apex used to mark long vowels, which had previously sometimes been written doubled. However, in place of taking an apex, the letter i was written taller: \u27e8\u00e1 \u00e9 \ua7fe \u00f3 v\u0301\u27e9. For example, what is today transcribed L\u016bci\u012b a f\u012bli\u012b was written \u27e8lv\u0301ci\ua7fe\u00b7a\u00b7f\ua7feli\ua7fe\u27e9 in the inscription depicted.\nThe primary mark of punctuation was the interpunct, which was used as a word divider, though it fell out of use after 200 AD.\nOld Roman cursive script, also called majuscule cursive and capitalis cursive, was the everyday form of handwriting used for writing letters, by merchants writing business accounts, by schoolchildren learning the Latin alphabet, and even emperors issuing commands. A more formal style of writing was based on Roman square capitals, but cursive was used for quicker, informal writing. It was most commonly used from about the 1st century BC to the 3rd century, but it probably existed earlier than that. It led to Uncial, a majuscule script commonly used from the 3rd to 8th centuries AD by Latin and Greek scribes.\nNew Roman cursive script, also known as minuscule cursive, was in use from the 3rd century to the 7th century, and uses letter forms that are more recognizable to modern eyes; \u27e8a\u27e9, \u27e8b\u27e9, \u27e8d\u27e9, and \u27e8e\u27e9 had taken a more familiar shape, and the other letters were proportionate to each other. This script evolved into the medieval scripts known as Merovingian and Carolingian minuscule.\n\n\n=== Medieval and later developments ===\n\nIt was not until the Middle Ages that the letter \u27e8W\u27e9 (originally a ligature of two \u27e8V\u27e9s) was added to the Latin alphabet, to represent sounds from the Germanic languages which did not exist in medieval Latin, and only after the Renaissance did the convention of treating \u27e8I\u27e9 and \u27e8U\u27e9 as vowels, and \u27e8J\u27e9 and \u27e8V\u27e9 as consonants, become established. Prior to that, the former had been merely allographs of the latter.With the fragmentation of political power, the style of writing changed and varied greatly throughout the Middle Ages, even after the invention of the printing press. Early deviations from the classical forms were the uncial script, a development of the Old Roman cursive, and various so-called minuscule scripts that developed from New Roman cursive, of which the insular script developed by Irish literati & derivations of this, such as Carolingian minuscule were the most influential, introducing the lower case forms of the letters, as well as other writing conventions that have since become standard.\nThe languages that use the Latin script generally use capital letters to begin paragraphs and sentences and proper nouns. The rules for capitalization have changed over time, and different languages have varied in their rules for capitalization. Old English, for example, was rarely written with even proper nouns capitalized, whereas Modern English writers and printers of the 17th and 18th century frequently capitalized most and sometimes all nouns, which is still systematically done in Modern German, e.g. in the preamble and all of the United States Constitution: We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.\n\n\n=== Spread ===\n\nThe Latin alphabet spread, along with the Latin language, from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The eastern half of the Empire, including Greece, Anatolia, the Levant, and Egypt, continued to use Greek as a lingua franca, but Latin was widely spoken in the western half, and as the western Romance languages evolved out of Latin, they continued to use and adapt the Latin alphabet.\nWith the spread of Western Christianity during the Middle Ages, the script was gradually adopted by the peoples of northern Europe who spoke Celtic languages (displacing the Ogham alphabet) or Germanic languages (displacing earlier Runic alphabets), Baltic languages, as well as by the speakers of several Uralic languages, most notably Hungarian, Finnish and Estonian. The Latin alphabet came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages, as the people who spoke them adopted Roman Catholicism.\nLater, it was adopted by non-Catholic countries. Romanian, most of whose speakers are Orthodox, was the first major language to switch from Cyrillic to Latin script, doing so in the 19th century, although Moldova only did so after the Soviet collapse.\nIt has also been increasingly adopted by Turkic-speaking countries, beginning with Turkey in the 1920s. After the Soviet collapse, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan all switched from Cyrillic to Latin. The government of Kazakhstan announced in 2015 that the Latin alphabet would replace Cyrillic as the writing system for the Kazakh language by 2025.The spread of the Latin alphabet among previously illiterate peoples has inspired the creation of new writing systems, such as the Avoiuli alphabet in Vanuatu, which replaces the letters of the Latin alphabet with alternative symbols.\n\n\n== See also ==\nLatin spelling and pronunciation\nCalligraphy\nEuboean alphabet\nLatin script in Unicode\nISO basic Latin alphabet\nLatin-1\nLegacy of the Roman Empire\nPalaeography\nPhoenician alphabet\nPinyin\nRoman letters used in mathematics\nTypography\nWestern Latin character sets (computing)\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nJensen, Hans (1970). Sign Symbol and Script. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. ISBN 0-04-400021-9. Transl. of Jensen, Hans (1958). Die Schrift in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften., as revised by the author\nRix, Helmut (1993). \"La scrittura e la lingua\".  In Cristofani, Mauro (hrsg.) (ed.). Gli etruschi \u2013 Una nuova immagine. Firenze: Giunti. pp. S.199\u2013227.\nSampson, Geoffrey (1985). Writing systems. London (etc.): Hutchinson.\nWachter, Rudolf (1987). Altlateinische Inschriften: sprachliche und epigraphische Untersuchungen zu den Dokumenten bis etwa 150 v.Chr. Bern (etc.).: Peter Lang.\nAllen, W. Sidney (1978). \"The names of the letters of the Latin alphabet (Appendix C)\". Vox Latina \u2013 a guide to the pronunciation of classical Latin. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22049-1.\nBikta\u015f, \u015eamil (2003). 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It may contain specialist plant collections such as cacti and other succulent plants, herb gardens, plants from particular parts of the world, and so on; there may be greenhouses, shadehouses, again with special collections such as tropical plants, alpine plants, or other exotic plants. Visitor services at a botanical garden might include tours, educational displays, art exhibitions, book rooms, open-air theatrical and musical performances, and other entertainment.\nBotanical gardens are often run by universities or other scientific research organizations, and often have associated herbaria and research programmes in plant taxonomy or some other aspect of botanical science. In principle, their role is to maintain documented collections of living plants for the purposes of scientific research, conservation, display, and education, although this will depend on the resources available and the special interests pursued at each particular garden.\nThe origin of modern botanical gardens is generally traced to the appointment of professors of botany to the medical faculties of universities in 16th century Renaissance Italy, which also entailed the curation of a medicinal garden. However, the objectives, content, and audience of today's botanic gardens more closely resembles that of the grandiose gardens of antiquity and the educational garden of Theophrastus in the Lyceum of ancient Athens.The early concern with medicinal plants changed in the 17th century to an interest in the new plant imports from explorations outside Europe as botany gradually established its independence from medicine. In the 18th century, systems of nomenclature and classification were devised by botanists working in the herbaria and universities associated with the gardens, these systems often being displayed in the gardens as educational \"order beds\". With the rapid expansion of European colonies around the globe in the late 18th century, botanic gardens were established in the tropics, and economic botany became a focus with the hub at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, near London.\nOver the years, botanical gardens, as cultural and scientific organisations, have responded to the interests of botany and horticulture. Nowadays, most botanical gardens display a mix of the themes mentioned and more; having a strong connection with the general public, there is the opportunity to provide visitors with information relating to the environmental issues being faced at the start of the 21st century, especially those relating to plant conservation and sustainability.\n\n\n== Definitions ==\n\nThe role of major botanical gardens worldwide has been considered so broadly similar as to fall within textbook definitions. The following definition was produced by staff of the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium of Cornell University in 1976. It covers in some detail the many functions and activities generally associated with botanical gardens:\nA botanical garden is a controlled and staffed institution for the maintenance of a living collection of plants under scientific management for purposes of education and research, together with such libraries, herbaria, laboratories, and museums as are essential to its particular undertakings. Each botanical garden naturally develops its own special fields of interests depending on its personnel, location, extent, available funds, and the terms of its charter. It may include greenhouses, test grounds, an herbarium, an arboretum, and other departments. It maintains a scientific as well as a plant-growing staff, and publication is one of its major modes of expression.\nThis broad outline is then expanded:\nThe botanic garden may be an independent institution, a governmental operation, or affiliated to a college or university. If a department of an educational institution, it may be related to a teaching program. In any case, it exists for scientific ends and is not to be restricted or diverted by other demands. It is not merely a landscaped or ornamental garden, although it may be artistic, nor is it an experiment station or yet a park with labels on the plants. The essential element is the intention of the enterprise, which is the acquisition and dissemination of botanical knowledge.\nA contemporary botanic garden is a strictly protected natural urban green area, where a managing organization creates landscaped gardens and holds documented collections of living plants and/or preserved plant accessions containing functional units of heredity of actual or potential value for purposes such as scientific research, education, public display, conservation, sustainable use, tourism and recreational activities, production of marketable plant-based products and services for improvement of human well-being.\nThe \"New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening\" (1999) points out that among the various kinds of organisations now known as botanical gardens are many public gardens with little scientific activity, and it cites a more abbreviated definition that was published by the World Wildlife Fund and IUCN when launching the \u2019'Botanic Gardens Conservation Strategy'\u2019 in 1989: \"A botanic garden is a garden containing scientifically ordered and maintained collections of plants, usually documented and labelled, and open to the public for the purposes of recreation, education and research.\" This has been further reduced by Botanic Gardens Conservation International to the following definition which \"encompasses the spirit of a true botanic garden\": \"A botanic garden is an institution holding documented collections of living plants for the purposes of scientific research, conservation, display and education.\"\n\n\n=== The botanical gardens network ===\n\nWorldwide, there are now about 1800 botanical gardens and arboreta in about 150 countries (mostly in temperate regions) of which about 550 are in Europe (150 of which are in Russia), 200 in North America, and an increasing number in East Asia. These gardens attract about 300 million visitors a year.Historically, botanical gardens exchanged plants through the publication of seed lists (these were called Latin: Indices Seminae in the 18th century). This was a means of transferring both plants and information between botanical gardens. This system continues today, although the possibility of genetic piracy and the transmission of invasive species has received greater attention in recent times.The International Association of Botanic Gardens was formed in 1954 as a worldwide organisation affiliated to the International Union of Biological Sciences. More recently, coordination has also been provided by Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI), which has the mission \"To mobilise botanic gardens and engage partners in securing plant diversity for the well-being of people and the planet\". BGCI has over 700 members \u2013 mostly botanic gardens \u2013 in 118 countries, and strongly supports the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation by producing a range resources and publications, and by organizing international conferences and conservation programs.\nCommunication also happens regionally. In the United States, there is the American Public Gardens Association (formerly the American Association of Botanic Gardens and Arboreta), and in Australasia there is the Botanic Gardens of Australia and New Zealand (BGANZ).\n\n\n== History and development ==\n\nThe history of botanical gardens is closely linked to the history of botany itself. The botanical gardens of the 16th and 17th centuries were medicinal gardens, but the idea of a botanical garden changed to encompass displays of the beautiful, strange, new and sometimes economically important plant trophies being returned from the European colonies and other distant lands. Later, in the 18th century, they became more educational in function, demonstrating the latest plant classification systems devised by botanists working in the associated herbaria as they tried to order these new treasures. Then, in the 19th and 20th centuries, the trend was towards a combination of specialist and eclectic collections demonstrating many aspects of both horticulture and botany.\n\n\n=== Precursors ===\nThe idea of \"scientific\" gardens used specifically for the study of plants dates back to antiquity.\n\n\n==== Grand gardens of ancient history ====\n\nNear-eastern royal gardens set aside for economic use or display and containing at least some plants gained by special collecting trips or military campaigns abroad, are known from the second millennium BCE in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete, Mexico and China. In about 2800 BCE, the Chinese Emperor Shen Nung sent collectors to distant regions searching for plants with economic or medicinal value. It has also been suggested that the Spanish colonization of Mesoamerica influenced the history of the botanical garden as gardens in Tenochtitlan established by king Nezahualcoyotl, also gardens in Chalco (alt\u00e9petl) and elsewhere, greatly impressed the Spanish invaders, not only with their appearance, but also because the indigenous Aztecs employed many more medicinal plants than did the classical world of Europe.Early medieval gardens in Islamic Spain resembled botanic gardens of the future, an example being the 11th-century Huerta del Ray garden of physician and author Ibn Wafid (999\u20131075 CE) in Toledo. This was later taken over by garden chronicler Ibn Bassal (fl. 1085 CE) until the Christian conquest in 1085 CE. Ibn Bassal then founded a garden in Seville, most of its plants being collected on a botanical expedition that included Morocco, Persia, Sicily, and Egypt. The medical school of Montpelier was also founded by Spanish Arab physicians, and by 1250 CE, it included a physic garden, but the site was not given botanic garden status until 1593.\n\n\n==== Physic gardens ====\nBotanical gardens, in the modern sense, developed from physic gardens, whose main purpose was to cultivate herbs for medical use as well as research and experimentation. Such gardens have a long history. In Europe, for example, Aristotle (384 BCE \u2013 322 BCE) is said to have had a physic garden in the Lyceum at Athens, which was used for educational purposes and for the study of botany, and this was inherited, or possibly set up, by his pupil Theophrastus, the \"Father of Botany\". There is some debate among science historians whether this garden was ordered and scientific enough to be considered \"botanical\", and suggest it more appropriate to attribute the earliest known botanical garden in Europe to the botanist and pharmacologist Antonius Castor, mentioned by Pliny the Elder in the 1st century.Though these ancient gardens shared some of the characteristics of present-day botanical gardens, the forerunners of modern botanical gardens are generally regarded as being the medieval monastic physic gardens that originated after the decline of the Roman Empire at the time of Emperor Charlemagne (742\u2013789 CE). These contained a hortus, a garden used mostly for vegetables, and another section set aside for specially labelled medicinal plants and this was called the herbularis or hortus medicus\u2014 more generally known as a physic garden, and a viridarium or orchard. These gardens were probably given impetus when Charlemagne issued a capitulary, the Capitulary de Villis, which listed 73 herbs to be used in the physic gardens of his dominions. Many of these were found in British gardens even though they only occurred naturally in continental Europe, demonstrating earlier plant introduction. Pope Nicholas V set aside part of the Vatican grounds in 1447, for a garden of medicinal plants that were used to promote the teaching of botany, and this was a forerunner to the University gardens at Padua and Pisa established in the 1540s. Certainly the founding of many early botanic gardens was instigated by members of the medical profession.\n\n\n=== 16th- and 17th-century European gardens ===\n\nIn the 17th century, botanical gardens began their contribution to a deeper scientific curiosity about plants. If a botanical garden is defined by its scientific or academic connection, then the first true botanical gardens were established with the revival of learning that occurred in the European Renaissance. These were secular gardens attached to universities and medical schools, used as resources for teaching and research. The superintendents of these gardens were often professors of botany with international reputations, a factor that probably contributed to the creation of botany as an independent discipline rather than a descriptive adjunct to medicine.\n\n\n==== Origins in the Italian Renaissance ====\nThe botanical gardens of Southern Europe were associated with university faculties of medicine and were founded in Northern Italy at Orto botanico di Pisa (1544), Orto botanico di Padova (1545), Orto Botanico di Firenze (1545), Orto Botanico dell'Universit\u00e0 di Pavia (1558) and Orto Botanico dell'Universit\u00e0 di Bologna (1568). Here the physicians (referred to in English as apothecaries) delivered lectures on the Mediterranean \"simples\" or \"officinals\" that were being cultivated in the grounds. Student education was no doubt stimulated by the relatively recent advent of printing and the publication of the first herbals. All of these botanical gardens still exist, mostly in their original locations.\n\n\n==== Northern Europe ====\nThe tradition of these Italian gardens passed into Spain Botanical Garden of Valencia, 1567) and Northern Europe, where similar gardens were established in the Netherlands (Hortus Botanicus Leiden, 1587; Hortus Botanicus (Amsterdam), 1638), Germany (Alter Botanischer Garten T\u00fcbingen, 1535; Leipzig Botanical Garden, 1580; Botanischer Garten Jena, 1586; Botanischer Garten Heidelberg, 1593; Herrenh\u00e4user G\u00e4rten, Hanover, 1666; Botanischer Garten der Christian-Albrechts-Universit\u00e4t zu Kiel, 1669; Botanical Garden in Berlin, 1672), Switzerland (Old Botanical Garden, Z\u00fcrich, 1560; Basel, 1589); England (University of Oxford Botanic Garden, 1621; Chelsea Physic Garden, 1673); Scotland (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 1670); and in France (Jardin des plantes de Montpellier, 1593; Faculty of Medicine Garden, Paris, 1597; Jardin des Plantes, Paris, 1635), Denmark (University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden, 1600); Sweden (Uppsala University, 1655).\n\n\n==== Beginnings of botanical science ====\n\nDuring the 16th and 17th centuries, the first plants were being imported to these major Western European gardens from Eastern Europe and nearby Asia (which provided many bulbs), and these found a place in the new gardens, where they could be conveniently studied by the plant experts of the day. For example, Asian introductions were described by Carolus Clusius (1526\u20131609), who was director, in turn, of the Botanical Garden of the University of Vienna and Hortus Botanicus Leiden. Many plants were being collected from the Near East, especially bulbous plants from Turkey. Clusius laid the foundations of Dutch tulip breeding and the bulb industry, and he helped create one of the earliest formal botanical gardens of Europe at Leyden where his detailed planting lists have made it possible to recreate this garden near its original site. The hortus medicus of Leyden in 1601 was a perfect square divided into quarters for the four continents, but by 1720, though, it was a rambling system of beds, struggling to contain the novelties rushing in, and it became better known as the hortus academicus. His Exoticorum libri decem (1605) is an important survey of exotic plants and animals that is still consulted today. The inclusion of new plant introductions in botanic gardens meant their scientific role was now widening, as botany gradually asserted its independence from medicine.\nIn the mid to late 17th century, the Paris Jardin des Plantes was a centre of interest with the greatest number of new introductions to attract the public. In England, the Chelsea Physic Garden was founded in 1673 as the \"Garden of the Society of Apothecaries\". The Chelsea garden had heated greenhouses, and in 1723 appointed Philip Miller (1691\u20131771) as head gardener. He had a wide influence on both botany and horticulture, as plants poured into it from around the world. The garden's golden age came in the 18th century, when it became the world's most richly stocked botanical garden. Its seed-exchange programme was established in 1682 and still continues today.\n\n\n=== 18th century ===\n\nWith the increase in maritime trade, ever more plants were being brought back to Europe as trophies from distant lands, and these were triumphantly displayed in the private estates of the wealthy, in commercial nurseries, and in the public botanical gardens. Heated conservatories called \"orangeries\", such as the one at Kew, became a feature of many botanical gardens. Industrial expansion in Europe and North America resulted in new building skills, so plants sensitive to cold were kept over winter in progressively elaborate and expensive heated conservatories and glasshouses.\n\n\n==== The Cape, Dutch East Indies ====\nThe 18th century was marked by introductions from the Cape of South Africa \u2013 including ericas, geraniums, pelargoniums, succulents, and proteaceous plants \u2013 while the Dutch trade with the Dutch East Indies resulted in a golden era for the Leiden and Amsterdam botanical gardens and a boom in the construction of conservatories.\n\n\n==== Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew ====\n\nThe Royal Gardens at Kew were founded in 1759, initially as part of the Royal Garden set aside as a physic garden. William Aiton (1741\u20131793), the first curator, was taught by garden chronicler Philip Miller of the Chelsea Physic Garden whose son Charles became first curator of the original Cambridge Botanic Garden (1762). In 1759, the \"Physick Garden\" was planted, and by 1767, it was claimed that \"the Exotick Garden is by far the richest in Europe\". Gardens such as the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (1759) and Orotava Acclimatization Garden (in Spanish), Tenerife (1788) and the Real Jard\u00edn Bot\u00e1nico de Madrid (1755) were set up to cultivate new species returned from expeditions to the tropics; they also helped found new tropical botanical gardens. From the 1770s, following the example of the French and Spanish, amateur collectors were supplemented by official horticultural and botanical plant hunters. These botanical gardens were boosted by the flora being sent back to Europe from various European colonies around the globe.At this time, British horticulturalists were importing many woody plants from Britain's colonies in North America, and the popularity of horticulture had increased enormously, encouraged by the horticultural and botanical collecting expeditions overseas fostered by the directorship of Sir William Jackson Hooker and his keen interest in economic botany. At the end of the 18th century, Kew, under the directorship of Sir Joseph Banks, enjoyed a golden age of plant hunting, sending out collectors to the South African Cape, Australia, Chile, China, Ceylon, Brazil, and elsewhere, and acting as \"the great botanical exchange house of the British Empire\". From its earliest days to the present, Kew has in many ways exemplified botanic garden ideals, and is respected worldwide for the published work of its scientists, the education of horticultural students, its public programmes, and the scientific underpinning of its horticulture.\n\n\n==== Bartram's Garden ====\nIn 1728, John Bartram founded Bartram's Garden in Philadelphia, one of the continent's first botanical gardens. The garden is now managed as a historical site that includes a few original and many modern specimens as well as extensive archives and restored historical farm buildings.\n\n\n==== Plant classification ====\n\nThe large number of plants needing description were often listed in garden catalogues; and at this time Carl Linnaeus established the system of binomial nomenclature which greatly facilitated the listing process. Names of plants were authenticated by dried plant specimens mounted on card (a hortus siccus or garden of dried plants) that were stored in buildings called herbaria, these taxonomic research institutions being frequently associated with the botanical gardens, many of which by then had \"order beds\" to display the classification systems being developed by botanists in the gardens' museums and herbaria. Botanical gardens had now become scientific collections, as botanists published their descriptions of the new exotic plants, and these were also recorded for posterity in detail by superb botanical illustrations. In this century, botanical gardens effectively dropped their medicinal function in favour of scientific and aesthetic priorities, and the term \"botanic garden\" came to be more closely associated with the herbarium, library (and later laboratories) housed there than with the living collections \u2013 on which little research was undertaken.\n\n\n=== 19th century ===\n\nThe late 18th and early 19th centuries were marked by the establishment of tropical botanical gardens as a tool of colonial expansion (for trade and commerce and, secondarily, science) mainly by the British and Dutch, in India, South-east Asia and the Caribbean. This was also the time of Sir Joseph Banks's botanical collections during Captain James Cook's circumnavigations of the planet and his explorations of Oceania, which formed the last phase of plant introduction on a grand scale.\n\n\n==== Tropical botanical gardens ====\nThere are currently about 230 tropical botanical gardens with a concentration in southern and south-eastern Asia. The first botanical garden founded in the tropics was the Pamplemousses Botanical Garden in Mauritius, established in 1735 to provide food for ships using the port, but later trialling and distributing many plants of economic importance. This was followed by the West Indies (Botanic Gardens St. Vincent, 1764) and in 1786 by the Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Botanical Garden in Calcutta, India founded during a period of prosperity when the city was a trading centre for the Dutch East India Company. Other gardens were constructed in Brazil (Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden, 1808), Sri Lanka (Botanical Garden of Peradeniya, 1821 and on a site dating back to 1371), Indonesia (Bogor Botanical Gardens, 1817 and Kebun Raya Cibodas, 1852), and Singapore (Singapore Botanical Gardens, 1822). These had a profound effect on the economy of the countries, especially in relation to the foods and medicines introduced. The importation of rubber trees to the Singapore Botanic Garden initiated the important rubber industry of the Malay Peninsula. At this time also, teak and tea were introduced to India and breadfruit, pepper and starfruit to the Caribbean.\n\nIncluded in the charter of these gardens was the investigation of the local flora for its economic potential to both the colonists and the local people. Many crop plants were introduced by or through these gardens \u2013 often in association with European botanical gardens such as Kew or Amsterdam \u2013 and included cloves, tea, coffee, breadfruit, cinchona, sugar, cotton, palm oil and Theobroma cacao (for chocolate). During these times, the rubber plant was introduced to Singapore. Especially in the tropics, the larger gardens were frequently associated with a herbarium and museum of economy. The Botanical Garden of Peradeniya had considerable influence on the development of agriculture in Ceylon where the Para rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) was introduced from Kew, which had itself imported the plant from South America. Other examples include cotton from the Chelsea Physic Garden to the Province of Georgia in 1732 and tea into India by Calcutta Botanic Garden. The transfer of germplasm between the temperate and tropical botanical gardens was undoubtedly responsible for the range of agricultural crops currently used in several regions of the tropics.\n\n\n==== Australia ====\n\nThe first botanical gardens in Australia were founded early in the 19th century. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, 1816; the Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens, 1818; the Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne, 1845; Adelaide Botanic Gardens, 1854; and Brisbane Botanic Gardens, 1855. These were established essentially as colonial gardens of economic botany and acclimatisation. The Auburn Botanical Gardens, 1977, located in Sydney's western suburbs, are one of the popular and diverse botanical gardens in the Greater Western Sydney area.\n\n\n==== New Zealand ====\nMajor botanical gardens in New Zealand include Dunedin Botanic Gardens, 1863; Christchurch Botanic Gardens, 1863; and Wellington Botanic Gardens, 1868.\n\n\n==== Hong Kong ====\nHong Kong Botanic Gardens, 1871 (renamed Hong Kong Zoological and Botanical Gardens in 1975), up from the Government Hill in Victoria City, Hong Kong Island.\n\n\n==== Sri Lanka ====\nIn Sri Lanka major botanical gardens include the Royal Botanical Gardens, Peradeniya (formally established in 1843), Hakgala Botanical Gardens (1861) and Henarathgoda Botanical Garden (1876).\n\n\n==== Ecuador ====\n\nJard\u00edn Bot\u00e1nico de Quito is inside the Parque La Carolina is a 165.5-acre (670,000 m2) park in the centre of the Quito central business district, bordered by the avenues R\u00edo Amazonas, de los Shyris, Naciones Unidas, Eloy Alfaro, and de la Rep\u00fablica.\nThe botanical garden of Quito is a park, a botanical garden, an arboretum and greenhouses of 18,600 square meters that is planned to increase, maintain the plants of the country (Ecuador is among the 17 richest countries in the world in the native species, a study on this matter). The Ecuadorian flora classified, determines the existence of 17,000 species)\n\n\n==== Egypt ====\nThe Orman Garden, one of the most famous botanical gardens in Egypt, is located at Giza, in Cairo, and dates back to 1875.\n\n\n==== South Africa ====\nThe oldest botanical garden in South Africa is the Durban Botanic Gardens which has been located on the same site since 1851. The Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, established in 1913, has a site dating to 1848. Stellenbosch University Botanical Garden is the oldest university botanical garden in South Africa, and was established in 1922.\n\n\n==== United States ====\nThe first botanical garden in the United States, Bartram's Garden, was founded in 1730 near Philadelphia, and in the same year, the Linnaean Botanic Garden at Philadelphia itself. Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, all experienced farmers, shared the dream of a national botanic garden for the collection, preservation and study of plants from around the world to contribute to the welfare of the American people paving the way for establishing the US Botanic Garden, right outside the nation's Capitol in Washington DC in 1820. In 1859, the Missouri Botanical Garden was founded at St Louis; it is now one of the world's leading gardens specializing in tropical plants. This was one of several popular American gardens, including Longwood Gardens (1798), Arnold Arboretum (1872), New York Botanical Garden (1891), Huntington Botanical Gardens (1906), Brooklyn Botanic Garden (1910), International Peace Garden (1932), and Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden (1938).\n\n\n==== Russia ====\n\nRussia has more botanical gardens than any other country. Better-known gardens are Moscow University Botanic Garden ('the Apothecary Garden'), (1706), Saint Petersburg Botanical Garden, (1714); and Moscow Botanical Garden of Academy of Sciences, (1945).\nThese gardens are notable for their structures that include sculptures, pavilions, bandstands, memorials, shadehouses, tea houses and such.\nAmong the smaller gardens within Russia, one that is increasingly gaining prominence, is the Botanical Garden of Tver State University, (1879) \u2013 the northernmost botanical Garden with an exhibition of steppe plants, only one of its kind in the Upper Volga.\n\n\n==== Ukraine ====\nUkraine has about 30 botanical gardens. The most famous from them with well-respected collections are Nikitsky Botanical Garden, Yalta, founded in 1812, M.M. Gryshko National Botanical Garden, a botanical garden of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine founded in 1936, and A.V. Fomin Botanical Garden of the Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv founded in 1839, which are located in Kyiv, the capital of Ukraine.\n\n\n=== 20th century ===\n\n\n==== Civic and municipal botanical gardens ====\nA large number of civic or municipal botanical gardens were founded in the 19th and 20th centuries. These did not develop scientific facilities or programmes, but the horticultural aspects were strong and the plants often labelled. They were botanical gardens in the sense of building up collections of plants and exchanging seeds with other gardens around the world, although their collection policies were determined by those in day-to-day charge of them. They tended to become little more than beautifully maintained parks and were, indeed, often under general parks administrations.\n\n\n==== Community engagement ====\nThe second half of the 20th century saw increasingly sophisticated educational, visitor service, and interpretation services. Botanical gardens started to cater for many interests and their displays reflected this, often including botanical exhibits on themes of evolution, ecology or taxonomy, horticultural displays of attractive flowerbeds and herbaceous borders, plants from different parts of the world, special collections of plant groups such as bamboos or roses, and specialist glasshouse collections such as tropical plants, alpine plants, cacti and orchids, as well as the traditional herb gardens and medicinal plants. Specialised gardens like the Palmengarten in Frankfurt, Germany (1869), one of the world's leading orchid and succulent plant collections, have been very popular. There was a renewed interest in gardens of indigenous plants and areas dedicated to natural vegetation.\nWith decreasing financial support from governments, revenue-raising public entertainment increased, including music, art exhibitions, special botanical exhibitions, theatre and film, this being supplemented by the advent of \"Friends\" organisations and the use of volunteer guides.\n\n\n==== Plant conservation ====\nPlant conservation and the heritage value of exceptional historic landscapes were treated with a growing sense of urgency. Specialist gardens were sometimes given a separate or adjoining site, to display native and indigenous plants.In the 1970s, gardens became focused on the plant conservation. The Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat was established by the IUCN, and the World Conservation Union in 1987 with the aim of coordinating the plant conservation efforts of botanical gardens around the world. It maintains a database of rare and endangered species in botanical gardens' living collections. Many gardens hold ex situ conservation collections that preserve genetic variation. These may be held as: seeds dried and stored at low temperature, or in tissue culture (such as the Kew Millennium Seedbank); as living plants, including those that are of special horticultural, historical or scientific interest (such as those held by the NCCPG in the United Kingdom); or by managing and preserving areas of natural vegetation. Collections are often held and cultivated with the intention of reintroduction to their original habitats. The Center for Plant Conservation at St Louis, Missouri coordinates the conservation of native North American species.\n\n\n== Role and functions ==\n\nMany of the functions of botanical gardens have already been discussed in the sections above, which emphasise the scientific underpinning of botanical gardens with their focus on research, education and conservation. However, as multifaceted organisations, all sites have their own special interests. In a remarkable paper on the role of botanical gardens, Ferdinand von Mueller (1825\u20131896), the director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne (1852\u20131873), stated, \"in all cases the objects [of a botanical garden] must be mainly scientific and predominantly instructive\". He then detailed many of the objectives being pursued by the world's botanical gardens in the middle of the 19th century, when European gardens were at their height. Many of these are listed below to give a sense of the scope of botanical gardens' activities at that time, and the ways in which they differed from parks or what he called \"public pleasure gardens\":\n\nBotanical gardens must find a compromise between the need for peace and seclusion, while at the same time satisfying the public need for information and visitor services that include restaurants, information centres and sales areas that bring with them rubbish, noise, and hyperactivity. Attractive landscaping and planting design sometimes compete with scientific interests \u2014 with science now often taking second place. Some gardens are now heritage landscapes that are subject to constant demand for new exhibits and exemplary environmental management.Many gardens now have plant shops selling flowers, herbs, and vegetable seedlings suitable for transplanting; many, like the UBC Botanical Garden and Centre for Plant Research and the Chicago Botanic Garden, have plant-breeding programs and introduce new plants to the horticultural trade.\n\n\n== Future ==\n\nBotanical gardens are still being built, such as the first botanical garden in Oman, which will be one of the largest gardens in the world. Once completed, it will house the first large-scale cloud forest in a huge glasshouse. Development of botanical gardens in China over recent years has been remarkable, including the Hainan Botanical Garden of Tropical Economic Plants South China Botanical Garden at Guangzhou, the Xishuangbanna Botanical Garden of Tropical Plants and the Xiamen Botanic Garden, but in developed countries, many have closed for lack of financial support, this being especially true of botanical gardens attached to universities.Botanical gardens have always responded to the interests and values of the day. If a single function were to be chosen from the early literature on botanical gardens, it would be their scientific endeavour and, flowing from this, their instructional value. In their formative years, botanical gardens were gardens for physicians and botanists, but then they progressively became more associated with ornamental horticulture and the needs of the general public. The scientific reputation of a botanical garden is now judged by the publications coming out of herbaria and similar facilities, not by its living collections. The interest in economic plants now has less relevance, and the concern with plant classification systems has all but disappeared, while a fascination with the curious, beautiful and new seems unlikely to diminish.\nIn recent times, the focus has been on creating an awareness of the threat to the Earth's ecosystems from human populations and its consequent need for biological and physical resources. Botanical gardens provide an excellent medium for communication between the world of botanical science and the general public. Education programs can help the public develop greater environmental awareness by understanding the meaning and importance of ideas like conservation and sustainability.\n\n\n== Photo gallery ==\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== Footnotes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\n\n\n== External links ==", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Antarctic_Garden_Hobart_BG.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Aswan%2C_Kitchener%27s_Island%2C_palm_alley%2C_Egypt%2C_Oct_2004.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Botanischer_Garten_BS.Seerosen.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Botaniska_tr%C3%A4dg%C3%A5rden_Lund_-_2007.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Brassaiopsis_au_Jardin_Jungle_Karlostachys.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Buenos_Aires_Entrada_al_Jardin_Botanico_Carlos_Thays.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Chelsea_physic_garden.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Chicago_Botanic_Garden_-_Zig_Zag_Bridge.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Ducks_danielaucoin_nb_botanicalgarden.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Eden_project.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/France_Loiret_La_Bussiere_Potager_05.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Gardenlakeview.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Hatanp%C3%A4%C3%A4_Arboretum_2020.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Jardim_Bot%C3%A2nico_de_Coimbra2.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Jard%C3%ADn_Bot%C3%A1nico_de_Quito%2C_cool_stone_bridge._%28picture%29_5of6.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Kahanu_Garten_Maui_Hawaii_%2845016125354%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Kew_Palm_House.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Kirstenbosch_-_View_from_the_Botanical_Gardens.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Lake_in_the_Botanical_Gardens.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Leubotanicalgardens.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Missouri_Botanical_Garden_-_Seiwa-en.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Orto_botanico_di_Pisa_-_general_view.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Orto_dei_semplici_PD_01.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Palm_greenhouse_%28exterior%29.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Palmhouse.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Real_Jard%C3%ADn_Bot%C3%A1nico_%28Madrid%29_07.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Serre_cactees_JdP.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Singapore_Botanic_Gardens%2C_Eco-lake%2C_panorama%2C_Sep_06.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Singapore_Gardens_by_the_Bay_viewed_from_Marina_Bay_Sands_03.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Sunken_Garden.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Talcott_Greenhouse_VI.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Tartu%2C_botanick%C3%A1_zahrada.jpeg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/UBC_Botanical_Garden_water.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/US_botanic_garden_2.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Wave_Hill_IV.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Kew_Gardens_Palm_House%2C_London_-_July_2009.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg"], "summary": "A botanical garden or botanic garden is a garden dedicated to the collection, cultivation, preservation and display of a wide range of plants labelled with their botanical names. It may contain specialist plant collections such as cacti and other succulent plants, herb gardens, plants from particular parts of the world, and so on; there may be greenhouses, shadehouses, again with special collections such as tropical plants, alpine plants, or other exotic plants. Visitor services at a botanical garden might include tours, educational displays, art exhibitions, book rooms, open-air theatrical and musical performances, and other entertainment.\nBotanical gardens are often run by universities or other scientific research organizations, and often have associated herbaria and research programmes in plant taxonomy or some other aspect of botanical science. In principle, their role is to maintain documented collections of living plants for the purposes of scientific research, conservation, display, and education, although this will depend on the resources available and the special interests pursued at each particular garden.\nThe origin of modern botanical gardens is generally traced to the appointment of professors of botany to the medical faculties of universities in 16th century Renaissance Italy, which also entailed the curation of a medicinal garden. However, the objectives, content, and audience of today's botanic gardens more closely resembles that of the grandiose gardens of antiquity and the educational garden of Theophrastus in the Lyceum of ancient Athens.The early concern with medicinal plants changed in the 17th century to an interest in the new plant imports from explorations outside Europe as botany gradually established its independence from medicine. In the 18th century, systems of nomenclature and classification were devised by botanists working in the herbaria and universities associated with the gardens, these systems often being displayed in the gardens as educational \"order beds\". With the rapid expansion of European colonies around the globe in the late 18th century, botanic gardens were established in the tropics, and economic botany became a focus with the hub at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, near London.\nOver the years, botanical gardens, as cultural and scientific organisations, have responded to the interests of botany and horticulture. Nowadays, most botanical gardens display a mix of the themes mentioned and more; having a strong connection with the general public, there is the opportunity to provide visitors with information relating to the environmental issues being faced at the start of the 21st century, especially those relating to plant conservation and sustainability."}, "Butterfly_house": {"links": ["Oceanarium", "Insectarium", "Wind", "Captive breeding", "Caterpillars", "Zoological society", "Biodiversity", "Costa Rica", "Ex situ conservation", "Petting zoo", "Reptile centre", "Virtual zoo", "Immersion exhibit", "Malaysia", "Chrysalis", "Animal cruelty", "Hurricane Maria", "Penguinarium", "Endangered species", "Vivarium", "Nature center", "Captivity ", "Animal training", "Public aquarium", "Juncos, Puerto Rico", "Zoo", "Animal rights", "List of zoos by country", "Species reintroduction", "Frozen zoo", "Behavioral enrichment", "In situ conservation", "Butterflies", "List of zoo associations", "Pupae", "Greenhouse", "Zookeeper", "List of butterfly houses", "Menagerie", "Animal theme park", "Night safari", "Nocturnal house", "Herpetarium", "Thailand", "Zoo key", "Safari park", "Animal sanctuary", "Zoology", "Dolphinarium", "Philippines", "Aviary", "Sun", "Monsanto Insectarium", "Wildlife conservation", "Pheasantry", "Conservation biology", "List of dolphinariums", "Bear pit", "Index of conservation articles", "Marine mammal park", "Egg ", "List of aquaria"], "content": "A butterfly house, conservatory, or lepidopterarium is a facility which is specifically intended for the breeding and display of butterflies with an emphasis on education. Some butterfly houses also feature other insects and arthropods.  Butterfly houses are owned and operated by museums, universities, non-profit corporations, and private individuals as part of their residence; as well as small businesses that are owner operated.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nLive butterfly exhibits became popular in England in the end of the 1970s, appealing to the British love of greenhouses and natural settings.\nThe tropical world's first live butterfly and insect sanctuary is Penang Butterfly Farm in Penang, Malaysia, established on March 29, 1986.\nThe first butterfly house in the United States, Butterfly World, opened in Coconut Creek, Florida, in 1988.\n\n\n== Activities ==\n\nButterfly houses are typically open to the public.\nExploration of such facilities may be with a guide or self-paced.  Guided tours may last about fifteen minutes, as the guide points out all the species of butterflies that are in the greenhouse that day. Stocks vary, as new shipments usually arrive weekly.  Guides may also show butterfly eggs, caterpillars, and chrysalids and identify specific plants that are favored by each species. Usually, the best time to see butterflies emerging from their pupae is between 10 a.m. and 1 p.m.\nButterflies are most active on warm and sunny days with little wind, because they require the heat of the sun to aid in their digestion. On rainy days, they usually hide in the flowers and leaves.\nThere are often many different species in such butterfly houses, with stock including butterflies from Africa, Malaysia, South America, Thailand, Costa Rica, the Philippines, and other places.  The vibrant colors and patterns on the wings of the insects have earned them the fanciful nickname \"flying flowers\".\nMany species of adult butterflies live only one to two weeks, during which time they must produce a new generation. Some species, such as the familiar monarch butterfly, however, can live as long as six months or even longer in the wild.\nSchools have butterfly houses for educational purposes. In Puerto Rico, a group of students from the Clara Maldonado de Aramburu School in Juncos, celebrated the relaunching of its butterfly house which had been destroyed by Hurricane Maria on September 19, 2017.  With help from community members, the butterfly houses and ecosystem was fixed, and their monarch butterflies took flight in March 2019.\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of butterfly houses\nList of insectariums\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nVisiting Butterfly Houses, Farms and Gardens", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Butterfly_zoo.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Larvaeroomnew.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Schmetterlingshaus_Mannheim.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Caribou_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "A butterfly house, conservatory, or lepidopterarium is a facility which is specifically intended for the breeding and display of butterflies with an emphasis on education. Some butterfly houses also feature other insects and arthropods.  Butterfly houses are owned and operated by museums, universities, non-profit corporations, and private individuals as part of their residence; as well as small businesses that are owner operated.\n\n"}, "Oceanarium": {"links": ["Marine ", "Nur-Sultan", "National Aquarium in Baltimore", "Moscow Oceanarium", "Monterey Bay Aquarium", "Menagerie", "St. Augustine, Florida", "Virtual zoo", "Chimelong Ocean Kingdom", "Florida", "ISBN ", "Marine Life Park", "Captivity ", "Mozambique Channel", "Marineland of Florida", "Los Angeles", "Aviary", "Zoology", "California", "Insectarium", "Ex situ conservation", "Captive breeding", "Georgia Aquarium", "Ocean", "Herpetarium", "SeaWorld San Diego", "Fauna of Africa", "Reptile centre", "Shark", "Wildlife conservation", "Harcourt Trade Publishers", "Geauga Lake", "SeaWorld San Antonio", "Vivarium", "Night safari", "New York Stock Exchange", "Nature center", "Animal cruelty", "Marineland of Canada", "Index of conservation articles", "List of aquaria", "Immersion exhibit", "Park", "SeaWorld", "Ohio", "SeaWorld Orlando", "Cedar Fair", "List of zoo associations", "Kazakhstan", "Zoological society", "List of zoos by country", "Behavioral enrichment", "Lisbon", "Frozen zoo", "In situ conservation", "List of dolphinariums", "San Francisco", "Marineland of the Pacific", "Zookeeper", "Busch Gardens", "Public aquarium", "SeaWorld Aurora", "Animal theme park", "Beluga whale", "Conservation biology", "Animal sanctuary", "Africa", "Miami Seaquarium", "Nocturnal house", "Penguinarium", "Animal training", "Animals", "Six Flags", "Africarium", "Species reintroduction", "New England Aquarium", "Zoo", "Anheuser-Busch", "Pheasantry", "Central Asia", "Zoo key", "Theme park", "Marine mammal park", "Nords\u00f8en Oceanarium", "Butterfly house", "Manila Ocean Park", "Boston", "Endangered species", "Lisbon Oceanarium", "Wroc\u0142aw", "Petting zoo", "Biodiversity", "Wroc\u0142aw, Poland", "Six Flags Discovery Kingdom", "Safari park", "Singapore", "Pelagic fish", "Cleveland", "Shedd Aquarium", "Bear pit", "Dolphinarium", "Wroc\u0142aw Zoo", "Animal rights", "Portugal", "Acrylic tunnel", "UnderWater World Guam", "Marineland, Florida", "Chicago"], "content": "An oceanarium can be either a marine mammal park, such as Marineland of Canada, or a large-scale aquarium, such as the Lisbon Oceanarium, presenting an ocean habitat with marine animals, especially large ocean dwellers such as sharks.\n\n\n== First marine mammal parks ==\n\nMarineland of Florida, one of the first theme parks in Florida, United States, started in 1938, claims to be \"the world's first oceanarium\"\nMarineland of Florida was developed as Marine Studios near St. Augustine in Marineland, Florida, which was followed in Florida by Miami Seaquarium, opened in 1955 and in California by Marineland of the Pacific, opened in 1954 near Los Angeles, and Marine World, Africa USA, opened in 1968 near San Francisco.\n\n\n== SeaWorld ==\n\nSeaWorld San Diego was opened in 1964, developed by four fraternity brothers Milt Shedd, Ken Norris, David DeMott and George Millay.\nSeaWorld Aurora opened in 1970 near Cleveland, Ohio.\nSeaWorld Orlando was opened in 1973.\nSeaWorld (San Diego, Aurora, Orlando) was sold to Harcourt Brace Jovanovich (a publishing company listed on the New York Stock Exchange) in 1976. \nThey purchased Marineland of the Pacific in 1986 and closed the park.\nThey had opened SeaWorld San Antonio in 1988.\nIn 1989 they sold SeaWorld (San Diego, Aurora, Orlando, San Antonio) to Anheuser-Busch, the world's largest brewer and owner of the Busch Gardens Safari Parks, for US$1.1 billion. \nIn 2001, Anheuser-Busch sold SeaWorld Ohio to Six Flags, which combined the park with the neighboring Geauga Lake to form Six Flags Worlds of Adventure. The animal aquatics portion of the park closed prior to 2004 when Six Flags sold the park to Cedar Fair.\n\n\n== World's largest marine life park ==\n\nWhen a new 170,000-square-foot exhibit at the Shedd Aquarium in Chicago opened on April 27, 1991, it debuted as the largest indoor marine mammal facility in the world. The position as world's largest oceanarium has since shifted repeatedly in recent years. From 2005 to 2012 it was the Georgia Aquarium in the United States with an initial total water volume of 32,000 m3 (8,500,000 US gal), later it expanded to 38,000 m3 (10,000,000 US gal), and home to 100\u2013120,000 animals of 700 species. In 2012 it was surpassed by Marine Life Park in Singapore with a total water volume of 45,000 m3 (12,000,000 US gal) and over 100,000 animals of more than 800 species. In 2014, the Singapore park was surpassed by the Chimelong Ocean Kingdom in China, the current record holder, with a total water volume of 48,750 m3 (12,880,000 US gal).\n\n\n== Marine public aquariums ==\n\nModern marine aquariums try to create natural environments. A host of marine animals swim together in the four-story cylindrical tank of the New England Aquarium in Boston, which opened in 1969.\nAt the National Aquarium in Baltimore, which opened in 1981, a walkway spirals up through the center of two gigantic cylindrical tanks, the Atlantic Coral Reef and the Shark Alley, which display sharks, sawfish, and other sea creatures.\nSince then, many new aquariums have sought even greater realism, often concentrating on local environments. Monterey Bay Aquarium in California, which opened in 1984, is an example.The Afrykarium is the only themed oceanarium devoted solely to exhibiting the fauna of Africa and located in Wroc\u0142aw, Poland. A part of the Wroc\u0142aw Zoo, the idea behind the Afrykarium is to comprehensively present selected ecosystems from the continent of Africa.Nur-Sultan, the  capital of Kazakhstan, is home to the only oceanarium in Central Asia.\n\n\n== See also ==\nManila Ocean Park\nMoscow Oceanarium\nNords\u00f8en Oceanarium, Hirtshals, Denmark.\nDolphinarium\nPublic aquarium\nUnderWater World Guam\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nLou Jacobs, Wonders of an oceanarium: The story of marine life in captivity. Golden Gate Junior Books, 1965.\nJoanne F. Oppenheim, Oceanarium. BBooks, 1994. ISBN 0-553-09520-X.\nPatryla, Jim. (2005). A Photographic Journey Back To Marineland of the Pacific. Lulu Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4116-7130-0.\nBrunner, Bernd. The Ocean at Home: An Illustrated History of the Aquarium. Reaktion Books, 2011.\n\n\n== External links ==\nOceanarium \u2014 The Bournemouth Aquarium, UK\nOceanarium, West Australia \u2014 suppliers of marine aquarium specimens\nMarine Life Park - Resorts World @ Sentosa", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Afrykarium_tunel.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Oceanario_Lisboa.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Shedd_belugas_2017-09-02.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Caribou_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "An oceanarium can be either a marine mammal park, such as Marineland of Canada, or a large-scale aquarium, such as the Lisbon Oceanarium, presenting an ocean habitat with marine animals, especially large ocean dwellers such as sharks."}, "Animal_sanctuary": {"links": ["Doi ", "Turkey ", "Animal", "Zookeeper", "Captive breeding", "Dolphinarium", "Veterinarian", "In situ conservation", "Marine mammal park", "Farm Sanctuary", "Poultry", "Zoo", "Effective altruism", "Animal training", "List of zoos by country", "Herpetarium", "Reptile centre", "Tom Regan", "Immersion exhibit", "Endangered species", "Night safari", "Biodiversity", "Penguinarium", "Oceanarium", "Captivity ", "Speciesist", "Species reintroduction", "Sue Donaldson", "List of zoo associations", "Virtual zoo", "Gene Baur", "Wildlife conservation", "List of aquaria", "Nature center", "Global Federation of Animal Sanctuaries", "Sanctuary", "Nocturnal house", "Hygiene", "Zoological society", "Conservation biology", "Animal Charity Evaluators", "Animal rights", "Zoology", "Insectarium", "Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service", "ISBN ", "Ex situ conservation", "Toronto", "Aviary", "Companion animal", "Volunteering", "List of dolphinariums", "Horse", "Pattrice Jones", "Sheep", "Menagerie", "Butterfly house", "Upstate New York", "Chicken", "Index of conservation articles", "Nonprofit organization", "Pheasantry", "Animal theme park", "American Sanctuary Association", "Bear pit", "Cow", "Animal agriculture", "Nature reserve", "United States Department of Agriculture", "Public aquarium", "Animal Welfare Act of nineteen sixty-six", "Zoo key", "Animal testing", "Will Kymlicka", "Behavioral enrichment", "Frozen zoo", "Pig", "Vivarium", "Cattle", "Safari park", "Autonomy", "Petting zoo", "Neutering", "Animal cruelty", "Fish", "Animal shelter", "Goat", "List of animal sanctuaries", "Livestock", "Wildlife refuge", "Rabbit"], "content": "An animal sanctuary is a facility where animals are brought to live and to be protected for the rest of their lives. Pattrice Jones, co-founder of VINE Sanctuary defines an animal sanctuary as \"a safe-enough place or relationship within the continuing hazards that menace everybody\". In addition, sanctuaries are an experimental staging ground for transformative human-animal relations. There are four types of animal sanctuaries reflective of the species-belonging of the residents: 1) companion animal sanctuaries; 2) wildlife sanctuaries; 3) exotic animal sanctuaries; and 4) farmed animal sanctuaries.\nUnlike animal shelters, sanctuaries do not seek to place animals with individuals or groups, instead maintaining each animal until their natural death (either from disease or from other animals in the sanctuary). However, they can offer rehoming services. In some cases, an establishment may have characteristics of both a sanctuary and a shelter; for instance, some animals may be in residence temporarily until a good home is found and others may be permanent residents. The mission of sanctuaries is generally to be safe havens, where the animals receive the best care that the sanctuaries can provide. Animals are not bought, sold, or traded, nor are they used for animal testing. Additionally, no parts of nor secretions from the animals are commodified, such as eggs, wool, or milk. The resident animals are given the opportunity to behave as natural as possible in a protective environment.\n\n\n== Overview ==\nWhat distinguishes a sanctuary from other institutions is the philosophy that the residents come first. In a sanctuary, every action is scrutinized for any trace of human benefit at the expense of non-human residents. Sanctuaries act on behalf of the animals, and the caregivers work under the notion that all animals in the sanctuary, human and non-human, are of equal importance.\nMost sanctuaries are not open to the public in the sense of a zoo; that is, allowing unescorted public access to the facility. A legitimate sanctuary avoids activity that would place the animals in an unduly stressful situation. Most sanctuaries are also not government-funded and are usually nonprofit. Public help is accepted by sanctuaries in the form of volunteering, monetary contributions, donations of food and materials, spreading the word, and in some cases, adoption.One of the most important missions of sanctuaries, beyond caring for the animals, is educating the public. The ultimate goal of many sanctuaries is to change the way that humans think of, and treat, non-human animals.\n\nCompanion animal sanctuaries\nWildlife sanctuaries\nExotic animal sanctuaries\nFarmed animal sanctuaries\n\n\n== Farmed animal sanctuaries ==\nFarmed animal sanctuaries (FAS) provide care, shelter and advocacy of farmed animal species such as chickens, cows, goats, fish, horses, pig, turkeys, and sheep. The farm sanctuary layout tends to resemble traditional farms however functions differently. FAS as a movement began with Gene Baur, the co-founder of Farm Sanctuary, the first official farm sanctuary that opened in 1986. The daily tasks of a FAS involve the primary guardians, volunteers and at time visitors. Each day is structured by routines such as feeding, care and health procedures, as well as cleaning and maintenance. Points of conflict for sanctuaries include human intervention in matters of sterilizing animals and species segregation. Moreover, effective altruists have critiqued the efficiency of FAS's ability to reduce animal suffering as demonstrated in the \"arithmetic of compassion,\" a utilitarian measure of advocacy that applies mathematical formulas to reduce the most amount of suffering in light of individual lives. Jon Bockman of Animal Charity Evaluators, states, \"expending too many resources on direct rescue results in less money directed toward education and a lower overall impact in helping animals, and all advocates should give consideration to this concern when deciding how best to help animals\".\n\n\n=== Education ===\nThe educational role is a secondary role of FAS. Investing in transforming visitors and volunteers perspectives on animal agriculture is a key component of FAS enlisting farmed animal residents as \"ambassadors\" of their species and serve a fundraiser role.\n\n\n=== FAS models ===\nSue Donaldson and Will Kymlicka have outlined two different types of FAS models. FAS can be distinguished by ascribing to either refuge and advocacy model or intentional community model.\n\n\n==== Refuge- and advocacy-based models ====\nRefuge- and advocacy-based models are the most standard. These sanctuaries are found in traditional agricultural communities in part because of the physical and legal infrastructure. Six characteristics of this model include: duty of care, support for species-typical flourishing, recognition of individuality, non-exploitation, non-perpetuation, and awareness and advocacy. The latter characteristic has launched a series of questions into the effectiveness of the educational component of sanctuaries.\n\n\n==== Intentional community model ====\nThe intentional community model addresses the shortcomings of the standard sanctuary model by focusing on movement building that includes a spectrum of speciesist issues such as developing farmed animal veterinary care that exist outside of standard practices that have aimed at meeting animal agricultural interests. The six characteristics of the intentional community model include: belonging, absence of fixed hierarchical relationships, self-determination, citizenship, dependent agency, and scaffolded choices and reconfigured spaces. These characteristics redress some of the critiques of the refuge and advocacy model by grounding sanctuary practices in animal agency and expanding the geographical boundaries of where animals can live. Expanding the geographies in which farmed animals are found serve as a corrective to forming human-farmed animal friendships.An example of the intentional sanctuary model can be found in the Microsanctuary Movement started by Rosemary and Justin Van Kleeck. The Microsanctuary Movement encourages city-dwellers to rescue farmed animals to expand what species are considered to be companion animals.\nSimilarly, Darren Chang, co-founder of the Riverdale Farm Sanctuary Project has launched a campaign to transform Riverdale Farms, an urban farm in Toronto into a FAS advocating for: 1) Animal Rescue, Refuge, and Advocacy, 2) Compassion and Nonviolence, 3) Ecological and Food Justice and Compassionate Interspecies Community.\nExpanding beyond the traditional role of a safe haven for farmed animals, sanctuaries can also be understood as playing political roles in transforming the political and spatial lives of animal residents and their broader species communities leaning into pioneering a less-speciesist future.\n\n\n== Services provided ==\n\nAnimal sanctuary services include spaying and neutering, hygiene, and physical wellbeing. These services are mainly performed by licensed veterinarians. Other positions that can be held by people at sanctuaries include specialized animal trainers, groomers, and volunteers. When it comes to new residents, they are typically not used to living with a large population of their kind and can be easily overwhelmed or agitated. Because of this, they can be held for a certain amount of time before being admitted to the general public. In this time, veterinarians study the new animal's behavioral and dietary habits and try for a smooth transition into the sanctuary's environment. Also, some species of animals, dogs for example, are social creatures. In isolation they get lonely and become depressed. Animal sanctuaries often accommodate these types of animals by putting them in living quarters where they're in groups or pairs that they fit well with. Enrichment activities are also available for the residents.\n\n\n== Accreditation ==\nThere are two primary organizations that provide accreditation and support for animal sanctuaries: the Global Federation of Animal Sanctuaries and the American Sanctuary Association. In the United States, sanctuaries must also be licensed by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and regularly inspected by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) for compliance with the Animal Welfare Act.\n\n\n== See also ==\nAnimal shelter\nList of animal sanctuaries\nNature reserve\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nAmerican Sanctuary Association Official website\nGlobal Federation of Animal Sanctuaries Official website\nJuliana\u2019s Animal Sanctuary Official website\nMicrosanctuary Resource Center Official website\nSanctuaire pour Animaux de Ferme de l'Estrie Official website\nVINE Sanctuary Official website", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Dover_Air_Force_Base_Veterinarian_Treatment_Facility_150227-F-PT194-044.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/FarmSanctuary.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Caribou_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg"], "summary": "An animal sanctuary is a facility where animals are brought to live and to be protected for the rest of their lives. Pattrice Jones, co-founder of VINE Sanctuary defines an animal sanctuary as \"a safe-enough place or relationship within the continuing hazards that menace everybody\". In addition, sanctuaries are an experimental staging ground for transformative human-animal relations. There are four types of animal sanctuaries reflective of the species-belonging of the residents: 1) companion animal sanctuaries; 2) wildlife sanctuaries; 3) exotic animal sanctuaries; and 4) farmed animal sanctuaries.\nUnlike animal shelters, sanctuaries do not seek to place animals with individuals or groups, instead maintaining each animal until their natural death (either from disease or from other animals in the sanctuary). However, they can offer rehoming services. In some cases, an establishment may have characteristics of both a sanctuary and a shelter; for instance, some animals may be in residence temporarily until a good home is found and others may be permanent residents. The mission of sanctuaries is generally to be safe havens, where the animals receive the best care that the sanctuaries can provide. Animals are not bought, sold, or traded, nor are they used for animal testing. Additionally, no parts of nor secretions from the animals are commodified, such as eggs, wool, or milk. The resident animals are given the opportunity to behave as natural as possible in a protective environment."}, "Nature_reserve": {"links": ["Area ", "Bailiwick", "Clean Air Act ", "Division ", "Gazelles", "Kruger National Park", "Marine parks", "Bird", "IUCN protected area categories", "Special district ", "Exclusion zone", "Exploitation of natural resources", "Soil health", "Cadastre", "Department of Survey ", "Prussia", "List of national parks of Spain", "Flood", "Barangay", "Groundwater recharge", "Census town", "Upper Teesdale", "Wyoming, United States", "Lindisfarne", "Local government in Victoria", "Northumberland", "Manorialism", "Climate change and fisheries", "Drachenfels ", "Free imperial city", "Proto-state", "Statute", "Electoral precinct", "Korale", "Monthon", "Soil conservation", "Direct-controlled municipality", "Escarpment Biosphere Conservancy", "Wildlife management", "Autonomous province", "Water resource management", "France", "Neighbourhood", "Residential 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management", "Surface water", "National parks of New Zealand", "Renewable resource", "Ostriches", "US Congress", "Military exclusion zone", "Capital city", "October Revolution", "Groundwater", "Bezirk", "Subah", "Banners of Inner Mongolia", "Viscountcy", "Solar energy", "Owl", "City municipality", "Water privatization", "Principality", "Oregon", "Stone run", "Natural heritage", "Burgh", "Autonomous region", "County", "Ecosystem services", "Resource nationalism", "Municipalities of Sweden", "Regional nature parks of France", "Ecological Island", "Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation", "Territory", "Protected areas of Portugal", "German language", "Conservation ", "Water quality", "K\u00f6ping", "Northern Ireland", "Half-canton", "Protected areas of New Zealand", "County borough", "Glacier", "Canton ", "Federated state", "Biological reserve ", "Riding ", "Conservation Act nineteen eighty-seven", "Resort municipality", "David Attenborough", "Local nature reserve", "Rangeland", "Wildlife corridor", "Water resource policy", "List of terms for administrative divisions", "National nature reserve ", "Intermediate school district", "Wayback Machine", "Flora", "Nest box", "Royal free city", "Walton Hall, West Yorkshire", "Energy resources", "Regional unit", "Environmental protection", "Commote", "Electoral district", "Free state ", "US House of Representatives", "National park", "List of national parks of France", "Landscape", "Jinotega", "Land", "National capital territory", "Local government area", "Free speech zone", "Tarvasj\u00f5gi", "FDNY", "Land-use planning", "Borough", "New Zealand Department of Conservation", "Pargana", "Non-renewable resource", "Mesoamerican Biological Corridor", "Environmental organization", "Wildlife refuge", "Autonomous prefecture", "Oblast", "Budapest", "Indian government district", "Soil fertility", "Emirate", "Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature", "Governorate", "Resource curse", "Department ", "Non-metropolitan county", "Fern", "Forestry law", "Agency ", "Circle ", "Water law", "Airshed", "Town", "Animal sanctuary", "National Wildlife Refuge Association", "Half-Earth", "Wildlife", "List of regencies and cities of Indonesia", "Nature parks in Switzerland", "Fisheries law", "Non-metropolitan district", "Colony", "Mining", "Amt", "Plants", "Rural district", "Paper township", "Comune", "Regional district", "Administrative county", "South African Republic"], "content": "A nature reserve (also known as a natural reserve, wildlife refuge, wildlife sanctuary, biosphere reserve or bioreserve, natural or nature preserve, or nature conservation area), is a protected area of importance for flora, fauna, or features of geological or other special interest, which is reserved and managed for purposes of conservation and to provide special opportunities for study or research. They may be designated by government institutions in some countries, or by private landowners, such as charities and research institutions. Nature reserves fall into different IUCN categories depending on the level of protection afforded by local laws. Normally it is more strictly protected than a nature park. Various jurisdictions may use other terminology, such as ecological protection area or private protected area in legislation and in official titles of the reserves.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nCultural practices that roughly equate to the establishment and maintenance of reserved areas for animals date back to antiquity, with King Tissa of Ceylon establishing one of the world's earliest wildlife sanctuaries in the 3rd century BC. Early reservations often had a religious underpinning, such as the 'evil forest' areas of West Africa which were forbidden to humans, who were threatened with spiritual attack if they went there. Sacred areas taboo from human entry to fishing and hunting are known by many ancient cultures worldwide.The world's first modern nature reserve was established in 1821 by the naturalist and explorer Charles Waterton around his estate in Walton Hall, West Yorkshire. He spent \u00a39000 on the construction of a three-mile long, 9 ft tall wall to enclose his park against poachers. He tried to encourage bird life by planting trees and hollowing out trunks for owls to nest in.\n\nWaterton invented artificial nest boxes to house starlings, jackdaws and sand martins; and unsuccessfully attempted to introduce little owls from Italy. Waterton allowed local people access to his reserve and was described by David Attenborough as \"one of the first people anywhere to recognise not only that the natural world was of great importance but that it needed protection as humanity made more and more demands on it\".Drachenfels (Siebengebirge) was protected as the first state-designated nature reserve in modern-day Germany; the site was bought by the Prussian State in 1836 to protect it from further quarrying.\nThe first major nature reserve was Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, United States, followed by the Royal National Park near Sydney, Australia and the Barguzin Nature Reserve of Imperial Russia, the first of zapovedniks set up by a federal government entirely for the scientific study of nature.\n\n\n== Around the world ==\nThere are several national and international organizations that oversee the numerous non-profit animal sanctuaries and refuges in order to provide a general system for sanctuaries to follow. Among them, the American Sanctuary Association monitors and aids in various facilities to care for exotic wildlife. The number of sanctuaries has substantially increased over the past few years.\n\n\n=== Australia ===\n\nIn Australia, a nature reserve is the title of a type of protected area used in the jurisdictions of the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, Tasmania and Western Australia. The term \"nature reserve\" is defined in the relevant statutes used in those states and territories rather than by a single national statute. As of 2016, 1767 out of a total of 11044 protected areas listed within the Australian National Reserve System used the term \"nature reserve\" in their names.\n\n\n=== Brazil ===\nIn Brazil, nature reserves are classified by the National System of Conservation Units as ecological stations (Portuguese: esta\u00e7\u00f5es ecol\u00f3gicas) or biological reserves (Portuguese: reservas biol\u00f3gicas). Their main objectives are preserving fauna and flora and other natural attributes, excluding direct human interference. Visits are allowed only with permission, and only for educational or scientific purposes. Changes to the ecosystems in both types of reserve are allowed to restore and preserve the natural balance, biological diversity and natural ecological processes. Ecological stations are also allowed to change the environment within strictly defined limits (e.g. affecting no more than three percent of the area or 1,500 hectares (3,700 acres), whichever is less) for the purpose of scientific research.\nA wildlife reserve in Brazil is also protected, and hunting is not allowed, but products and by-products from research may be sold.Wildlife refuges in Brazil have as their objective the protection of natural flora and fauna where conditions are assured for the existence and reproduction of species or communities of the local flora and the resident or migratory fauna. The refuges can consist of privately owned land, as long as the objectives of the unit are compatible with the landowners' usage of the land and natural resources. Public visits are subject to the conditions and restrictions established by the management plan of the unit and are subject to authorisation by and regulations of the main administrative and scientific research body.\n\n\n=== Canada ===\nIn Canada, UNESCO has recognized 18 nature reserves, mostly along the Niagara Escarpment and St. Lawrence River in Ontario.Federally, Canada recognizes 55 National Wildlife Areas across the country, containing species of ecological significance. The relevant Ministry is known as Environment and Climate Change Canada, which protects these areas under legislation known as the Canada Wildlife Act. The areas comprise approximately 1,000,000 ha (2,500,000 acres) of habitat, half of which is marine habitat, for the purpose of conservation and research.Many conservation groups protect nature reserves in Canada as well, including Nature Conservancy Canada, Ducks Unlimited, and Escarpment Biosphere Conservancy. These charities operate to protect wilderness on privately owned lands, including through Canada's Ecological Gifts Program.\n\n\n=== Egypt ===\nThere are 30 nature reserves in Egypt which cover 12% of Egyptian land. Those nature reserves were built according to the laws no. 102/1983 and 4/1994 for protection of the Egyptian nature reserve. Egypt announced a plan from to build 40 nature reserves from 1997 to 2017, to help protect the natural resources and the culture and history of those areas. The largest nature reserve in Egypt is Gebel Elba (35,600 square kilometres (13,700 sq mi)) in the southeast, on the Red Sea coast.\n\n\n=== Europe ===\n\n\n==== Denmark ====\nDenmark has three national parks and several nature reserves, some of them inside the national park areas. The largest single reserve is Hanstholm Nature Reserve, which covers 40 km2 (9,900 acres) and is part of Thy National Park.\n\n\n==== Sweden ====\nIn Sweden, there are 30 national parks. The first of them was established in 1909. In fact, Sweden was the first European country that established 9 national parks. There are almost 4,000 nature reserves in Sweden. They comprise about 85% of the surface that is protected by the Swedish Environmental Code.\n\n\n==== Estonia ====\n\nIn Estonia, there are 5 national parks, more than 100 nature reserves, and around 130 landscape protection areas. The largest nature reserve in Estonia is Alam-Pedja Nature Reserve, which covers 342 km2 (85,000 acres).\n\n\n==== France ====\nAs of 2017, France counts 10 national parks, around 50 regional nature parks, and 8 marine parks.\n\n\n==== Germany ====\nIn 1995 Germany had 5,314 nature reserves (German: Naturschutzgebiete) covering 6,845 km2 (2,643 sq mi), the largest total areas being in Bavaria with 1,416 km2 (547 sq mi) and Lower Saxony with 1,275 km2 (492 sq mi).\n\n\n==== Hungary ====\n\nIn Hungary, there are 10 national parks, more than 15 nature reserves and more than 250 protected areas.\nHortob\u00e1gy National Park is the largest continuous natural grassland in Europe and the oldest national park in Hungary. It is situated on the eastern part of Hungary, on the plain of the Alf\u00f6ld. It was established in 1972. There are alkaline grasslands interrupted by marshes. They have a sizable importance because there are the fishponds. One of the most spectacular sights of the park is the autumn migration of cranes. Some famous Hungarian animal species live in Hortob\u00e1gy National Park, such as the grey cattle, racka long-wool sheep living only in Hungary, Hungarian horses and buffalo. Hortob\u00e1gy National Park has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1 December 1999.\n\n\n==== Poland ====\n\nAs of 2011, Poland has 1469 nature reserves.\n\n\n==== Portugal ====\n\nNature reserves are one of the 11 types of protected areas in Portugal. As of 2012, Portugal had a total of 46 protected areas, which represented 6,807.89 km2 (2,628.54 sq mi) of land and 463.94 km2 (179.13 sq mi) of marine surfaces. Among the protected areas, nine are classified as nature reserve (Portuguese: reserva natural).\n\n\n==== Romania ====\n\nAbout 5.18% of the area of Romania has a protected status (12,360 km2 (4,770 sq mi)), including the Danube Delta, which makes up half of this area (2.43% of Romania's total area).\n\n\n==== Spain ====\n\nThere are 15 National Parks, and around 90 Natural Parks in Spain. Spain is the country with the most sites listed in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.\n\n\n==== Switzerland ====\n\nThe Swiss National Park, created in 1914, was one of the earliest national parks in Europe. In addition to the Swiss National Park, Switzerland also has sixteen regional nature parks.The environmental organization Pro Natura takes care of about 650 nature reserves of various sizes throughout Switzerland (250 km2 (97 sq mi)).\n\n\n=== Iran ===\n\nThe biosphere reserves of Iran has a total land area of 1.64 million km2. The \"reserves\" support more than 8,000 recorded species of plants (almost 2,421 are endemic), 502 species of birds, 164 species of mammals, 209 species of reptiles, and 375 species of butterflies.\n\n\n=== India ===\n\nIndia's 18 biospheres extend over a total of 85,940 km2 (33,180 sq mi) and protect larger areas than typical national parks in other countries. The first national reserve of India was established in 1986.\n\n\n=== Israel ===\n\nIsrael's national parks are declared historic sites or nature reserves, which are mostly operated and maintained by the National Nature and Parks Authority. As of 2019, Israel maintains more than 490 nature reserves that protect 2,500 species of indigenous wild plants, 20 species of fish, 530 species of birds and 70 species of mammals. In total, they cover 6,400 km2 (2,500 sq mi) of nature reserves, approximately 28% of the country's land area. In 1984, the two areas with the highest number of nature reserves were the South (15.2%) and Samaria (the Shomron, 13.5%).\n\n\n=== Japan ===\nUnder the Nature Conservation Law, places can be designated as 'wilderness areas', 'nature conservation areas' and 'prefectural nature conservation areas'. In 1995, when the Japanese Government published its information in English, there were 5 wildernesses, 10 nature conservation areas and 516 prefectural nature conservation areas.\n\n\n=== Jordan ===\n\nThere are seven nature reserves in Jordan. In 1966 the organization that would later start Jordan's nature reserves, the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature, was founded. RSCN's first efforts involved bringing back severely endangered species. In 1973, RSCN was given the right to issue hunting licenses, giving RSCN an upper hand in preventing extinction. The first step was the founding of Jordan's first nature reserve, Shaumari Wildlife Reserve, in 1975. The primary purpose was to create means to breed endangered species, specifically: the Arabian oryx, gazelles, ostriches, and Persian onagers in their natural environment.\n\n\n=== Kyrgyzstan ===\nBy the end of 2009 there were 10 nature reserves (Kyrgyz: \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0443\u043a, koruk) in Kyrgyzstan covering 600,000 hectares (6,000 km2) or about three percent of the total area of the country.\n\n\n=== New Zealand ===\n\nNew Zealand has a variety of types of reserve, including national parks, various types of conservation areas (including stewardship land that is yet to be officially classified), and seven specific types of \"reserve\", each of which prioritize various degrees of protection to different amenities such as scenery, recreation, flora and fauna, scientific value, or history. Land is often sub-categorised beneath its general classification, as defined in law between the Reserves Act of 1977, the National Parks Act of 1980, and the Conservation Act of 1987. Under these classifications, the Department of Conservation administers more than 80,000 square kilometres (31,000 sq mi)\u2014nearly 30% of the nation's total area\u2014with at least some degree of protection. This land is composed of 14 National Parks, 30 Conservation Parks, and approximately 8,900 discrete areas of land in total.\nAlthough the most public land is strongly protected for natural preservation, the term nature reserve is specifically defined in the Reserves Act to mean a reserve that prioritizes the protection of rare flora and fauna, to the extent that public access is by permit only. Some of these reserves include Ecological Islands, a comparatively new concept in wildlife preservation, pioneered in New Zealand to help rebuild the populations of nearly extinct birds, and other species that are heavily threatened by introduced predators.\n\n\n=== Nicaragua ===\n\nIn Nicaragua, the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources (MARENA) is in charge of environmental protection and of the study, planning, and management of Nicaragua's natural resources. Nearly one-fifth of the territory is designated as protected areas like national parks, nature reserves (including the Bosaw\u00e1s Biosphere Reserve), and biological reserves. Nicaragua has 78 protected areas that cover 22,422 km2 (8,657 sq mi), about 17.3% of the nation's landmass. Private nature reserves exist with land excluded from private land trusts and maintained at the sole cost of the proprietor. For example, \"O Parks, WildLife, and Recreation\" was established within the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor by former FDNY firefighter Kevin Michael Shea, who purchased 46 acres (0.19 km2) of land in this manner and is an example of this type of private nature reserve.\n\n\n=== Russia ===\n\nThere are around 100 nature reserves (Russian: \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a, zapovednik) in Russia, covering some 330,000 km2 (130,000 sq mi), or about 1.4% of the country's total area. A few of them predate the October Revolution of 1917, but most have been created during the Soviet Union era. There are also natural protected areas where only certain species are protected, or only certain activities are prohibited; those are known as zakaznik (Russian: \u0437\u0430\u043a\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a).\nUnofficial sanctuaries can also occur as a result of human accidents; the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone has in practice become a wildlife refuge since very few people live in the area. Wildlife has flourished in the zone since the Chernobyl nuclear accident in 1986.\n\n\n=== South Africa ===\nSouth Africa is well known for its many nature reserves. The oldest nature reserve in the country (and oldest conservation area in the world) is the Groenkloof Nature Reserve that was established in 1892 in the capital city Pretoria in the old South African Republic and current Republic of South Africa. The country has many national parks but the best-known is the Kruger National Park, which was announced in 1898, and is the largest, at nearly 2,000,000 ha (20,000 km2). The Kruger Park and Table Mountain National Park are two of South Africa's most visited tourist attractions. South Africa also has a number of World Heritage Sites and provincial game reserves including Shamwari, Londolozi, Sanbona and Lalibela. The country currently has 20 national parks covering 3,700,000 ha (37,000 km2), about 3% of the total area of South Africa.\n\n\n=== Sri Lanka ===\nThe area around Mihintale, Sri Lanka as a sanctuary for wildlife, probably the first of its generation in the ancient world. According to stone inscriptions found in the vicinity, the king commanded the people not to harm animals or destroy trees within the area.\n\n\n=== Ukraine ===\nThere are 4 biosphere reserves (two of them are dated 1927 and 1874) and 17 nature reserves in Ukraine, covering 160,000 ha (400,000 acres). Ukraine administers 40 national parks, 2632 habitat management areas, 3025 nature monuments, and 1430 other preservations.\n\n\n=== United Kingdom ===\nThere are some differences between the regulations for England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, which are separately managed.\nAt the end of March 2004, there were 215 national nature reserves in England with a total area of 879 km2 (339 sq mi). The reserves are scattered through England, from Lindisfarne in Northumberland to The Lizard in Cornwall. Nearly every rural county has at least one. Many national nature reserves contain nationally important populations of rare flowers, ferns and mosses, butterflies and other insects, and nesting and wintering birds. Examples include unique alpine plants at Upper Teesdale and the field of snake's head fritillaries at North Meadow, Cricklade, Wiltshire.\nThere are now over 1,050 local nature reserves in England. They range from windswept coastal headlands, ancient woodlands and flower-rich meadows to former inner-city railways, long-abandoned landfill sites and industrial areas now re-colonized by wildlife. In total, they cover almost 40,000 ha (99,000 acres)\u2014an impressive natural resource which makes an important contribution to England's biodiversity. A good example is Rye Harbour Nature Reserve in East Sussex, where a network of footpaths enables visitors to explore shingle, saltmarsh, saline lagoon, reedbed, and grazing marsh habitats.\nThrough the Natural Heritage (Scotland) Act 1991 the Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) was established in 1992 as a government body, responsible to the Scottish Government Ministers and through them to the Scottish Parliament. At 31 March 2008, there were 65 Scottish national nature reserves with a total area of approximately 1,330 km2 (510 sq mi). Section 21 of the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 gives local authorities the exclusive statutory power to establish a local nature reserve in consultation with the SNH.\n\n\n=== United States ===\n\nIn the United States, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, managed by the Secretary of the Interior, is responsible for managing many of the federal nature reserves including the National Wildlife Refuge System. The National Wildlife Refuge System includes areas administered for the protection and conservation of fish and wildlife that are threatened with extinction, as well as wildlife ranges, game ranges, wildlife management areas, and waterfowl production areas.The first North American wildlife refuge, Lake Merritt Wildlife sanctuary at Lake Merritt, was established by Samuel Merritt and enacted in California state law in 1870 as the first government owned refuge. The first federally owned refuge in the United States is Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge and was established by Theodore Roosevelt in 1903 as part of his Square Deal campaign to improve the country. At the time, setting aside land for wildlife was not a constitutional right of the president. In 2006, a bi-partisan group of US House of Representatives members established the Congressional Wildlife Refuge Caucus to further support the needs of the National Wildlife Refuge System in Congress.\nThere are also state-level administered State Nature Reserves found throughout the country, as well as smaller reserves operated by local governments, private trusts, or even funded through public donations. Private nature reserves also exist, with land excluded from private land trusts and maintained at the sole cost of the proprietor, such as the 1,800 acres (730 ha) Wilbur Hot Springs.\n\n\n== See also ==\nHalf-Earth, a proposal to increase global coverage\nNational Wildlife Refuge Association\nRefuge (ecology)\nWildlife corridor\nZoo\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nAmerican Sancutuary Association\nIUCN Protected Areas Categories System\nWildlife refuges in Brazil\nWildanimalsanctuary.org", "images": ["https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Aare_-_Limmat_%28Limmatspitz%29_IMG_6763.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Charles_Waterton.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Drachenfels_%28Siebengebirge%29_from_Rh%C3%B6ndorf.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Golyamata-Gramada.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Jefferson_Memorial_Forest-Bee_Lick_Creek.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Kohgiluyeh_and_Boyer-Ahmad_Province%2C_Iran_-_panoramio.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/PenasBlancas%2C_part_of_the_Bosawas_Reserve%2C_Jinotega_Department%2C_Nicaragua.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Szczeliniec_Wielki_2007.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Termeszetvedelmi_terulet.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Tramping_or_hiking_in_Aoraki_Mount_Cook_National_Park..jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Tree_template.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/USFWS_cascade_head_%2823768226491%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D1%81_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3_%D0%B3.%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%83.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Tarvasj%C3%B5gi.jpg"], "summary": "A nature reserve (also known as a natural reserve, wildlife refuge, wildlife sanctuary, biosphere reserve or bioreserve, natural or nature preserve, or nature conservation area), is a protected area of importance for flora, fauna, or features of geological or other special interest, which is reserved and managed for purposes of conservation and to provide special opportunities for study or research. They may be designated by government institutions in some countries, or by private landowners, such as charities and research institutions. Nature reserves fall into different IUCN categories depending on the level of protection afforded by local laws. Normally it is more strictly protected than a nature park. Various jurisdictions may use other terminology, such as ecological protection area or private protected area in legislation and in official titles of the reserves.\n\n"}}, "#render": {"_": "<html hidden><meta charset=utf-8></html><script src=/render.js></script></html>", "css": "/styles.css"}}